N.NLKOVALEY, HYDROTURBINES DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION (Giurorurbiny. Konseohet i veposy proktiovanys) Mache ‘Gowudartvenioe Naschno-Tekaalchetkos Tadatel'stvo Mathinoscotetnolbiteratiry Moskva-Leningrad ‘961 ‘eanslaéd fom Sasisn ECOCCO?e 6000 tural Program for Solenific Teaselatons Sereatem 1985NOAA ANARO c RAARADS BRADROAARAS ceprige © 198 ‘eel pa fr ea rao “Tramiel by Mp, Ma. * yt 8HOv70 SNBLIOTECA Pha fart Sanson st OF assREVIATIONS PREFACE. Shaper 1 a 3 2 5 e chapter 8. 2 w. a chapter a. 12, 2 rs 16 Es chapter Lv. Chapeer v. 2 2s, . Drafe uber TABLE OF CONTENTS GENERAL DATA ON HYDRAUUC TURBENES “Types f hydroelectric plants ower ourpur of bydeanc turbines Clastficatin of lytaulictsbines 1 Besigas of hyeraulfe turbines «== Desga featares of lyro geacrators + Development of tniine constuction in the U.S.S.8. FUNDAMENTALS OF THE THEORY OF TURBINES Basic egettons fa turbine design « Sitariy laws and dinetstontes wombers Speci apeed eee : Power Tonia and effilency of homologous turbines Cavitation coefficient and deafthoad =. ‘TURBINE, PARAMETERS AND DESIGNS . Model test anétubine characteristics Classification of hyéranlie tabines Selec of bine prance on te Univeral chart Ruceway soo === ar ‘perimental tee agai on eurbine components DESIGN AND SELECTION OF THE WATER PASSAGES (OF THE TURBINE. . Types of twine casags -- 5. Hyomechanical computation of the salt casing Dai of et sol for stn =~ The peed ring +++ he Parameters ofreaetion-rrbie Wuners ++ “Throat cage in Kaplan tines “TURBINE DESIGNS Layout of trbine anes Design of Francis trbines i26. 7. 20. chapser vi. a0. 22 . 20, 24, as 36 ” : 28. 20, { chapeer vi. 2. c a ‘ 46. an (Chapter Vill. KAPLAN RUNNERS 48. ‘ Chapeer Be, 55. } 56. : 57 sa. 50, 60. Kaplan chine designs eee eee "The turbines ofthe Volgs HEP iment V.icLenin Designs of boriontal-*afe rubiner <2 = -= Spocial uibinee «eesee eee eeeeee THE DISTRIBUTOR -s.es0e es ‘Types and designs of eiwtbucers ese eeeseeeee Guide-vane operating mechatiim ssc ccsesesese Gulde-vase sembly eeeee+ 2s yéeanlle forces aeing onthe guide vanes + Determination of servomoterparametsts + [Graphical layout ofthe dlstibutor “The guide vanes ++ Componente of the guidevactusting mechantomy << The gate ring Distibuto servomotot + Distributor upper ring and trbine cover-plate ‘Remarks on sengt esleslaton for guide vanes of contest inetbitore vee eeeeer ewe [FRANCIS TURBINE RUNNERS . Rumer designe e+e e eevee Axial water presse ses ‘Approximate suength esicutstion oft tanner. | Exact strength Ealculation of medivimshead cunness Stengel calculation of shigh-head ruoner Ramiet-band seals Rennes designs + © Focees acting’ tpon the renner Detormiaation of the required suaner werromotor free Design and calevlation ofthe blade-sctusting me~ chaniam parte ws eeesseeecee umer blades Remnar-hab body Servomotoreylinder and cove: ‘TURBINE BEARINGS... eters pe Tourn bearings ~ a brief summary <0. ‘haus besrngs for venient hyéeo Ute — « bef commary Oit-isbreated tarbine gulde bearings «- Guide-bearing eals + Water-lubricated guige bearings |. - ae Me 18 an ae as an 215 219 2a 28 259 on 230 295, a9 19 as ay 49 a a7 we 3 20 298 Chapter X. TURBINE SHAFTS 61) General nates. = 52, Shaft designs 2 62, Design of vertical tiene salle. == GA. Shaft vibratioat =e. esses seco (5. Calculation ofthe Flange-joint bolts Chapter XL. AUKILIARY EQUIPMENT? 04+ (8, Ol sippy ead and rode sess 87. Tranemrions and piping === 03, essre rgulater s+. 02, Gatee and valves Chapter XI, TURBINE REGULATION... 10. Mydiomecanical governors « "Th, Bue principles of automatic coacal ‘2. Inereesion of goveroe element inthe Kaplan bine - 73, Flecuhydraule governot vee eee eeee eve “74, Selection of base parametets for qublne regulating WMEME vecvecsheceeesssasteesseteees Cha ptee XIU, HYDRAULIC-TURGINE DESIGN AND MANUEACTORE 1. Design pocsiite eseecusveneeereeesieseee ‘er Runa postion in iyo ane 1, Manuffeoring estate 1B Selection ofioe ssa. 7B. Means reduce the aioe weigh 20, Maral wedi tine ceawenedos sss coeve BIBLIOGRAPHY see ceeeeesceree 8st 58 ser st set 588 98 9 se oon ois as on After beef survey ofthe theory of hydraulic trbine, ‘te book presente de tailed description of various designe of Francis and Kaplan cubines as well as of tele main components and auxiliary eQuipment. sich es stoll casings, golde vanes, an ets, safe, beatings, governors, puide-vane and blage-actusting mechanisns, ee ‘The problom of selecting consevational parameters 202 delgat of hystaulic turbines i given de consideration, format ie ge on trblae governors, and control problems are discaned. ‘This book is intends for both desgners and nudemts of hydrauile engineering‘es Peat eopeny Poko iptl nt enone Kania 0 sansa neoweenye ering pinhal ove kramis Meare Tae men honors Peta any et oe sea Bog Reach one ‘Te tet sae ty gd ct he hen cans Weta oa et od Ds ate igus fogening tor tp | i ; { q i 5 iam PREFACE "The Soviet nydraulioturbine industry has considerable achievements 10 its credit, and unite manufactured fo the U.5.8.8, ~-with a otal capacity of over 10,000,000\er'~ are rendering commendabie service in many parte of the world, "The production of the most powerfal Kaplan (adjuttable-biads)-type tur- bines in exiotence for the hydroelectric plants [HEP] on toe Volga River, {meni Lense and iment Xi! Party Congress, 18 an outstanding achievement. ‘These turbines have been in operation fOr a considerable period and have given satisfactory results, "The most powerful Francis (radial-aiat/-type turbines yet built, with a capacity of 225,000 kw, are now being manufactured for the Braisk HEP. Detailed drawings and preparations for construction are now in progress {or even bigger Turbines, with a capacity of $90,000 jy, for the Krasnoyarsk HEP, The design of the high-head turines for the Nureksk HEP has begun. New turbine designs, such as the dlagonal Deriss, submersible (tubular) and reversible typet are now belng developed too. ‘The future development of power engineering in thé U.S.5.R, demands 1 rapid increase in the production of varioue pee of turbines, and an im Provement both in design and in power and cavitation characteristics, "Phe reduction of construction costs for hydroolectrie plants is an import fant problem, Although the cost of turbines themselves if aot a major sla- ‘ment io the total cost of the plant, the over-all sizes of their water passages, feepecially in low-head turbines, play 4 significant part in determining total Construction coats, particularly of that part Below water level. ‘Turbine de- frign, therefore, has a considerable hearing on the reduction {9 80st, and the Longta of construction time, for the hydroelectric plantas 2 whol ‘Most Byaraulie turbines are manufactared at the LMZ*, which has al- ways been the leading plant ia this field, and remains so todey. “The author bas been working in the design department ofthis plant for 30 years. ‘The present study is an attempt to generalize the experience {gained by turbine builders, and analyze the positive and negative features of the various models produced. "The experience amassed at LMZ in calculation, deatga and manufacture ‘of hydraulic tarbines has already been get owt in monographs and technical ‘ticles published over the past years. ‘Turbines are deceribed in monographs /24/, /95[,and [48/. Monograph 153] reviews modern methods for the dosign and calculatfon of turbine water pastages. “Technological problems in the construction of large turbines are pre ssected in [18/ and 1891. Regulation of hydrauite turbines and problems sn the design of LINZ gov fernors are deait with in monograpks /16/, /4/, /34,and /32/. (foe of beaten ag 9.)(tonograph /84/, edited hy A. A. Moronow, dseuases problems con nected win tne selection ot hyiratic-tarone Sbarscteristcn: Most ofthe TSeetbutors toss work belong tothe KE wat] alton 2 Ui, and Vill of Liz technical and seiente papers, sande juice dich prised on the ceeasion of the plants cemetery Enver ecblens of design, ealclaton, research, construction, and Bre” Stctingtecnclogy of hyacauletablnge, in hls acuogeabs, [10/, 1S, So deal with general problems of ydraullc tarbinee sad gives fat urmary ofthe LM practice fe fin et, : Sra psdbéntatudy savers the’ construction of hydrilis trbine, thelr voluticrand the design of eis componente, Among other probes dea Sian atd ihe procefart of design snd ll related questions which aise fa The cour of design and pendutton f moser trbines. tn order to affeed an oveeal plctre, te present 0 opens with & ger- ra satement of he theory and structs of auc tarbinen, Sere fe ‘Shastioc on autilary squiment ane repuaton tr lnlaged atthe end. "The shy is based onthe experience ofthe LACZ in he constrection of ayerasite machinery which hag already been Feviewed to some exert ie Pipers mentioned above aad therefore some repetitions wavowae. Al- Badagh te desigy of begs turine ta ih remit of team work, tha book esting ou be contrition of various indilouae to techsoal progres ‘bn el, “Tae monograph is divided Soto 12 chapters, Gneptare and contain general infocation on hyéraslls turbines and basic theory; Chapt doula with ecloction ofthe characteritie of y= rile arblocas Chapten}V desta withthe water pasages of he tublee; Chapter Vit eovius types of hydrate turoines! Chapters Vi, Vi, Vi ‘Bland are concerned wit the esign othe tain component of he Yaré Sher Chepter i, with aullary equipment; Chapne gives escine ce {also ropuaton’ snd Gealyy Chapter 3! gives the order of stops tn the deaf of hydrate totes an thet etnponens, "The author wishes to express his indebtecness fo G. &. Schegoloy for nis review ofthe manvecript, to A; Yar Aronson, BA, Berkman, V9 Postoot and Ie E, Htsherg foe tele Feiatin on heparaie chapters fe IBanuucript, fou. Ur Bet for his id in eating ts book, and %0 0. N- Debrinalys for har aslatance ie the preparation af the manuscript “The author chapter 1 GENERAL DATA ON HYDRAULIC TURBIVES Hydraulic turbines convert the potential eneray of water into kinetic en- ergy by utilising the diference in elevation between two weter levels which {2 called head (H), To ullize the energy of water apart from turbines proper, epecial hydro structures are algo required. ‘The difference between water levele (head) ie ueually obtained by build ing 2 dam, whose height will depend upon conditions at the site, ‘On lowland rivers the dam is usually located near the powerhoaee, On ‘mountain rivers, dams may be built ata distance from the powerhonse; the water reaches the turbines through a hunsel or channel, called ssiversion channel, and a penstock, Hydeorlectric plants are accordingly termed Fun-of-river plants or diversion plants Tydroclectrie plants for heads ranging from 2 10 2,000m have been built, ‘depending on the natutal conditions and the hydraulic layout adopted. "The head represeats the energy of a unit weight of water. The power ae veloped by the water depends on the head and the discharge; i.e. the quan Mtyofwater pascing per second. When compsring turbines of spprasimats- ly equal power, itis obvious thst those worldng under « higher head will have a emailer digehange, and hence emaller cknensiona, Ia iodeen tow- hhoad turbinee, the discharge Q reaches ~ 7100 tat/eec, The most ieaport- lant turbine dimension is the runner diameter, and the largest torbine ever “The type of turbine depends on the head-to-dfschange ratio, Figure I, shows a cross section trough a low-head hnydroslectric plant with the powerhouse adjacent to the dam. ‘The vertical shaft turbine (1) ig coupted to the generator (2), From the ‘storage reservoir created by the dam where the water is at a certain elev on VHW, called headwater, the water stream ie directed to the turbine and then discharged to the lower reservoir [if river cascade scheme 18 Planned] where the elevation is dented by PTW lailwater). Figure [.2 chews a sectional view through the powerhouse of a high-head HEP {i1~ 800m), The water reaches the turbine (1) through a long steel pet ‘stock, part of which (8) is visible in the figure, The gate (2) is located on ‘he penstock, upstream from the fustine, The water 4s discharged direct ly into the failrace. ‘The turbine is coupled to the generator (0). Sometimes, in run-of-river tydro plants, the equipment may be located right Inside the dam. Considerable eavings may be obtained by eliminating the powerhouse building. “Such a plant, operating under s alatively low head, may be seen in Figure 1.3. igure I. shows a medium-nead Rydroclectrie 0 to 20m)ROU L. Seeo wow of slowest peta ties ein plant (Hf 80 10 300m), there the gonerating unit (1,2) fe located fnside the am. The water reaches the turbine through the steel penstock (3 1 is more convenient to house horizontal turbines inside the dam. Dur- ing recent years, a great deal of aitention has heen paid to improved de signs for horizonial-shaft turbines. sometimes proves economical to pump water from the tstlwater to the hheadwater side for certain periods of time, for use later on in the turbine. Such plants are termed pumped-storage plants, The operation may be ef. fected by specially installed pumps: a better method stil iy #9 use the tur! bine itself for pumping. The gonorator then works a2 a motor, drawing current {rom the network, and the unit ie eslled & pemp-furbine walt ‘The turbisies used in tidal hydroelectrie-power plants which harness the energy of marina tides are of special constroction, ‘Their characteristic feature is the periosic Interchange of hesawater and tallwater #ies, ‘The liydraulic turbine utilizes the energy of the water, which develops a tongue on the generating-unit shat, ‘The power developed by the water depends both on discharge and on head it may be determined according to the general laws of mechanics, CURE 2. Seen vo ct ght yearn ‘The water power developed = SUE sear ew, a where 1 +1000kg/m° + specific weight of wate (Q=water discharge, taS/sec; Ags grone head, ae Water power 1s not completely vtilized ia the turbine, and unavoidable losses always occur, TEs the power as measured on the turbine shalt, the following rela tion will always be valid NEM, oF N= Me ‘where ny is the turbine efficiency. ‘This does nc include the power losses ofthe generator and should be distinguished from the general effieney as UAE .8, Lnrbadbyantce ae te eign ed nh a losses in the generator. 7 i a or Dec ae d ne en wt ing and in the tailwater channe} (tailrace), 7 Way ~(an, + any, hese losses from intake to turbine: 'ah,= head Losses in the tallrace, ‘The effective (net) head may he defined as the difforence between the eneray of kg of water atthe trance To the teeny and at the hoe of the tailrace [less all losses]. ae a i a n-($44+08)-(Sentad) wa where p, and p, = average pressures, kg/cm?; ‘ana 2 Clovatlon, a Sand a + Srorage water velocties, m/se B+ acceleration of groviye m/vec, sdf = Goviicients introduced 10 sSlow for the unevea velocity Siatebation ina croes encom Jn these formutan te suboorip # refers te the eatzacce cross section of the'asbine casing, andthe index to the begining of te illo, | | | r "The effective head ie the epecific energy which may bo physically util- zed by the turbine. "The power developed by a water stresin of head H in ia is My = 9.81QH ‘The power 8 in kw developed at the turbine shaft, H neing the head tn im, @ the disenarge in m9/sec, and 9 the over-all turbine efficiency, 15 wom, 1W = 9.81QH9 ‘The over-all power losses in the turbine are AN = 981QH tier. ‘The over-all locaes are made up of head losses owing to hydraulic fete tion in the turbine, losses due te local turbulence, to changes in the magni- tude and direction of veloclty to 160 rpm) with relatively large dimen sions (stator diameter < 10 m), the overhung-type generator ia commonly used, | sectional view of an overhung-type generator ie shown in Figure 1,10,Hor (5) consiots of the frame, the laminated core, and the stator windings (6). ‘The stator frame uaually rests on the tosecction FROURE LI, Section vw of a oetang-pe grerat Te rotor (9) consists of the rim, mounted on the spider (7), with the bub (19) shrunk on the generator$hatt (14). "The exeltation eansect tert eee citer (10) entors the pole windings (4), praduelnga maguetic tang occ, poles and the stator core, ‘The relative motion betwees the setae ae Tglos causes the magnetic Bux lines to intersect the stator winding, thes inducing a current which is delivered to the elestvical network, niet generators an additional pilot (booster) exelter (11) 1e provided to nie the main exciter. he stationary thrust eoliar (8) on the upper bracket (12), earciea the Thole axlal load of the runner. “The generator shalt (4) irene ee ee (F325 Spm he torbino shaft to te rotor, being guided by two beccsege (2 ana (9 Hydrauile brakes are provided below the rotor to stop it when the load is disconnected; otherwise, coatiaued rotation a WEoel lubrication conditions between the sliding surfeces of the theuer r= ‘ing aod the thrust-bearing collar might heat up and avifer dawaree: Anxmbrella-type generator Se shown in Pigure 1.1L. It is thetiar in dow {ise fo the overhung type, except for the stationary thrast cellar tte wale 4s located below the rotor on the lower bearing Urseker @) 16 Wen pate ESS me Ihree-phaes type altornatore). AAs a rule the goftrators are ofthe 3.0. three-phace type ator speed, Ht ahou en aelecting the turbine speed, an honve the genecsoy ope be remocbercé at inthe USS. the ae, frequency tab opeles i ‘The number of pole pairs, p, depending spon the speed a (spay may be computed tom the rormul pn ha (6, Devevomant ce TuRans CONSTRUCTION HY THE 0.8.5.8, ‘he manuactere of lydruli tarhines started inthe V.8.8. only ater tae revelation Js te first pan in 1020, the YI AL-Union Session of the Soviets agproved the first forthe economic development of the country —GOELRO. This plan envis- Aged the erection of 90 power pant (including ® hydro plana otling $ieo,toie ovet a 10-85 yone perio fas ‘The bydrauite power esulpment for the let hydroelectric plants bu under the GOBLRD was porehused sbeead : ‘he manufacore t hydraulic tarbives started simuttandously at he plat linen Kalen ln Moscow, and atthe plat ieent Xl Congress ot the KFS in Leningrad, Before World War il the pla tent Kalina spplted only Sinaitaize turbine After the war, the production of small rbiaes was igus inthe Ura too.ILMZ delivered ite 42807, in lott 1s 1925, 9 turbines vere produced at 4,560kw. As time went on, Lbpetnytnteaid itz became the national ret two hydraulic turbines, with a total output of with a total output of 2nd turbine mafufactiring expanded fuetneg ater for the production of Kydeavlle (weblngs, on tortigg EME eretied a hydraulic laboratory for experimental research nae models, which was a significant step forwa Jcveeatal Seemopmest of turbine construction,“ fOTW=EA inthe euccessel meng oe EME, stared balling a large Rjaauliccicbine shop which eom- tie ble ge 88 Tene thop wan equipped wit cane fo erance, test beaches for turhine governara, ag ne PAE, Power stern feplog of developmen aching tnd assembling tchnetogy Was father primitive. Experienced fone required in machining, clearances tag nly and go on so" 0” te Soouracy Remorat of ' $e Soa wn NN coal | || q | YR oie for he Sy pose pam Me éGohe, = 5m Ds omy ‘The turbines for the HEP of the Volga-Moseow Caual iment Moskve we: delivered in 1987. For tho first time im U.S,5.R, practice, turbines wore Sesigned for full automatic control, according io principles and circuits de- vigod at the LMZ.. Afterwards all high-power tarbines were delivered with Illy automatic control ‘The construction of the Kapian turbines for the hydroelectric plants on the Volga River, Uglich and Ryoinsk, carried out in the period belore World War It was a big achievement for the country's turbine ledustey. These units were the most powerful of these type fn the world, at the time. ‘They had an output of #7» 65,00Dkw apd operated under @ head H~16.Sm, ‘The runner diameter was 9m, Figure i.12 presents a sectional view of one of these ‘urbines. ‘The design and manufacture of all major components of these turbines raised entirely new problems, such as the design of the water passages, and design and consiruetion of large-size heavily-loaded parts of intricate geo~ ‘metrical shepe, Difficuit problems in metallurgical technology had also to be Solved. such 8s: casting large-size parts weighing up to 60t with guaranteed mechanical ‘qualities, casting stainless steel, heat treatment of blades weighing Up to 20t with preservation of high etrength and ductility charscteristics ia each rose section of the blade, ete. ‘Theee problems wore mainly solved at the new machine-construction plant at Kramatorek (VKMZ2) in the Donbaas, which delivered all the larue steel castings and forgings for these turbines, Special instruments and devices had tohe provided and new advanced meth- ods of machining evtabliched, suchas; cimultencous machining of components fon several machine foole, more efficient machining conditions, machining of large-size parts with cuttore of larger cross ection, machining of parts fon vertical mills with a more efficient vac of lathe capacity. Meanwnile re- Search was carried out into the technology of rubber bearing-Liner manulac~ tare, pressing-in of bronze-bushing without subsequent machining, methods for detecting chatt defects and for precise static balancing of assembled ran rors weighing up to 200%. ete Before World War U, the plant manufactured and installed several large turbines, proof of the success of the U,.S.R. turbine inéustry, ‘The eificieney of these turbines, az measured during actual operation, ‘attained 92— 93.5% During World War fl, turbine production in the U.S.$, R, wae interrupted unt 1944, when work started simultaneously at the LMZ on reconstructing the plant (teelt, ard on repairing and restoring turbine equipment for the Je stroyed hydroelectric plants 4 considerable amount of work was required to restore the Dnieper HEP. ‘The turbines for this plaat had been delivered in the thirtios by the Newpost= News Company in the U.S.A. ‘The first three units (turbines and generatara) for the reconstructed plant Were purchased in the United States, and the other six unite were delivered by the U.S.S.A, plants LMZ and Elektrosila, Without increasing the over-all sizes of the former designs, the new tur= bbines installed were more powerful (80,000 instead of 67,000), with fan elficiency of 99% instead of 99.2% For the first time U.8.3.R, engineers succeeded in manufacturing and transporting an all-cast runner witha diameter of 6.1m, a height of 2.1m, 0land a weight of 92¢. American companies have manufactured similar con fers,but in sections. “The manufacture of all-cast ruaners saved 12+ of stool land shortened manufacture and erection time by three months for each tur ine. ‘After World War If, much was done to imprave the design of Kaplan turbines. Improvements in regulation systems led to smaller servomo- tore and distribution valves, and all-pumping units of reciced over-all dl- mensions, A novelty in turbine design was arranging the thrust bearing Sn the turbine cover-plate. This made it posstble to eliminate the bearing Dracket, thus reducing the weight and the total haight of se turbine vet whlch i$ even more important. {In 1052, the production of hydraulic turbines was begunat the Harkov Tut bine Plant which tas manufactured many large Kaplan turbines in recent years. After the war, standard turbine parts were largely used in the U.S. $.R. twrbine industry, thus eliminating many of the shortcomings of the custom= made products, LMZ and VIGM jointly developed a specification for hydraitic turbines, which established the types and dimensions of runners covering the Whole ‘etd of application of hydraulic turbines, for heads ranging from 3 [0 300m and outputs from 500 to 150,000 kw, ‘The design and manufacture of turbines for the most powerful hydroelec~ tafe plants in the world, imon Lenin and imeni XXII Congress of RPSS (0,+9.3m) on the Volgs River, was an important step in the development of turbine construction, ‘These units — among the largest and most powerful Keplan turbines in the world — have a capacity of N*108, 500 lew under a rated head of 11-19 m, {nd 126,000%v under a maximum head of He22,5m, A large series of 41 turbines was produced, All the turbines at the Volga HBPs have given aatistactory service, and ‘demonstrate high technical characteristics, Complicated technical probleme had to be solved inthe construction ofthe Powerful Francis turbines fr the Bratsk and Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric Plants, [LMZ:ts at present manufacturing turbines with an output of 225,000%w under a head H=100 m for the Brats HEP, ‘The turbines manufactured for Krasnoyarsk have an output of $00,000 ow, ‘The increase in specific power in the generatiog unit leads to higher stree- ses in the turbine parts. Henee these must be built on the basis of careful Caleulation and research, Since the cost of the hydro structures largely depends on the alze of the turbine water passages, it Is very important to Took for ways and meang of rrecucing their dimensions, pa Chapter FUNDAMENTALS OF THE THEORY OF TURBINES 1 nase eqUATIONS iN TURAN OIC When the water passes through the runner blades, a reciprocal action takes place betwoon them, The stream deviates rom its intial direction, nd ils pressure on the blades causes thelr rotation, thereby creating @ forgue upon the turbine shatt ‘The runner reaction on the stream at steady operational conditions of the turbine may be determined thus: Foie u.. biagan fh war Now mou da- FIGURE L.A ele ae wept tier cham en Slt arr After 8 time interval Bf, a quantity of water having the mass m reaches te runner biases (Figure ii1). According to the law of mass conservation the same quantity is sisoharged srom the runner we denote the mean velocity of a water particle before enterlag the bade, and by v¢ the mean velocity after it exAt the entrance to the blade the the momentum ma, and after leavin smoy ay Into the deat Tobe ‘hs tnown tats vaclation tn the momentum of @ mass Ia unit oft 4s proportional to the force exerted on me "hie forces the runner sesction Lat the velocity have radial, evi, 1.29, syand a Fespectivelye oY [As ean be gesn from the figure, with respect to the turbine axis ie 2 ityo is determined only by the com ‘of momentum of the macs te durin ment of the driving forces (M) and ‘mass m, having the velocity », carries the runner it caries the momentum ‘and tangential components (Figure tee moment of the components « and # er). “Hence, the moment of the veloc? ponent The variation in the mowent iE time Af equate the product of the mor their action time ae MBE = meng ~ B40 OF ME. 88). where ry * radius of center of ‘re radius of center of gravity of the water the runner, ad ravity of the water mage at the entrance to ase at the exit foom {The motnent exerted wpon the bade by the stream, es, the mo driving the larbine calculated an terme of absolute walse, eee ne ment but is of opposite sign, i.¢., : aaa My Mm ae Feta — ra m= Mee, where Q discharge; * Y= pecitic weight, 7 scesleration of gravity ea ee Men Brat. The power developed atthe tarbine shat Myo ya Mer grad where = the angular velocity. Since the peripheral velocities at the ‘feamen Fespectively, then peer = and ‘The turbine power is ateo By inserting My Into the foregoing equation, we obtsin all ~ ots — ete a ‘This equation may also be written as: nett - BP where Ty = 2ngry~ efreulation before the runner: F * 2xogr > circulation after the runner. . ‘These equations show that the moment transmitted to the runner equals the difference between the moments of momentuso, at the inlot And the outlet of the runner, of a mass of water Q flowing through the arbine daring untt time. ‘This relationship was found by Wuler (in 1754), who was aléo the first to prove the necessity of a diatributor (guide vanes) in the hydraatic tur= | bine “The absolute water velocity 2, created hy the distributor af the entrance to the ruoner, logether with he relative velocSty iy and the tangential runner veloc- ity uy form a closed triangle (Figure Il.1). A primary condition is that wy ‘must be tangential to the entrance tip of the runner blade. When this ta #0 ete as aun the dircetion of wy s got tangential to the blade tip, the flow will be ‘accompanied by additional energy losses, Consequently, the efficiency of energy conversion, or turbine efficiency, epends on the value of angle ‘The optimum value of e, which corresponds lo maximum turbine elfie~ tency, is called the shockless-inlet angle, ‘When the turbine load changee, the guide vanes turn around, altering the angle oy, Francis turbines have fixe runner blades, and the optimus value of g, corresponds only to normal power culput which uevally varies botwroon 2 and My of the rated power, ‘Through the adjustment of tho runner bledes, the angle a; in the Kaplan turbines remains eloge to the optimum value for various distclbuler open ings. These turbines havo high officiencies over a wide range of power var~ sation ‘The trlangle of outflow velocities at the runner exit (Piguee Il.1) shows ‘that the magnitude and the direction of the absolute velocity oy depend om the value and circetion of the relative velocity w, snd that the fangentia? runner velocity tu, is constant for a constant rotational speed of the torbine, ‘When designing a runner, normal practice ia to have the lowest possible value for oy. This value cafnot oqual zero, since then the water digcharge would be at For this purpose, the runner blades are shaped in such « manner that ‘he tangential projection of the velocity vy becomes ‘and, {very the VelOc~ ly t, becomes perperdiaalar to ty Inetfect, the vanishing of oy moans that the vector 9, Liee in the ame plane as the turbine axis, and, consequently, that tho water pasace frosa the ren~ ner to the draft tube without whirling (rotation). 2fe eer eenareh carried out in recent years in the U.S,$.R. shows rate, Sertain Upes of turbines a small postive whirl ia tee ances elation has Tavorable influence on turbine allcionay sore “AF OW at the exit Is axial and" 0, the fundacnental formula becomes Ne = oyu. aL snot dene cache fundamental formula shows that energy conversion inthe Famer depends (neglecting losses) on blade designs 8 SIMILARITY LANs AND ouveNBIoNLSs MoMHERS seocl na, cpnstrustion it is common practice o design the water pas: SSENSURE REE Lirat, and ten test them on a laboratory mek Pace “eau are finaly applied in the construction of the flleecale eosin HeaRerMory model tests, the similarity lave muatée soeetinn a in Ranigutt’ the requirements of geometrical, kinematic and Speen, Harty, i's Dasie conditions of geometrical similarity require that the stream dine Runes ofthe water passages shovld be slailar ts contiomn eg toes Taret the Movar dimensions ofthe streamlined surfaces of heroes totype turbine and its model have to be propestaner Suse often, however, only the canner undergoes teste, whereas the ine ce cea ne giter elements of the water passages, which tee har eee ing the ceacate, Satibutor, drat Ibe, ete), are allowed for by mea fog the characteristic curves obtained by testiog st Galton of Kinematic similarity refers fo the similarity ofthe pat- being sche Water stream floving through the water paseages or Ae Cennats sbeohsee eared in which cane, as in geometriosiy similar Sakae et, Homers an6 relative velocities and thetr componente have the ene aes icy crit Propertionst values at corresponding ow pointe, mes eee tp a Mnemetio simitarity thus equates with the smarty ot fe scoee to, anslen at corresponding points of the flow. ‘This condition tenses the tsogonality of the flow pattern, paraimenassane Of dynamic similarity are defined by the equality of sever sndeTeasters: the Reynolds umber (Ro. which expresses Wes eee Bina: ene ants {2Fe88 at corresponding points of geometsicaly othe car~ ‘es ToNte momber, which expresaes the rato of inertia te pecnite forces, ste. Frown aay ameeesible to obtain, On the other hands Gurscrons tate toe ST AEInRE or Re 10". which is usualy the cave for taleoee se eee ‘ny changes in the Re number do not markedly affect wee Taranmanes of the Re nimober on the turbine efficiency, as well az of fs ay cence 1" the roughness between prototype and mace. aie yee {or by empirical appronimate fermuinn Relationship (1.2) tg detormined from the trlasgle of inflow velocities 4 as) [By using the Expression (ILA), we rewrite the fundamental formula (1.1), with due allowance for the fact that am Key We then obtain Gomhowe, stint ane, nt = ES 2S for, denoting the expression under the radical sign by Ky we obtain 0 KV aa similarly 2 = KV aaH a1.) a1)i 1 KV. ann | ‘The coefficients Ky K,and Ke which are direst factors of th Fu ayand fy, are Wentioal for turbines ofthe varne Proting nae : {ogenat the length of the water passage. to the waist passages of the turbine, the atream area changed coutinn” ously along the flow line, Formula (16) is therefore valid only fer & Sroalt length AL, for average values of @ and » ihe feiclioa loeaes over a certaia loagth AL may be expraosed weet he 20 Im thig formula, diameter Dy instead of hydraulle radius 2, Is used. For geometrically similar uzbines operating under isogonsl conditions, $6 onviously& constant, andthe velocity w varies proportionally to VF, therefore, + ah, oh onan vere & is a constant coetticient for similar turbines. By summarizing the friction losees for the whole stresm flow, we obtain Bp Bly fier Be for denoting Zk= K = const, ye obtain san. aun wate Similarly, the sificiency of the turbine model, a cia — ai. After substituting in (1.22) the valve of K from (1.24), we obtain wetnt—na (eye) 29 51 ty, we obtain te rtationsie Replacing mt by, and = booon prototype and ode efficiencies v0 wV EVE cum‘According to various authorities, the values of the root exponents @ and ange for a from 3 to 10 and for B from Bow. 1k will be aeen from expression (1.28) that the over: ‘es with runner diameter and effective head even if aa bigher bydraulle lovses. 2. The sovcalled “eddy-losses", caused by vatiations in magaitude and direction of velocity, are Edentical with loca! losses in cendults” This grees Also includes the kinetic energy losses at the exit from the dealt ares ‘According to the conventional formulas of Aydraulie, this head less may be expressed as all effletency inereas~ ich an increase involves send. where 9 and & are the vetott Penpecttveiy. ; ‘Allowing for the fact that 0-3. = ty and the loss coefficient at the i-th Now section | Te tan pei, ‘The eifietency, with allowance for these losses, equals where Scns the same value fr all geometrically similar turbines operating lunder teogonal conditions fat large Reynolde minbere}, Consequently, Wee Me KF onan ¥ results from this expression that for turbineewithiarger unitcischarge Gi ke, higher specific apecds, the losses caused by velochy vecionen wan bs larger, ‘and the efficiency smaller, ‘This must be kept ic mua 3. ‘The volumetric losses are due to the fact that only pari ef whe water reaching the runner flows through it. Part of the water bypasses tae wate ner; in Francis tarbines through the shaft sealings along the rise, in Renan ‘urbines theough the clearances between the runace case aud the shcomon: ‘The leakages through the clearances are compated by the forwels 80 we YR, where # « cross-sectional area of the clearancé apace, © discharge coefficient, 2 ep}, then 49 = neDIVH = KDIVE, wnere K, = nev ‘The numerical valve of coetticient Ky may be determined ty computing a teskage trough the labyrinth seals, of by experimentay ‘pe wolumetric efficiency, with ahowance for water leskages through ‘clearances, 1 : 49 ‘ 1.20) TAR ekg i 0 the volumetric efticlency wil be smaller when decreases, Le. the lumetielnoes forthe sume Samctore aad eds Wil be grentr in Etrbines having low speci speeds. 7 Bytaine ihe perioral rete of vaio senarhes, 1 fugov al, established thatthe rato of the volumetric losses elite navng sinar water passages and sons tmaybe determina’ appros- The volumetric ogpesota given turbine at agivenhead varywien HAL, TATaiS ee eeoce cient ene, Tas dros cot ht ean wre it ee ete nee We Hana a i a ernest ei aN eam My He (39) where My {9 the friction moment {n the bearings. ‘The efficiency, with allowance for these losses, {= we Se ee a0) By writing the init values @ and, tnstead of @ and x we obtain aot tie. aan) In laboratory research on the model, and’ Dy usually nave constant 3Values, and therefore we may write Kee Sor fd the formula (30 becomes Maa OK ly th a a a at 3 For a prototype (full-seate) turbine, the speed te constant. A Br ewbtiating i formula (31) H = (2B, we btn the head is usually variable, while seri? : “seo” Denoting Kure aap we obtain 1.33) 5. Losses caused by disk friction, Mee betwaan the ravolvng surface of thet watee passages, will be greater in Prancie tarbines because they nave i oF rotating surfaces atthe inner and outer bands anda tote sear Te "power losses from Wisk friction are given by the ferrule power losses caused by trie~ bine and water outside the aN g= ADA where A isa costfictent depending on the viscosity, Midi ‘on the shape of the friction sucfoces Eee eee ‘The efficiency, with allowance for these losses, is ~ A 1.34) Bxprescing @ by Gand by wwe have 1 yet (35) It follows from expression (11,35) that, for geometrically fmilar tuebines operating under ieogonal conditions, ith cating Hil bes constant. in the specific speed decreases, Qi varies mort sapidly then af disregarding the fact that mjin the num A eiperniacons tr looses dae to dick friction wi Sem ‘more, with ow specific epoca, jeralor is of the third power, the pow= rreater for small turbines: further turbines have longer labyrinth seats, o It appoats that of all lorses due to hydraulic friction, eddies, leakages, ‘mechanical friction io bearings, anddisk frietion, only the mechanical loss ~ Se cantot be tested on models; the hydraulic friction losaes are a function Gfthe turbine dinmeter tnd the head. AS far as other losses are con~ Gerned, one may consider with satisfactory accursey that, for geometrically Similar turbines of similar design, operating under Isogonal conditions, the relative valve of the louses 1s constant. ‘ance, when determining the eificiency of a prototype by model tests,. ‘one asaumes that the basic losses in a turbine are goverued by the law of fycraulic friction on the surfaces of the water pusazes,,and one computes tie efficlency of the prototype from the efflcieney of the model, by the for~ fata (1L2) wat WBE YB ‘The correction, allowing for the influence of the magnitude of head, ts ‘usually not applied for simall aad medium heads; the efficiency for #f < 100m ss eeteiee He tetova 1g VE wen oe assumes that = 4 ovever, some invesigters recommend a8, which apparently is more in conformity with actual practice, Formla (1,36) then becomes watt VE ot Others, hy putting «~ 4 suggest tat 256 of the loess | —oco not do= seston te fcbine iamttr, and ntotoae the correction Re vomainog 19% (ny). ‘The efficiency formula takes the form 36) no V (a, 30) For heads H > 100m the following formula ig usually applies Lanz. designers use formula (I.38) for hoads If < 100m; the efleiency © culated from formula (1,36) is reduced by A according to the table given below w= 1-025 1—ng) ~075( eu os seme ee 68 38LMZ designers disregard the correction for the magnitude ef head, The sorrections determined according to LMZ practice, yield values clove to ‘those computed by formula (1,97) with the index « <5. ‘Tae computed correction for efficiency becomes more accurate as oper~ ating conditions approach the optimum. For loads below optimum efficiency, the relative value of ather than friction losses increases, The eddy losses increase even moe rapidiy, asa cone sequence of the deviation of the flow conditions from the conditions of shosk= less inlet and normal outlet from the runner. The absolute value of the mechanical logses remains constant, but thet relative value inereases for low-power turbines, Hence elficieney cor= rection according to the foregoing formulas Jeads t00 high valves for Small loads, For geometrically elmilar turbines, LMZ designers introduce the cor~ rection in the following way 1. ‘For Francis and axial fixed-blade tarbines,the correction &q =" —n ‘applies equally at any point on the universal characteristic for eftieienciee greater than 78%, and is computed for maximum efficiency, Le. for & Certain point on the eurve we have Te Matt B= Na eg Ma (ao 2. For Kaplan turbines, the Aq correction is determined fom the max~ ‘mum efficiency on the runner characteristic for each given runner blade angle, @, Sts value being kopt constant along the lines gr = const of the wnlversal characteristic. Very often complete geometsie similarity is not achieved; for instance, the draft mbe sad throat rag differ in shspe and roportions. It is thus necessary to introduce’ correction to the efficiency ‘which allons for the influence of those parts nat to Seale. At present, both in the U.S.5.R. and abroad, research is being carried out to find new efficiency formulas, more adequate to the present develop= sient of the theory of hydrauite turbines. ‘The basic {dea of these rw methods ts to aplit up the turbine losses into somponents according to their point of occurrence, ad to find the relations ‘hip between hydraulic losses and turbine size and head, according to the ‘most cecent hydrodynamical data, In model tests, mechanical loeees are eithor determined separately, or completely eliminated, and the conversion fealeulatione are carried out for hydraulic losses only At the TeKT!, attempts are being made under LE. Etisberg's guid ‘ance, to establish calculation method for couverting the efficiency of Kaplan turbine models to fal-scale elves, Basically, this method is as follows. ‘The main.hydrautic Losses in the ‘Kaplan turbine are regarded as those ia the runner and draft tube, Accord ing to their origin, theze losses are divided into profile and exit losses te the runner, and internal and outlet loswes in the draft tube. ‘The profiie losa= 28 in the ronner blades are taken to be similar to the losses ina blade case cade immersed-in a viscous liguid. The exit losses may be computed sims ‘ar to the induced resistance of afinitemepanwing. Floaly, the Internal and ‘outlet losses in the draft tube may be calculated by means of experimental flow measurements on models. By summing up the losses in various areas ‘we obtain the balance of losses in turbines of various epecific speeds. The 36 caleuatons of he halaace of teste showed ht th faclon ot wach kind te he eat looocs for turbines of aterentxpeitc speeds BelSater and may thesefore be sesuned (o be eal eh ince in protic oncee i he raneer a the nasa loses nS rene sues tye vncociy of he iy hy oy be computed tte rte Reyoies momen’ Tonrfore, tose tosses have foe cl eSE'eah wncr passing trom the ode to the follvseale urine ‘ices the anor, hei tracer ae cen ey nbs ‘GTaS? a utetloeece inthe deat tube, obviously do aot depend on Rie'Gaynside nauber Res therefore, they foay'be considered identical both {in model and full-ecale turbine ee ‘On the dasis of the foregoing considerations, a formula has been suggt ced below for converting hycravite efficiency from model to full-scale: fo ecta-o(ey where ¢ + coetficient depending on the operating conditions of the turbine, aed # = 507, “ane ratie of Reynold mombers is BRE “The computation of the balance of losses shows that for optiinum operat~ tng conitionse 03. "ey putting « —§, the formula becomes oa{i+()*). the value of the index m- In reaction turbines, the water is discharged from the runner into the tatnter twig in be “The parpove ofthe draft tube ts: : Deg recover part ofthe veloely hesd of the Now atthe runner oxi 2} te peemit the runner to be set below the fallvater level withoat lw of head, fun simpiiying ine bling of te ponerse abatrectice, Towerers tis ie possible up to certs lis determined By he 8 reece of ciation, which lo relate tothe hydrodyenmice of Stiles in the rater and atthe entrance tothe Graft be. os Cavitation is a complicated physical phenomenon, which appears in hy- drauite turbines fa two stages, ngdm. aa a a AGAR Pee In the test on of atervaper Becomes ours, S0COmpAaIed by slight damage le the blodse "a ae bys oes or ameittstve ding the wecond sage, which Me goat SHO" of the Nee SABIMY witha it (eg. the propeller bleach ote a areas of high alist, "and vapor-filed poohate eet oO areas of high velocity. 7 a of Sonsgralty f Cavities forming in the stream rosulte teem ine equa lion of conséevation of enetsy, For #=0 the Bernoulli formula becomes 7 geags GRD DMT AH : ‘weep $48 cm foe te. Yap ce cin - faerie ‘ wectemprae : At pnts were te veel vinreases, te component $e sao has « 1ow between point 2 and point § in the Righer value and the preseure decreases, Ay a reauit At the redaction of reie bettoinl icinvoraeraet eermaa taulwater-of the HEP may also be written reac cigs (cation) are carcid away bythe scoees ene Tower seatue Mtouty 204 BeFeREeE presoure, Here, the vapor wit nang as ae neously. ’ fe egspantets form beteen the stream and a metalic surtace, this eur proesc Eis 1 eterionate [pitting] since, aa ewperine ne we shown, high pth gin letuperatcres oocur when the buble ie ene ea eon of fhe cavitation bubble aah ets eee al phone omens, which create bubble luminssceres yhservations showed that the cavitation bubbles oscillate continuously, the bate ny SSUES Under eeztSbs Now condone. The ree Ne eerie may Feach extremely high values ofthe Srdee of Te ger ae chnep eatin babbles oscillate near the surface of 6 teeny, they act ke sharp cutting tools, “and destroy athe astah, By combining equations (2) aod 1.49) me obtain the pressure at point (Geet a.) tay + (See ers ennai fee ory cece ee cere care {Sat state draft head eens ue ws parectese a basicaly» yams prsmine devetped fy the aw.” "The Tate of tia vale to ine Wal head oe te cavitation coefficient {aumber) of the runner or turbine, Sti—ded-g (nas) dan onting. tr ean of the Francis canner, and tne throat rege ae Kap- ale tog Ee HOHE Of high velocity, and iti here at Seog eae able to occur, aller as OTE cavitation may appear oly ifthe absolute pressure le smaller than.the vapor presgure, 1, $<, onan cen aig aes OC Mortiaton 1 decreasea with the rection in preg iemperanee” HiZepectenls the vapor prossure plotted ageeet ane nee temperature at es Sur¥ ote may dotermie the preseason ‘empersture at which cavitation pockets are libie to nae Tegeet e128 stream close to the rusner culet the area where Berne tater veldltis appear, may be determined Sy megs eee whence the permiasible draft head ig hc B—ott—%, ‘The ratio 4 may be neglected due to the small value of the vapor pressin at normal lemperatures, Then reaoull| formula, |The Beraoulli formula for the folsine eee AB ot, fhe ranae at ff sina pressure onthe blade, an he ne 7 ae ‘ ‘he ruaner belonging to the same flow line, may seven 30‘The atmospnerie above sea level 2 is usually determined trom the formula ‘reseure B depeads on the elevation of the power plant 461038 —ou, aan 1k follows from relation (1.47), smaller draft head must be chone ‘The permissible the relation (47) fat for larger cavitation cootticients, a 1 le Value of the cavitation coefficient may be computed from patie gg oe (40) 1; £8 woually termed the cavitation coefficient of cause i depends only upon Hyelevation (), ata parameters of the plant, Relationship (1.45) chas of the runner parameters, cettietent, : Modern turbine construction the power station, be- ew the three sata acterizes the cavilation coefficient as a function Sr As therefore called the turbine cavitation on sits at increased runner diseharges and wihuon snegeased runner speed and rechced head losses in the cease which in turn favors.the occurence of cavitation Hentanet io on motel Anton coeticiet oy te usually determined by laboratory cocci aiels. Hess a definite vaiue for each runner nad exeen oer ae Racbine'S, Gonditions, ad is plotted on the univereal characteriete ihe ‘wrbine in the form of apectal carves, dept Qovious that ia order to ellminate cavitation, the turbine cavitat Salton cr {Me substructure, “Hence the tendency is to use tardiness ‘amaller en I... with improved cavitation cheractertotoe, foe or a even {oto tha te improvement ofthe cavitationa peop coat oe ete, twrbine is of great importance as it eran the ees ee 05 of the hydroelectric plant #0 be seamed eect eetltW determine the theoretical value of the deat head by, for practice ipaation of point «1s sometimes unknown, It fe theres Meceenyn Fiven Grant U,S:5.8. t0 caloalate the relative (anit) valve oe Ws en ‘Bags {7s of turbine from a certain plane ia the runes sapien: Jon belasal Francis torkines, fjia considered ae the difference ia ele Taliwatee meen tbe Surface of the lower ring of the distribatey ned ns taibwater level. Por Kaplan turbines the draft head ie consider levation Berreen the blade "ed &s the differonce ia ‘Adjustment axis apd the tailwater level, 40 i i | For horizontal-shatt tuibs the ait nat turbines, the draft head is consered asthe dit *Savation between the highest polat ofthe runner blades snd the ference in elevation tae to ie fact that in theve turbines tbe most so iaife aviation conditions occur on th periphery of the blades at Witte ceviaton eo tele highest point seasse eemlattecvinlon cunt TRIG OH SWART AE Th cavities, cto of ot oe mao cis somtimes taken a8 the datance “the draft nad for veeteal baba han a tate between the middle of tne diteinator melght andthe fatwater 2 ing this head ky WM, we obtain a) for the Franets-turbine Hyatt 1) for the Kaptan turbine tm Hs = height of the distributor; H, peemasraesy eres Goilcieat allowing for ie datance between the Made-ad cara mn oa ain iluve clovetions nctoned above, conversely, te head ve negative i the relative elevations mentioned above; ting Ig Below the tawater level, nec “fen designing «tebe a seesting ihe rf ead, te gn rain weve ca ‘rating conditions, It is, however, imprs Spt evel carton completely because the reduston oe tating Slewton wit seapet fo he tatatr Tovel tealy Soon a eonaiera Increase In int of excavation for the substructure, efor Seat ttebine manufacturer in hs ocheial conditions, wavelly span te Inlgalsle amount of éamage de fo cavitation sa the nfetallio parte * Gnay euch damage is permitted as may be Fepaired onthe spot without ened! desing now the cavitation characteristics may et designing new turbine runner, the tarnlarion may be lnroved by incresoing elhar te naniber ot blades, or the aJog to blade pitch H(piteh ratio, ice., by tneraasing total blade is, &3 a consequence of the reduced specific load on the ede a on its conver side ie reduced: . speremteetert ever, a considerable increase inthe Uf ratio without ch ‘iw, ac 1 Ut ratio without chaaglag the ber Of hades leads to large-aine Wades, thus rendoeiag at eo 10g Wo tn bud shore dificult Figure 5 shows tio ‘ence of © on the /t ratio and head Shows ti spree depo ‘This curve proves thata significant chang occurs only when Wt varies from 0:7 to 0.8, 1 plays a lees important ie in cavitation characteristics For large values, the ratio specific speed ane larger turbine dimensions. to the runner diameter Dy ts the cavitation costfictent, tis obvious that ‘and consequently reduces lon cnaracteristies, a greater Wt value increa: the pressure, a fact which leads {0 poor savitt a al a te a ee a Ut 8, Depentence oe evi cnn, Figure 16 shows (according to LMZ data) the 1 Value and the unit discharge Q; for varios hub for instance, for lationship beeen he fp diamete ration Te, * 1500 and a hub-tip diameter ratio S cavation coeticest ¢ 0.26, anor Se ose 8 toorease 050%. Conseasenty, Civitationchurasteriston, oe me 2.85, the we have @ = 0.28, Le, {© order to improve Kaplan tuzbine ip diameter ratio should be lowered, a Chapter 11 TURBINE PARAMETERS AND DESIGNS Present-day caloulation methods for the water-passage elements of a ‘turbine do not permit the determination of the optimam shape of the water passages with the required eavitation charactoriatice for a given head and Siachange, 11s more disticult stilt to determine the turbine power and cavitation parameters for operating conditions which differ fro those rated, ence ‘when designing @ modern turbine, several altematives for its water passages are calculated, ‘The most favorable shapes for the Water passages are then ‘determined by laboratory tesis on modele of each design variant ‘The tests ave carried out under a wide zange of operating conditions, and their results are used to plot the turbine-characteristie curves. These curves provide an over-all pictire of the power and cavitation chacacter= ities of the turbine, ‘According to the problems to be investigated, latoratory installations for ‘turbine model testing fall into two groups: for power tests an for cavitation teats ‘The ‘equipment for power teats makes it possible to investigate the rela tlonship between the efficiency of a turbine of given design and its opereting conditions. ‘The equipment for cavitation tests is used to investigate the relationship Dotwoen tho turbine cavitation cosificient and the operating conditions. Figure IIL givos the schomatic diagram of the LMZ laboratory stand for power tests. The centrifugal pump (7), riven byan electric motor, dischargestho water through the gate valve (8) into the stilling chamber, ‘The water en« fors the inflow ume (5), One of the flume wails ie 2 sharp crested eeiee which allows the discharge of the excess water flow, in osdes to onsine {ain a constant water level in the atilling charmbor. From the iafiow desne {he water enters the pit, passing from there ta the sercll case {1) of the turbine model. ‘The wator, leaving the model draft tube, enters the inferior chatncl, and ‘after passing adjustable valve (13) which regulates the tatlwatgr levels it eachas the downstream channel of the weir. One of the chanel walle (0) fs built as a weir for measuring the water discharge. ‘The atilling racks 411 (sereens) aco installed in front of the weir in the downstream chasnel, ‘The hesdwater and tailwater levels are measured by means af losis and ‘re recorded on scale (32). Float (10) measures the level helove the mene ‘The rotational speed of the model shaft is measured hy a revolutioe ountex (2), autotaatically set for a onevminate period by tease of s sgectat electrical clock-mechaniém. ‘The torque developed at the mode! shaft ts balanced by means of rops Drake (2), "The frictional moment is balanced by the torent of the seater weight which pulls at the oxble end. Knowing the rotational speed and the torque of the model, the net power ‘output may be esloalated: with the known head and diacharge, one cee oer ‘ermine the theoretical power, Le., the energy supplied to the turbine, ‘The ratio of these values reproseate the eliicieney of the model ‘The testing equipment of the water-passage components is 90 designed as to permit easy changing. Figure IIl,2 shows a schematic dtagram of the LMZ teat bench for eave tation modeltesting. Conditions of cavitation are created by increasine the draft head. ‘The instant at which extensive cavitation appears ls aeter= mined by the sudden drop in eltieieney af ane of the following paranoia speed, water discharge, or power. Consequently, the teate'oa tie nie serve'to determine the relationship between the Deaie tusbine parenetere fand the draft head, ‘The equipment operates on the closed-circuit principle.. The water fed by the centrifugal pump (1) Bireulates through the unit nad doce set cee into direct contact with the atmosphere at any pola. The negative precware under the runner, corresponding fo a given draft head, io oreated by none of the vacuum pump (6), which draws the air out of the pressure tack (6) ‘The pressure (head) in the system may be regulated by changing the go> tationnt epeed of the electric motor. "The prosoure before the runter, and the vacuum in the tank, are meas ured during the tests by meroury pressure-gages (2), ‘The rate of discharge {e measured by Mlowmeter (1), idetalted in front of the pressure tanke ‘Tae torque on turbine shaft (2) and the rotational speed are ciesgured by moans of brake (3) and speedometer (4) Tne cavitation cocfictents 0, for various discharges Qj and speeds 1, 4ar€ determined during the tests. Other tig layouts for peer tae oan, {Hon tests are also common, ‘The diameters of the mode) runner range from 180 to 800mm, but thoge ‘most widely used in power tests have a diameter of 250°t0 céaimin, aad cavitation tests, af 250mm. {Stent dag o cain tat. ae rte sesFor a detailed investigation of the turbine water passages, aerodynamic teats on models are most effective /71/. Such tests perapt a convenient ané eifective study of the various models to determine the over-all power ‘characteristics and the basie parameters of the water passages, as Well as the distribution of velocities and pressures within the passageways, ‘These ata are used {n refining the analyticel computations of the runner and other elements of the water passages, and to geloct the davigns to be tested in the hydraulic laboratory on the power and cavitation stands, For aerodynamic fests, many model parts may be made of wood or plastics, These tests, take less time and.are cheaper than hytraulic teats. ‘Aerodynamic teats provide information on the power characteristics of the mode! only. andare not suitable for investigating cavitation phenomena, By measuring the air currents itis possible to determine when cavitation Degins: turbine performances under actual cavitation conditions cannot De medel-tested in air, however, Figure IIl.3 shows & sketch af the serodynamic test otand designed by TeKT. ‘The test stand consists of electric motor (1), connected to axial fan (9), which draws air trom the room through pipe (2). ‘The air is blown into Pressure tank (8), through annular diffuser (4). ‘The preastire tank ie con- nected to model scroll casing (6). CURE. Shemac dng ote aodjamie et nd The distributor and runner are installed inside the seroll casing. The acrotl casings connected to the elbow drafttabel(?). ‘Thepower is measured bby means of an electromagnetic brake, or a penduluni-type dynamometer With weights and @ epeedometer, A pressure gage connscted to the presaure tank measures the air pres sure, ‘The discharge is determined irom he readings of a Piot-tabe How = eter installed in the specisily-deeigned inlet pipe (0): ‘The nead is meatured a the difference between the pressure in the tank ‘and the pressure in the room, "The prescure tant ia intended to stmnlate the Readwater, Its volume must be large enough to make the pressure inde pendent of the water flow velocity. Since the power developedby the air model is much smaller than that of the hydraulic model, the relative taschasical losses will be greater in the formes, once, it le very important te make allowance for mechanical losses when carrying owt acrodyeamic tests, ‘The basie results of tests on power and cavitation siands ave plotted as 2 turbine universal chart where the following characteristic lines are plotted in coordinates of unit speed nj and unit diechaege @; of equal etfic~ eney(4 = cont, of equal opening of the distributor (ou cena, of equal “6 specitic speed (n, ~ cons, of equal cavitation coeticionts (@ = cont). the 8% power-margin linefor Kaplan turbines, and lines of equal runner Diace angles {er sesh, The St powerrmargin line onthe universal enact defines he m= 8. Geatabie operating conditions of the turbine. Hy increasing ‘he nit discharge G;beyonathis inst thepower output increases by only 5%, after ‘hich it falls once more, sce the decrease in effieency Ye more Fapia Than tne Increase in discharge “Figure tla shows the universal chart (universal characteristic curves) ot a Francis turbine o_o oo so won neo "ogo “ = 3 1 8 a 08 aa igure tl, § shows the universal chart ofa Kaplan turbine. Figure Il.¢ shows the anivereal chartofa Pelton turbine, The character~ {atic feature of this chart is thatthe lies of equal {gude-vane) opening {a mcont|ave vertical, ‘Ts is due to the fact that the water discharge in sPetton turbine {x independent of the turbine speed. igure lL compares the performance cusves of the torbine, 4 dependence of efficiency on power output, for various speed and pee axial thxed-blade, rants, Kaplan, and Pelton. It may be seen fom this figure and irom the universal chacts, thatthe region of high efficiencies ia let with axa heap turbines. These yes mainnin high eeerey figures for the rated power only, while their efficiency drops rapicly when ine power changes Nenestnels operation entails conotaerable power loses ‘The Kaplan turbine, on the other hand, with runner blades adjurtsble tothe ‘most favorable angie, can maintain high efficiencies over a wide Paage of Power output, and.its eficsency does not arop 20 rapialy when the head Shanges, a8 does the efficiency of axial ixed-blade turbines a4 as $A 0 ae 9 a. a0 H + ; ; BK or ~t eh | a ENR rai Ry EAE AY “IN ANCTIY BIRR SCE ane aR WIRE Eee CURES. Unive uo Kaplan eine rary et a HSS Ll x ® s Se Te Thus, under variable operating «: hiher average efficiency tnd gency mses nen St actin ha 8 bine ‘power tan the propeie: fay “ [Both types of sxial turbines are characterized by large cavitation coefti- cients o and aze therefore used af low heads ‘As can be seen, the efficiency curves of the Francis turbine have sater~ mediate values between those of the axial fixed-blade and Kaplan turbines. Francis turbines have very high eifleiency values, tut their zone of maximum efficieucy is much sarrower then that of Kaplan turbines! they have a Tower specific speed and : larger runner diameters under the same operating conditions. ‘The characteristics of the Pelton turbines ensure a constent high ef= ficiency for an even wider range of power variation. “Turbive universal charts are of great importance in turbine coastruc~ Hon. ‘They permit the following parameters fo be determined easily 8 function of operating condi tons: efficieney, angle of open ing of the guide vanes a, value of 0 PMMA TA MAM ATTA Csyieation coofticient and Fun FIGURE 1 eftceney plead opine lot gnr-blade angle gr. For @ given fe for ain tron per head Hf and power output 4. the universal chart also makes it possible to determine other basic parameters; runness [inlet] diametet Dy, speed m, discharge Q, and the ower characteristics for varying operating conditions s = gseasess: Current classifications. ‘The tremendous water-power resources of the 1.8.8.8, are extremely diverse in mature and form. Lowlane and mountain rivers, ao well ag low and high-runoff rivers, provide for a wide Tange of combinations between heads and discharges, ‘This unique featire of water-power engineering has led to a great diver~ si in draule terbnes, a5 regards power ouipt, pe, dimensions, ant Depending on the available head, a given power may require a turbine with @ smaller or a larger camer diameter. Th the U.8.S.R., for purposes of standardization, usbines are divided {nto small, mediusn, and large-size types. depending on the power output, imensions, and weight of their components Tn smell turbines, runner diameters may attain 1.2m for a low head and 0,5 m for a bigh head, with power outputs up to 1,000w. Medium tarbines have runner dlameters up lo 2.51 for low heads and 1.6m for high heads, with power outputs up to 15,000 kw. Large turbines nowadays have runner diameters up to 10m (Keplan turbines) and 7.5m (Francis turbines). Their power obtput may attain £500,000. ‘A great deal of progress has bec made toward unifying and standardis- ing hyérautie turbines, ae a result of which turbine construction could be, toa Carlain degree, switched over to series production. rsA slassification was dvawa yp for the most ‘median, and small-siee ronction tibineg, "St “M908 VPOs of large, xransuttcatin divide te antie Geldof application of large, wes: (or heads ranging from 2 to 300%, sant eam, FIG Sim {01a of al staard-tyoe sizes which comprise alt a fiers and series considered, constitutes the classi on for omni a cee ERR aes oon meeae een ‘Phe turbine designation con sts of i oe ape trea Ril oopr a ect fo lettors denoitng th ‘&nd a number denoting runne1 eee ce if the runner pe foliowing symbole were acopted for the various tcbine type "isl fied-blede: PL-~ Kaplan, RO~ Praseiar ie Uwe, Pee igaty We tee a tg te sd ager ep rot ceeitgal Shas G — horizontal aha; O — open Beene ‘seroll easing: M~ steal scroll costs ished ‘The turbine dimension ie deste oe ‘evignated by ha nominal runner diameter D, The ternal runner diameter Dy is (Figure 1H, 9} 27 Kaplan and axial fled ton oft gt a0 A Heda abn, ee Ca 2) in Francis turbines, (b and ¢) 5 ‘measured at the inlet, 8) for Pelton tarbin ~ the largest dam ~ the largest runner dtameter as te diameter ofthe runner circle tangential omprises the smallest possible Fuater types, which covers almons ter enn {plication at See ae Host the entire feld of spplication of Ragan Figure 11.10 givea, in logarithmic c ordinates, a graphical representa~ tion of the elasaification the slsaliation fr large tarbinas, forhesas anges eter 50 a yon pes asi of tes z= ess penn of attest cart spon ante ae FIGURE HL fap of are xine and power outputs of wp to 180,000Ion; ten tusbine series (four Kaplan and tix Francis) witerypner cacnoters from 1,000 fe 2,000imim wore selected, : ‘The sonee of power ovtp for each field of application are delimited by tho largest and smallest runner tiamotere Dimarsnd: Ding’ The damnetors are represented by inclined parallel lines, "The rone of heads for each field is established onthe basis of economle~ ally suitable draft head fy and the mechanieal strength of the runner blades. "The various Qpes of tucbines, covering the entire fied of ade and power outputs of the classficstion fr large tabines, are given in Table Ei “Tale table contains algo data on specie speedo, momber of guise ‘aed, standardized runner atameterr, and guicervane circle diameters. igure il. 11 gives a graphical representation of small and medion stae Fenton sarbines /38)-" On the Graph the ett af eplionon of ed Im carbines borders at the upper sage on the Held of large turbines, and te lower eage on tae fla 0 sal turbines “The ranges of leads from 2 to 2001 and of ower output from 60 to 20,000, ave covered by nine pes of runners stares ofthe agian abd axial fned-biade types, aed sis of the Francis ype “The runner diameters vary = according to telr ype ~ between 350 and 2500tm, The clogsifionion of medium tanbines comprises aay twelve fnter diameters [eve Table Ml. 2} ‘The basic dimenoions ofthe etadandlced Kaplan runners are given in Figure 12, and ogo ofthe Francia runners in Figure I-13, “These labios show thet with decreasing mpecfic epeed, ie. at high heads, the dimensions of the water passage of Kaplan and Francis tur= Bines become les. ‘The turbine clavsificaton algo comprises detail diagrams for the field of application of each type of turbine runner, These dagrams are plotied‘The detail ised runners may be found in handbooks sad are Used by design institutes for preliminary calcilations, INGORE, Soin laste fr vai perf une Zils ts achieved by using the system of nominal runner diameters, Pach yominsl Tuner diameter included in the classification aise detiey te ‘iameters of the turbine apeed-ring elements Thy Caste nominal dimension of the turbine speed-ring ta the guide-vane (Phew) circle diamejer Dy; the actual runner diameter Bj sy dite ne special circumstances, from the nominal value, PY grpressing the discharge in the formaila of the tusbine power output N+ 9.81QHn, in terms of the unit discharge Ns, we ose Ym ssp 4. ‘Thus, to acnieve the required 5: hoad ‘and with the Smale turbines, Q and Dy "ange of power OutpUts Nags — Manat constant st umber of diameters tn any standaTd series of Should be varied, Ea S 1 prec sanded age to eRe, ai < a i we tI ple bin sated ste i i 3 s i 3 Ges gi | 33 i : io Petts 3 TT] fle E i _ me es zg i i : so dS 1 g) i ee rah i it ; ia E Ei | P| 4 : SHE ee | i i © jz af 2 = 7 7 pri ge 5 ai i { PEE big y hea 4 : = rg Y ge E i Be i L Is Z cu §B gee See oc} at | ae | wee | om hens, [ots [FEE oer pe anest | oe | esa | ee | seca seat | ancy | rote | ot errorsgone eave rows “athe 0am go ere ooh per mag meer bas ‘at stioes lees sd oer a edie ao wa a ie rte 698 of noe Pine pote wt i é i ad Dp] eee 7 oan WR 5 2 ULE Sentence mans a fect of Dy = afealatataftalelelata ya noms] 12" (cere) farce] [amloass es datas oma] tz foc] fase’) [esa [aise ost Jaws nome] ia [ams | fee| [cay [otic eas [eeHom $98 Or + OD," HE ys Mase = 9.81% oe (Di = ADH ng ‘oFmeglecting the difference between a: and ng. we obtain the relation Mem, GnetDeADR Na Gon aD 1s i isnot possible to change the sunner diameter Di but only the runner Gischarge capacity, the ratio " Aer = Ga Recent f ncrenne te ues of nae ee lene, ik Or wer te fancy whch te nrc hw si wee! i tated i Figure 14 when sepreseta the ettcioney ese og wo Franca tanbzes ie nan aateane tceney SLO cletieaton oe sham peas (2 fe sume Sri en the esting the greater permet sens mel a the speed ring is the same for both runners. sad The curves ina eotrinend te eal rates of ameiors mee ext ty Sinn) the cares ahs el no amar wt nonin dametore ftw seen ee war secon ga enact Hite eter devin he opens pm ‘od baler svi nearest moma a ne tat cae te ants ash rear erage prea ergs aon oa ar eats of Seago Ton ike ef lis resacioe elated ee nice he eas ‘he ahve mtn of elcianeg ae Soest eM tH, 07K ad 0 datetrs iain ne oped aay am tn teal ane ‘pole iy fo Hace sess aa ene perm reat ati ovo eo ceeamaee 2 ae ‘ait ie pe # g | al al a] | oa 4 oy al a PCMH S DUTT MR EDAD RT ADS o ED WHR SH EBTR 8MTZ TREY FROUREML 26 teeny came of «mite fr eo acest eam ‘The efficiency curve 9=/(N) for Kaplan turbines slopes gertly; ‘devia tuons from the nominal diameter are nol considered (80 £0) the eieaot- fication, since the required variation of the turbine output within the ‘slandard-type sizes may be achieved by changing the ranner-blade angle, 1 the turbine classification the ratio K = 72% of two nominal dicinotere 4s established within the Limits of 1.10 (for larger diamaetere) and 1.19 (for smaller diameters). ‘The average ratio K of two adjacent diameters for the standardised di~ ametora le 1.115. ‘The possible reduction of average operational efficiency amounts to ~ 0,5 ‘Phe classification of hydraulic turbines developed in the USSR, sith standard-type sizes characterized by the rucier diameters, was tie beste for farther standardization of type sizes of turbine stator elements, ‘The type of the scroll case was accepted az the basic charactorietic of the turbine type; the scroll ease ig made of concrete for small heads ov of cast or welded steel for modi and high heads. Precise fields of applicability (in terms of available head H) of stendaré~ ized runnors and types of speed rings, and the existence of diameter sertes ‘ade tt possible to create 3 system for the standardization of turbine aoe Semblies and parte, Standardised clevnetts and dimensional series pore ‘ait the wide use of the similarity lawe for roauy turbine parts and mare i possible to obtain dimencionsl eeries eatablished in @ strict sequence ‘his standardization, and the semenclature for large turbines, mere ‘4rawa up for the firsf'time by B.B. Gol'din /23/, and were adopted by the V.S.S.R. hydraulio-turbine industry, The introduction of standard wpe sizes, constructions, and regular series of assemblies and components paved the way for the gerice production of turbine components and helped shorten design, production, planning and manufacturing time [New classification for large-size turbines, The state plan for farther development of water-power engincering in the U.S.$.R. coviseges the onstruction of powerful hydroelcetris plants equipped with lerger and more Powerful turbines than those provided for in the existing classification. : Hence new classification for these large-size turbines fe at preset on preparation, ‘A characteristic feature of the new classification is thet it proceeds aot ‘nly trom the existing types of runners, fut also trom typea set yor devieed, but having techaleally feasible parameters, ‘These improved parameters fare the result of theoretical computations ated of the analyois of exvering experience, both in the U.S.5.R. and abroad AAs wil be seen, the new classification not only specifies present stand™ ‘ands, but also indicates development trends in the design of new runners ‘The new classification allows for the characteristic geometrical peran~ store of runners which to a large extent determine theie hydraulic chan Acteriotcs, Such parameters are the hub-tip diameter rato 3 and the mimber of blades (Figure IL 18) for Kaplan turbines, and the relative holght of the distrbator B= $M for Rrancis turbines. The designation of runners in the new classification shows a certain departure from previous designations. As in the previous ene, the tonser {Pe is designated by two letters (PL. or RO), foltowes by the meuonns head under which the runner may be installed, snd ts serial manvenAccordingly, the turbine designation consists of deohes: the runner type- the installation the runner diameter, in mam symbols separated by 1 in both tables, the lower Limite Gnu and va, correspond to the upper (vertical or horizontal shaft) is for each renge, and Yite-nor8i, ‘he value ot ey, corresponls Whe vane of forte medal raps In ordsk te eal Whe ae Slate turbine a correction ‘coefficient allowing for the scale effect should be PLA0/01-V~800 of —ROB2/01-v—300 Rae ws Inoasced In th new classification the runnar diameters have been changed, The : rms *atlo.of two adjacent dlameters is inorenged up f0 Tle tacaganee ae : ine sd etn ras Dyegciy, em id he be ie eg er 1.1) for smallar diameteres end loweses os oe ee ae Blots les agate eras eee, ys 2 a C | ‘The avorage ratio of lwo adjacent diameters % is pee] ae Th! {a reduced to 1-12 (ae againet 1.18), a a C a Eight standardized runners were elected for S| oft) slabs sees ye : PEER Keplanturbines, for heads up to 60am, Sigh = Standardized reupera were sclested or Pees ofa t= |= |=] = |=) a) wpe is turbines for maximuraheads H epios00% the RISE S)EL SS) a) a]e = limits of diameter eeries are somewhat wid- ao fos | oo 5 |e wp ye] ned: for Kaplan runners to Dee Totem sed § = fateate ‘ {or Francis rumera to Dy Soci the nee ele |els s| ei, r rerical values of diamotess of the new terion ele] a]s we fe |e pe eee IA Dimenin of vate in accordance with GOST 6032-56 (preferen- aoe! (Bus ‘ Sew'scnecnonmeinae "lal numbers and series sree oeeeas reer [am fe | oe Jn the light of experience gained tn the design ae sooo | asso | se = r ot hydrauiie turbines, the guide vane elses See ee amter D, (charaotecistis speed-ring diemeter) aud te erence ne cee : di “init : c ‘Yanes werealsorevised. The values of Dy, Dy, and are given in Table ah. is Bue cx aod yee putes f Kaplan sn Astin tte casino seca eo sete Seo [ems [we | ne mom [YL ef tepote fme fee Bi eens [oe | a Jane | an] sa nae ont [a : a ee z BR oan | ose | oar | oan fear a | : te ap oe | ae [ew [os [on [ en foe | aw [aw baw fan baw lar 0 oe ose | as » i eas | cas | om | oas Jeane | oars * 5 TE pia r #& [om | [on [ea [ em few [om foo paw] am Pow rennconmugs [oat | ens [oar | ase fuse | a0 . % [os [aw [x om [ast [ar fam fom [an] om bom Bo a comin eer rete] mote oowe| one ae fron “ - = ~ pega ott |i fa tf | oat C & fox [os os| a [omen few law bar baw] a Bo teint oon ae fame | ee Joes | ns | am | we | rn [se] ew [con] coms as foam fare Joss pan Pam Paw Spent ( Stpceemange | ani | ase | soso Jamo | aoe | a S_[os |oss | aso aoe] cas [oss fear feu fos [osm Toms Sagara (See) | eee : z aoa Mmessomaten Vigo | ‘tem | noo | tan | ‘neo | tan | “ew-] eo (panies Ul 4 and I. § ahow the basic design and hydraulic parameters Mera. Xs | sae | ‘aw | eo | er | Soa | oe | oes ‘ of the manners, according tothe new elastitntinnFHOUME 15 Fis of eet of erin, secting tne cain Figure II. 16 presents a summary diagram of the fields of application for large turbines. ‘The pew classification was drawn up at the LM ard the TSKTT hy IL, Btinberg, A. Yu, Kelton and IN, Umikov » = 03% i s a iH ee el ee XQ Ae Kak} | Lig | et | "ae we Ta ae 8 ‘Puller information about this problem may be found in /64/. ‘The steps taken to select the turbine parameters are briefly outlined below. "The basic turbine parameters are chosen for given power, head, and eadwater and tailwater levele, ‘Where head fluctuations occur, the turbine parameters are selected ac~ ‘cording to the rated head, "The values of W, Hayllpa 004 Haq are given by the designer of the hydro electric plant, Tho turbine parameters are choven from the universal ‘hart plotted from the test reqults of the standardized runner models. ‘The turbine and runner types are chosen according to the rated head Hat ‘Tuo runner diameter is found from formula where W is given in kw and Hf in, In determining the runner diamotor the elficieney range ia taken frora the table below: for Francis turbines 9 = 0,38 - 0.00 for Kaplan turbines 9 0.94 ~ 0,86, ‘The unit discharge G; (m/sec) for Prancis turbines {a waually selected ‘on the curve for 9% power margiog. with Kaplan turbines, one must allow for cavitation n orée® to obtain feasible draft heads, “The ranger diameter, calculated from this forme, ie rounded off to the nearest nominal ameter. Oving to the considerable hes fluctuations tunder which Kaplan tavbines operate, itis convenient fo select the Parner diameter for the lowest nead which vould enesre the rated power’ The permissible draft head My, calctlated in relation to this head ‘The turbine speed is given by the formula VT, av ‘The value of nj is selected from the chart, on the curve which gasses through the point of optizoum efficieney or a ittle above it, ‘The correction Bn} is usually assumed lo be constant for all points of the chart, It is computed for the optiraum point of the chart from the formula, anon E-)- ‘The speed a is computed from the corrected value of mand adjusted to the nearest larger eynehronous speed. ‘The draft head may be calevlated from the formula, 4,=100—3,— bot,where k= J.05 to 1.1 antely factor used at LBZ; ¥= elevation of the bydroclectre plant ‘The costticient ¢ is taken from the universe! chart, ‘The magnitudes of Gand aj and ¢ vary with power output and head, Toe permissible draft'nead H, thus depands on the effective head and power. ‘Phe plant head depends in turn on the variations in the headwater and tans water levels. The draft head has therefore to be matched with the different combinations in head between headwater and tailwates levelen ‘Adding the draft ead fi to the loweet tallwater level, one obtalas the highcat permissible runner elevation for-aach case,. Of the elevations ob- tained, the lowest has to be selectod, in order to obtain cavitation-tree operation under all conditions ‘The values selected for the nominal diameter and the synchronous speed ‘must be checked on the chart by plotting a tetragon with aides js const. at Hae a const. at Hoe having vertices with the ordinates Qj, corresponding to the maximum and minimum power outputs at these head limits. If this tatragon adequately covers the central aren of the chart within the region of high efloteecicy, the parameters have boon selected correctly; it tae central area of the chart has markedly shifted with respect tothe center of the tetsagon, the Tunner diameter Dror the speed a, or Both of them, have be changed It is sometinies more convenient to select a smaller value of Of fos high-head Kaplan turbines than Hoge determined from the chact ood allowed by the degree of opening of the distributor. In this sanner tis Possible fo reduce o and to inereasc the permissible draft head i, Since turbines are usually operated under variable head Mand output Nosd] a, the discharge Q, the efficiency 9, and the cavitation eoctticieal @ change as well. As a rule, turbine speed dose not change, "For groper turbine operation, itis thetefore important to know the Felationaki cetween basic turbine parameters, For this purpose, after turbine dlameree By and speed a have been properly selected, the universal efficiency and pers formance charts are plotted, The efficiency characteristic m= J (W) shows efficiency as @ function of load W under constant head # and apecd a. Since hydrociectrie plaste opera ‘ng at constant head are rather infrequent, an over-all picture of tacos performance is best obtained by plotting the turbine performance chart from data on the individual efficiency characteristic, ‘Pas universal performance characteristics show the dependence of ef= geterlatics consist of a family of lines of equal eiticiency 9, plovtea wen 2 ind H 28 coordinates (Figure Ill.17), On thie characteriatie are pot {eds the Line of upper output limit, the lines of constant sticiensy aicr the lines of constant draft heed Toe turbine cificlency and performance characteristics are plotted on {he basta of the universal chart of the selected runner model for the gioen ameter Dy, speeda, and neads Hy, an and Ha 'm order to plot the efficiency deve the following stops are taken: 2) rom data given inSection 10, Chapter Il, the maxiarum efficiency of the turbine nau is plotted as a fnction of the timbine head, will dae teas ance for the scale effect; o 2) the correction for unit speed Se calculated, allowing for the differ cence between the turbine and model efficiencies vive VE) su the corrected unit spbed ng corresponting to the writ speed characteristic curve of the model Me Fa asp dg nd yee presi of a ne, seg 1 el ane ‘oa | cas | eas] 020 | aos wneoe Bea ....| eas | ase } 93s “tue om | rom | nom [ra | nem | aor | se beret (emcee cas Se | Pao | Be | os ai as |= | | mt = = |e tained from the valyrsal chest Rhona ay Ase inuntcichacges are selected onthe SRST feat fiiclcncios ator rancia snd ada! fred-bade, and onthe Sts of equal angle @ for Roplan turbines thio relationbip ie then writen ge alent ec rsion from model to proto~ Veale factor correction for the conver ode io pot type eficioney ie caloulated, and the turbine eilency 1s determined f 33 "tne tarbine power output i ealelated for each point, from formule N= 981NQDHV EE Settee woos teal ‘ange of variation of mj. ia) ib civied into 3-9 intervals aud the elficiency charset Fe ee ES rm, ay gm the performance chart[T9 obtain the minimnam head for each cuave 4 = cont ofthe performance charts a5 auxiliary curve tou ~ / (2) touat be plied, “The miniinen waite SH, ‘corresponding to each curve = cout, may be iouneee inn ee ‘Toe Lines of equal are plotted onthe basis of the lines of oaeal < mee tne sniversal chart ‘To plot the lines of equal #,on te performance chart the following atope should be taken: bis areal aD, ihe aunlinry fonction W ~ 7(@);, being selected on the univerdat ghett of ine model, is determined for each of the heade vate te plone tn etfciency enaractertaicn, 2) the following relationships are written in tabulated form foreach heads F=H09 N= HQ: H,= Fn, there Qi corresponds to the values of 's from the universal chart; WV is computed from i = /(Q),and the draft heat io calculated from formas Hy 100— batt, 2) th curves HM), are drawn for sach head and the point of equa 4, {90m theae curvcu are teansested onto the turbine hecho Seek id inked wo by smcoth curse The outst curve on th performance charts for Franee and axe fed ade turbines is determined either from the curve of SH pve manera ‘universal chart, or directly trp the efficlensy coaeectereace! The power output of Kaplan turbines i» Lint for the seceum rated head Ha:by the lasgest blade angle ggg = co ars for the Santana eat esa, By the largest opening ofthe Side vaste oe enya Tales of Wn dng on the turbine unlveSl chor may be deter- plued trom the position of the operating point corsespondicg ke sa Power W and rated head Ay. E Fe ce ‘he plating ofthe pesdSimance chart fs based upon fll geometeical sme Hatity between model ané prototype, Howevess Is sume NYE Obain, "in practice, selection te often mudeaceateng ate raet EREGSGS Masel maose water passages differ from that of hie tasbing tit, this isthe case, the effect of differences bet ‘he wator pasdages of reaction turbine consi of the anit aes cag ming, the distributor, the throat ring, and the draft tube. if IF ene protte ofthe guide Vanes neath ag ioc! the turbine parameters, The shape ofthe eecing Wee ae {vence on te turbine parameters: the replacing of one tne cea ne byspiral casings causes adalional head losses fae eae dncrease with the specific speed and with the sonst tea of the eploal casing Experimental date chow that replacement of opon-flame casings by apital Saude Feces he minum eicleney ty boat ©. aod ta eee openings [of the distributor] even a drop in power cuteatot Ge ee ‘These figures, which are considered as correction values, are very fmportant for turbines with small ané medium diametere (range of [rom 2.5 - 3a). When the diameter increases, these valnes decrease, ad for Dy 89m they may be neglected, since tae relative head losses is the spiral casing diminish as the dimensions increase. ‘The shape of the draft tube affects head losses to a much langer extent local losses are greater in the elbow of the bent draft tube thaw in the straight draft tube, due to the changes in the value and alvection of flow ‘elocity in the eltow. ‘The drop in effictenéy and power depends on the geometrical shape and depth of the elbow draft tube, as well as on the turbine ‘pe, ‘With Francis turbines, the efficiency of an elbow daft tube compared with chat of a straight conical draft tube of Mdentieal exit area is leas by approximately 0.5 ~ 1%, depending on the turbine power output, The ef Hotency reduction is greater at full load, and simailer at part load For Kaplan turbines, especially high-speed ones, the shape of the draft tube aifects efficioncy aad dlecharge capacity in particular. Therefore, ‘when selecting thelr parameters, it le imperative to use the character atic curves oblained from model teste in which the dra tubs has been modelled {or all its elements, ie., for vertical turbines with an elbow draft tube and for horizontal-chaft turbines with a straight draft tube ‘From the unit discharge af the model, the unit discharge of the horizan= {sl turbine, with the shaft passing through the elbow of the draft tube, may, be dotermined from the formula he Gat where 9 = coattilent allowing forthe restriction in the ¢ross-scetional Treaty the amat : thee vost. where Djj* the exit diameter of the runner + the shatt diameter. For the case considered, the efficiency reduetion dis to eddy loss in ‘the dratt-tube elbow equals Aq» 1-2%. For turbines with cylindrical easing, the influence of the latter on ‘and G; 18 allowed for by the following correction factor Ag = 0.5 to 1.0% = 0.06 to 0.05. ‘The larger values for Ay and the smaller for y should be selected for turbines with high specific speec. ‘Tho basic equation of turbine dynamics ts: hemawhere J = the moment of inertia of the rot tia of the rotating parts @ = the angular velocity: gies 2 = the time Mg + We detving moment: ‘M_ = the moment of resistance forces Jn the operation of an hydraulte turbine, three sitet nt oer wriralls turbine, three sitations may oscar: Tr thie case the turbine power outpul equals the te power outpui M, equals th load demand of the ‘Thus $0, 4e.,0°= cont, which corresponde toa constant speed, Le to steady operation ofthe ant BM Tn ths case, the turbine power output te em ne gus cae: the turbine power output ie emetier then the lod demand ot Mmore — B50, the tarbine sp0ed increases when t : n the generator load is reduoe inte second and tha cages, te Speration of the iene a an steady. Under norioal operating contitions, she regulating sseten a the turbine assures a balance between tne moments of tne delving cate ee sistance forees, "whan a change in lod anda ige or ‘alin speed cco the governor operates immediately, narrowing or widening the distribute. pening accordingly: the turbine output fe thee alwored ovine ote eee in discharge ‘The oe speed increases or decreases slightly, in a¢ A cordance with the generator output, and ie brought back to by the conamnes wt be Put, and le browghe buck to ore! bythe Hf during operation 8 sudden load drop at ad deop scours and the guide vanes rein 2920 due 10a failure inthe trbine-regulating system, ten es sharply and, after some time, resches the maxima valeg bemoan away speed, feed ‘The runamay speed may be etermined trom the eotrcont y from the corresponding unt speck VWs i seri fubine toate the model is brought tothe ransivay epced tad the charac- tciatiogucve of uit ranaway ape nls oles) hace proves hee latlonship betwoen the unit renaway pets my andthe Budoreeoe cee ‘The ranavay speed of Francis turbines dpends onthe distin weet ing and the hens for Kaplan turbnes it depena'on the rosea ce as well, ae ox ME Nghe runaway seed oocuts when ihe distributor ely open, 68 utor-blade angle connection fails to operat fully open and the runner bladeg being set at a small angle. PL $87 Kaplan runner, for different blade angles q” as ‘fstributor opening. blade angle jcorreaponding to the normal operating conditions of the turbine. ‘The Thnawway speed sneresses with the unit speed 9 family of'm curveu on the universal chart, corresponding to variona nit With Kaplan turbines the highest ruiaway speed is reached ifthe gistra- the distributor remaining ‘The runaway speed may be characterized by the coefficient K, Le. the ratio of runaway to normal speed, commen sprog foc kpi is ate ne ba pues bp anne Figure II.18 represents the runaway-speed characteristic curves for a numaber of Francis runners of the HO 129, RO 211, RO 638, RO 82 and RO 246 types, a6 a function of the distributor opening. itil be seen that ar a rule the runaway speed increases with the specific speed, ‘From this figure tle curves of the ‘anction of the "Figure II19 represents the runaway-speed characte! "These curves show that the highost runaway speed corresponds to small ‘angles 9° and large distribator openings, ‘Such a combination can occur only whea the distributor-runner blade connection falle to operate ‘Normally, sarge distributor opening a, corresponds toa large runner Consequently the ranaway speed depends on the unit speed “Thig Us illustrated by the speede under normal operating condition "The high runaway epood for small runner-blade angles may be explained 32 follows: Figure Ilt20 shows the velocity triangles at the inlet and exit of the Kap= lan runner biades under both normal and runaway conditions, At runaway speed, the peripheral velocities sy, and u,, increase, owing to the apprect= able increase in the relative velocities w,, and w,., and doviate from the Girection tangential to the blade entrance and exit tips, this inereasing the ‘edag losses caused by the water flowing around the blade, [At steady Funaway speed, all the energy is dissipated. Ifthe runner blades are then turned to.a greater angle 4° (Figure Il 20), ‘the conditions of flow around the blade deteriorate, due to the Increase in the angles between the relative velocities wi, wy,anc the corresponding tangents to the blade entrance and exit tips. "The hydraulic losses increase 50 that equilibrium between the driving and resisting moments obtains at low runaway speeds. "On the contrary, if we close the blade opening by re~ ducing the angles 9°. the conditions of flow around the Blade improve {tue tothe decrease in the angle between the relative velocity and the tan gent to the blade profile, The equilibrium condition then obtelns at a higher Funavay speed, This charactoristle feature of the Kaplan turbine — differ~ ent runaway speeds corresponding to different blade angles — must be care Illy considered when designing a turbine and selecting the runaway speed. oo| 2 Le sf i ‘wot Mlle tung, a Ince ops 8 se ain zl ‘sie cue of Kaplon eines fet ate eae ages b= rota ea gy es ara a 0 pete igh s e8 ST OUR 28. Sete nguam of zune wat (etn oe an genet) GRE 28, Sycitewlge of psn a ‘oto aagspecs eeec ‘The increase in runaway speed causes an increase in the centeiugal Ioroze, fect which abould be considered when calculating the strength of BS hs tarbine rotating-parts, ue to the considerable energy losses at runa~ > Way speed, dangerons vibrations of the runner may occur as well. The Ceuielingal forces ane: computed from the formula C= ave, where m= the mass of the rotating parts: 1 = the cade of center of gravity 6 the angular velocsty. ‘The main part af the rotor tats {2 concentrated at it6 rim. Since the = Hm bas a large diameter, the centrifugal forces developing ia the generator ft runaway speed are greater than in the turblae, where the main part of ‘he runner, mass is concentrated close to the axis of rotation, This can be “1. been in Figure lll, 21, ‘Therefore, the selectioa ef the rated runaway speed, trith due allowance for operation or faiture of the distribucor-runuer blade Connection, oF for the existence of a ranaway-protection device (which re ‘duces the runaway speed) Is an important economic consideration, since at low runaway speed, the turbine runger and especially the rotor of the geo erator have simaller over-all sizes and weight, and are less expensive to Sonstruct "The dependence of the specific weight of the generator on the runaway ‘covtficient, plotied according to data from Gidroprockt, i shown in Figure TE 22. If te runaway coefticiont 19 reduced from fy = 2.010 by © 1.5, the weight of the generator may be reduced by about 30%. © “athie characteristic feature of the Kaplan turbine different runaway “speeds corresponding to eifferent blade angles —is used In practice ag 8 iieane to prevent excessive increaze of sped, ‘Thus, Hf the unit reaches the runaway speed, two methods may be used to restore normal conditions: the closing of the runner blades, and the ad _Justment of the runner Blade engle to a greater value /61/'customs ‘gto examlo, Figure IL 18 stow that ifthe gulde-vane opening ie se*99immand the runser-bladeangle @ =O", the runceay geese, tig 838, It the proven Odes ae cliced to an angle @ = =20e, the Fana~ joa apeed rope fo ny, 290. EO ae runner blades are opened up to @ = +15", the rananay speed alsa drops, and equals mas : However, a6 sated bore, an iperease sp the blade angle lends Yo pevarer oe raulic losses aa te water lows arbund the blades and causes vibration ‘80 0.3.5. hydroelectte plante st mas found that sich vibration ceurrea whee the blade angle Jevisted trom the opt im value, The vibration wao totaled {the Tanner and Foto, bat afected te irhole unity and even the bullding, ie larger the unit, the stronger the wibretca, Another drawback of this method Ta the lange amount of water flowing tau the turbine when the guide vanes are oot When the runaway speed In lowered'ey raducing the runoerlade angle "fase Figure ti 29), the blades must be ats z, jusled untit complete closing is obtaised, 95, H tbe Mk atio permits, thdy can bo opened ite Spee ea The water passages ofthe rumer may be completaly Sereda eee Seago CURE. pete of ce twin i ce merce ge Pera, aie ve openings a of he sn carses i Plgace Il. 28 show, that ithe blades have a large coverage Bae wale nmin tt eatle which permis theie adjustment io complete saree, Portion discharge at no-load through the closed blades will be sean ee te distributor fe fulpopen At s certain rate of increase in the normal speod and blade-closing tim 4 the disadvantage of the second tasthod. Cawine Baiders outside U.8.8.R.do, however, use this technique igre to prevent protengod operation al runaway speed, Thee ei ender [At prsssure is supplied tothe aervomator comrolling the adjucioen ae the runner blades, Inotder to reduce the runaway speed of Kaplan turbines, i ie poosibie ‘© use special braking blades located below the rumor or above at Atnermal spec. for stance, these blades are located inthe runner hab, Mon the runner speed increases, the centritigal forces dive theee meses SUowara from their seate into the water stream, where they tron anne ‘ng moment which reduces the runaway secede n runner hub and designed by LMZ. ted in the tio diageam of braking Hades of this type, located soe paiaan oes given in Figure Tl, 24. at norma rae te oring Wades )tarnng ato sai at arma spec teas sre hr i the closon positon by means oF Soppg Hina asking pat @) eee “trie spand cucente the normal velue, the snereased centrifoga in the braking blade overcomes the locking force of the device; the blade opens and eteates a force opposing the rugaer rotation. Pa ; TSG, Home m2, stn of an ype of > twin waking etme wt and wo bn loser fis wi wang ses motors (4) bring th braking blades back into Jr inital position, afer the n¢; these servomotors serve thelt inital position, after the turbine is halted; a ook ebsrbere forte range tne ofl is supplied to, and removed from, the servo through sts carried out by pipe located inthe Nilo shaft of he tubing Model tests carried wat by Lz on the PL201 raneer provided with such a device have shown that ‘the braking blades reduce the maximim runaway speed ty about 3 od by the curves tm Figore i. 2. ¥ the maim uit runway speed of tbe PL 201 rater provided wih der deope fromm, "310 tomy = 223 : Tat emiope © rb Gig prov wi baking bates (ee Pi I 2a) br thio mode was never muamsacred wcnase, dee Nortel Concitiona the moving mechan ofthe rating lade operate ony 2 dom and romain constantly under water, making tt impossible fo jforeover te preseace of braking blades [sable to increase she vi- brations, n‘The prospectuses of the "English Electric Company" list a Kaplan ran- ner with breking blades located above the runner blades. In thie desige the braking blades alzo open under the action of the tenteitugal forces, Sed create @ hydraulic moment opposing that acting upon the rummer blades, Other devices are more frequently used to cotter high runaway. speed Figure Il, 26 shows schematically several antirunaway devices, Plain sliding gaies (Figure Ii, 26, installed in special grooves in front ofthe seroll easing (t) or in the draft tube (2), are still the most widely Used. “The quiokvacting gateb are lifted and lowered by hoists. provided ‘esther with winches driven by electric motors or with hyiraulic torvome~ tors consisting of eylinders with oll~presaure operated pistons. Gates located in front of the scroll easing have greater dimensions and travel, and accordingly higher weight and cost, compared with getes tn stalled in the draft tabs, but they permit complete shuldown of the turbioe, leven if the distributor 12 open. Gates installed im the draft tube are cheaper, but when closed, the fur= bine remains under pressure ifthe distributor is open. This is a majoe drawback of such an arrangement, “Another drawback of gates located in the deaft tube i that their rapid slosing at runaway speed creates an axial lifting force on the rune To prevent this, gate-closing tine mast be lengthened, 1, during operation with distributor open and the generator connected to the network, the gate accidentally drops into the draft tabe, the turbine wil start working as a pump, thus creating an axial force directed upwards, Which is Liable to Lift the rotor, Another device (Figure IIL. 26, ) consists of special streamlined adjus able vanes, located between the stay vanes {i} ani the disteitetor (oh ‘This arrangement forms an emergenay distributor which stops the terbine st runaway when the regslar distributor faila o close, Although this device is reliable and pormita the turbine to stop when the distributor fails to work, it involves a considerable increase Ip turbine Aimensions, weight, and cost. Is 4s an accepted fact ghat the weight of x conventional distributor in @ Jow-head turbine wilh bearing ringand distributor-actusting taochecioia may stain 40% of the total weight of the turbine: : Separate servomotors, installed oa each guide vano, may alec be used ‘8 an antirunaway device. The servomotare may be locates on the tusbive cover-plate, or in the turbine pit (Figure Il 26,0). Servomotors inetstled 4m the pit are more reliable. ‘These servomotors may replace the main gervomstors in an emergencj, not omly for the distributor-actuating mecbanisim, but alse for the eeverve or system, since they are supplied with oll-pressure from a special somes. gency disteibution-vaive, At present, anticunaway devices with separate servomotors are under going practieal trials, ‘The operation of separate servomotors is rendered more dificult by the presence of special breaking elements on the distributor-actusting meen” anism: the vanes mast be separated froin the ring should the gate ring jam, if thin should be effected by breaking the special elements provided for this purpose, sither the separate servomotors mast be made vory Powerful or a special device for discoenecting the vanes from the Jased sate ring has t be fitted, « It is also posatble to use propeller-type servomotors to adjust the guide ‘vanes (Pigure IL. 26, d), but these are difficult to synchronize. Such servo- motors may be used as an antirunaway device ifthe oll is supplied from an ‘emergency distribution valve, ‘At present, the possibility is being investigated of using a self-closing aistrihutor a¢ an antirunaway device, with vanes whose profile 1s designed S01as to develop a hydraulic closing moment at any degree of vane opening. in this case, however, the danger arises of sudden, spoataneces closing of the guide vanes, ‘and appearance of water hacnmer in ihe Water passages, Ditticulties also siem from the fact that the hydraulic thoment exerted on te ‘miide vanes depends upon their position with respect to the stroll casing, %When solving the problem of runaway protection by means of the main Alsteibator, the possibility of opening seyeral vanes simultaneously should be taken {ato account. Consequentiy, the laboratory of the Leningrad Poly techale Institute is carrying out tests fom the model of the PL #98 tunner, in order to determine the rundway speed Feached when several gaide vanes open Simultaneously. ‘The results of these investigations are shown in Figure ill. 27, "The carves show that the runaway speed changes according to the numn~ ber of open guide vanes from 160 J hit, 12 Hi, = 100, The normal unit seed eae 140." Consequently, when a mali mmber of guide vanes are open, the speed of the turbine, running at no-load, is cloce to ite normal value twill thus be seca that the prob- lem of runaway speede and axtiruna way devices has no generally-applicable solution, and has tobe solved for every case separately according to the local comitions, oi a a pees Une et. Degen oft st nove {pred ont erase mpeg fale ‘en tombe + of ope pse-tae ‘The maximum permissible stress e for static loads is usually determined fas a function of the yield point trom the formula hela ENS conpnen, om gestae fy 1.81026 Iie it tends gerne aes HE 3 Tak eos alse tec Gas ee ees more than 108 for nonferrous metals), 7 tees a say fd tne at pn rene sue free ace ite Um ofeasun caiete ee Sein ee a iano Me ae errno Smaller values are accepted for In turbine construction, detinite values are used for the perinissible atreases in the various turbine components, : Tin designing facbine components according to the basic principles of the strength of meterials and the thoory of elasticity, designara tant to adopt the highest values for permisaible otresses as a strength ersterion, which hae a major shortcoming, Although it characterizes the stato of stress 12 the turbine component subject to load, it does not reflect she actual capacity Df the part to withstand the load, It would be more correct in this respect fo design for strongth according to limiting stress by resorting to the tneory Of plasticity which permite an estimate of the load-carrying capacity of a given component, ite actual ultimate strength, and its eapacity to withstand Toads, This method, however, is not widely ssed in turbine constraction, where the "elassical’ methods of design according to the maximum per~ misaibie stresses are still current, ‘The strength calculations of mmerous turbine components subject to coniplox and nonsniform stress conditions, presenta number of difficulties "This requires a knowledge, not only of Ue loads under steady-state condi~ tions, but algo of those occurring during cegulation under transient operating conditions, ‘The computation is rendered aven more difficult by the com plicated shapes and large sizes of the parts. Therefore, approximate computation methods based on practical experi~ once are often used in the design of new turbines. Tn order to determine the degree of accuracy of these approximate com patation methods, use if made of data furaished by experimental analysis Sf stresses and strains in machine parts 1m the désign ofhigh-power turbines, experimental stress analysis 4s especially necessary for components of intricate shape subject to com plex stress combinations, ‘Various methods are used in experimental stress analysis: strain meas ‘urements, the method of coating, light pelarization, photoelastieity, etc. in turbine construction, techniques of lacquer coating and electrical strain measurement are widely used io testing models or prototypes. ‘The first method consists of coating the component to be tested with a ‘strainsensitive laequer, which hardens on drying. ‘On subsequent loading oF the part, elastic tensile strains occur on the tacquercoated surface when these stralns reach a value critical for the Incquer used, they produce visible cracks in the coating, The valve of the rupture strain «,=—$¢ for the given lacquer is called the coating "constant" I Js essential that the lacquer coating constant be smaller than the straine to be expected in the component being tested, ‘The laequer-coating method provides en owerall stress picture and gives the principal stress directions, Iv results are accurate to within 10 to 20%, If greater accuracy is required, further measurements are made Sy means of wire-type strain gages cemented to the part along the principal (tress directions (normal and tangential to the crack lines in the coating) ‘The method of direct strain measurement consists of cementing a strain~ sensitive device, called a resistance'wire gage, to the surface of the com~ ponent.” This ovcalled active gage, together with an identical one for ther fel compensation, and two adjustable reoistances (mounted on the meas ring device) constitute @ measuring bridge. Tho thermal compensationlement is set for the same temperature conditions a8 the active strain ‘age, but is not connected to dhe component to be tested, thus eliminating errors dus to temperature fluctuation, Upor deformation, the gage length and the cross-sectional area of the active strain gage change, aid With them ite electrical Pesistance, “The change in the resistance of the active gage which is connected to one of the bridge arms disterbs the bridge balance. The strain in the part being tested is determined by means of this electrical imbalance, ‘The gage consists of a long, thin wire looped back andforth, bonded toa paper backing. Usually, constantan or nichrome wires are used with a Giameter of 10 10 60p. The gage length is 5 10 20mm, sometimes atieining 50mm, The ohmic resistance of the gage usually varies between 70 and 2000hm. or short-time measurements, the gege is bonded to the componsint by means of s special cement consiating of a solution of 5 — 8% celluloid in acetone, For more extended measurements, other igpes are used, 8 silicone glycerol-phialate (No. 1927}, BP, and methanol-base cement, be cause celluloid-base coment Le not heat-resistant and starts to flow. The ‘strain gage is sensitive to both tension and compression of the metal, ated to statle as well as dynamic atrain Beside strains, water pressure and vibration occurring under aormat Conditions should also be measured, Special pressure wad vibration gages, installed af various pointe of the stationary or rotating parts, are used for this purpose ‘The sensing eloment of the pregoure gage ie s membrane. Water prt sure deforms the membrane whicl has a strain gage fastened to ity inner surface. The pressure gages are installod in apecisl goats provided in the art, so that the membrane {s flush with the gurface of the component, ‘The leads from the gages are laid in a brass tube, For measurement of vibrations in the frequency range 20 ~'1,200¢, piezoceramic gages are used. The vibration transducer is fastened tothe ‘component to be tested, Inside the transducer body, am inertia mass ia supported ty pleroelectrie plates made of quarts or other materials, ‘When the component vibrates, the pressure exerted on the plates by the , ‘masa is proportions! to the acceleration, the reeult being am electromotive force propertional t9 the pressure. Protection of transducers and cables against the high velocity of the water stream around the turbine parts is essential. For this purpose, ‘metal plates and clamps, resin coatings, and special cements are used. ° Uswally, a large mmber of transducers are installed simultaneously Multiple-point strain measurements are carried out by successively ‘connecting the transducers to tke measuring instrument through plug-ie ‘switehes (for 20 ~ 80 gages) or remote-control switches (for 100 — 150 gages). The remote-contrel comnautatingswiteh consists of contacts and * control board interconnected by cables. For strength tests on models, plastic® auch as the cast phenol plastics and plewiglass are suitable, Blocks of cast phenol plastics and pleaiglass are weed to manufacture models of thick-walled parta, Plexiglass sheets, machined and cemented, are used for models of the welded and thin-walled parte, 3 ‘ “The characteristice of these materials are given in Table Ill. 6. Batereeeseeesteatereeceteseoereiseiceerrgeeeitetterrosee vues | Paton | ig. | Mato | ASSP] set men | eee) Nee | Sse reams wane Ee ee ee aa eee eee aaa ‘The total loxd on the model is determined from the ratfo of the Toad act= ing on the prototype Pp, to the oiting stresses ts both the model end proto ‘ype materials ong, and opr apd from the seale ratio « of the geometrical Similarity, by the formula Poot (ES Fe SE eee ete tise ers aa aT ase ti cutee ma SE ee ee esate baht sei oe Sommrenie wane, ude rng ot et tenemos ng abet nt tt Pensa aig erm eras kee eet eae ne eam yptect at oun realest ee where £ = modulus of longitudinal elasticity: fh = Poisson's ratio for the material Of the model Model teste are also important for measurements on prototypes, since they mace it poasiale to find the most highly stressea regions where meas~ urements have to be carried out on the prototype turbine, and to reduce the somber af transducers in places where their installation is dfticult "The methods of stress analysis on models made of materials with & low modiius of elasticity were devited, verified, and applied for the first time at the strain and streas laboratory of the Inetimte of Machines of the Acade~ ty of Sciences of the U.S.5.R. (/18/./T1|-‘The same institute also developed methods and test equipment for multi~ ple-point strain, pressure, and vibration measurements under normal opera tig contitions.” ‘The work was carsied out by NI, Prigorovakii, GE. Rudashevakil, M.L. Daichtk, and others, in cooperation with LAIZ special~ {sts V.A. Nemm and M.S, Kustanovieh, in connection with the design of range turbines. ‘Several stationary and rotational tarbine parts, such as runner blades, ‘shaft, cover plats, throat ring, ete,, were investigated on full-size turbines, lunder various operating conditions and during regulation, Many comoli- ‘cated problems consected with the specific conditions of turbine operation Insd to'be solved in the course of this research, Some of these problems ‘were: the fastening and protection of the transchicers and the connecting cables against water flow and mechanical dauaage without affecting the Streamlined shape of the turbine parts; the length of the cables required 4 connect the gagos to the recording equipment; the difficulty tn carrying ‘out moasuremonts on turbines oparating according to the schedule of the ‘connected power grid In strain, pressure, and vibration measurements of rotating turbine parts, e.g., runrer blades, certain difficulties may arige in the fixing land removal of the cables connecting the transchcers to the recording ‘equipment, located a considerable distance away (up to 50m) in the turbine Foom. ‘The connaction between the rotating and stationary parte fa effected by means of a current collector, located on the turbine abeft either above the exeiter or above the oll-supply head. ‘The danger of damaging the transdkcers and the cables is aggravated by the possibility of cavitation. Hence, the pressure, strain, and vibra ‘lon transducers must be sealed az tightly 42 posaible, securely at tached, andwell protected against mechanical damage. ‘The best way to fiz the transducers to the surface of the turbine part ie by means of methanol- base cement, oF by electrical welding. It is convenient to cover the gages with sheets about | mm thick and 10mm wide, electrically welded to. ‘he turbine part, “The brass tubes containing the leads from the strain tages have to be grouped together and fastened to the aurface of the turbine art, (eug., the blade) by means of clamps made of a thin nichrome strips, ‘The tube bundles must be covered with welded steel plates, ‘The projecting ‘ends of the tubes should be coated with methanol-base cement containing 150 ~ 50% dry river-sand, ‘Te preagure and vibration gages for the distributor are ftted into threaded holes prepared beforehand, and fixed in the manner previously described. In the turbines of theVolga hydroolectric plant tment Lenin, the brass tubes containing the cables ware fastened along the blade and Ted out to the belt heads, where contacts for conection with the cables paseing through the runner hab were provided. ‘The space around the bolt heade vas filed with a special putty, hermetically sealing the eable inlet to the hub. All eables pascing through the hub should be properly ineulated to en~ sure prolonged operation in oil. Ie Francis turbines, i {9 easy to lay the cables from the runner Blades through the hollow shaft. In Kaplan rbines [49], where the shaft bore ie used for the piston rode of the ranner biadé adjustment system, it 1s more convenfent to lay the cables through the flange connections between the turbine shatt and the runner, 22 was tone in the turbines for the Tsimlyanel and Narva hydrocloctric plants (Sigure lI. 26). ‘The current collector is located beside the turbine pearing. Th the design of the turbines for the Volga hydroelectric plant iment Lenin, provision was made for laying the cables inside the sbatt, thus Simplifying cabte installation. The cables ran along the shaft axis toward the current collector located above the oll~supply head. Their layout i8, Shown in Pigare il, 20, Current collectors located above the generator Ptauire tmaiter dimenatona than those located arcund the shaft which inno a large diameter, andtheir construction is simpler and less expensive, CURE 28 Cable pot nui oe Tanta ita yaaeecse pao LIMZ. carried oxt the most complete mulliple-point measurements in its history when teating the turbinea for the Volga bydroelectric plant smeni Lenin, voing oquipment dazigned by G. E, Rudashevsisi. The basic elements of the new measuring eysteme are: 1} strain, pressure, and vibration transducers, locsted on the runner blades: arFeataus-yp exons setag HOWE ML 2%, Cable you in he ube of te Vag Malet lanes eta 2 2) witching nits located inside the runner hab 5) current collector, located onthe generator shaft above the oil-supply heads ‘) control switchboard, strain and pressure compensating elements in~ luted in the awitenboare, Loop oscillograph, and other devices located {nthe turbine room, The schematic layout of the equipment ig shown ia Figure IM. 30. cethe new measuring equipment made & possible to obtain cyclic accord” ‘ings by merely pushing the starting button on the control switehooard, The gages were connected fo the measuring channels according to a predeter~ fnined program by meane of special switches, The signals (rom the gages were amplified and recorded by the lcop osellographs. Time marks, ‘ur binespeed valves, and scale pulses, permitting correct Interpretation of the oseillograms, were recorded at the same time on the oscillograph tapes. In order to protect the measuring chanaels against environmental inter ference, shielded ables were used for all connections. ett wane CS a of 12 aos” Ce a, aUee HL teem yn ethene fo mieten a, pe ‘cameo we oaks sen clan 9 hag ast) 4 nde gi Eamon paper Tonmiocio emt plesy le tio aaa ‘con earls far mesrng eeu se eran oro-hngel en fer tn esesen 10 Toho bie tie sea menneneas, —wsabograa fora cage 2 yee, I wohagetiel neta fr penne mecntemen earl ca for te cc cima eae fr aon nemereecsyworbae! a fr vnatn cee $Htvmnagefahllans eter fer veatonewstemeat lagna hon ovg So-ovoshune si fer pate nese With the aid of this equipment, specialists at the Volga hydroelectric plant iment Lenin investigated the forees acting on the tanner blades and ‘on the throat-ring shell and determined the strains and stresses occurring fn the blades and hatte ander the following operating conditions 1) starting andl stopping of the turbines; 2) no-load conditions ana synchronisation; 2) turbine operation at various power outpute: 25, 30, 75, 100, and 176 Mw; %4) transient conditions during speed regulation; 5) load drops, 125, 09, 60, and 30 Mew. Sixty prosaure gages, 80 strain gages, and 10 vibration gages were ‘mounted on the blades, ‘The pressure transducers wore placed on three cylindrical sections of ‘the blade: at the base, in tho middle, and on the periphery, ‘The strain and vibration traneducers were located at the strongest straine and vibratio As a result of investigations rade at the above plant, some 400 oseitlo~ ‘grams and a few thousand measured values'for strain, peessare, aod vibra Hon under widely differing operating conditions were collected, Similar, but less extensive, investigations were carried out at the Tsim= lyansk, Narva, Daieper, and Nivaydroclectric plante, All these not only furnished valnable roveronce data on the stresses acting onthe tarbine-unlt ‘components, but were iso of grest importance for gensral research oa tar bine operating conditions, In order to illustrate the data obtained by measurements on full-size turbines in operation, Figures Il, 1, Ill, 32, and Ui. 39 are given se examples. ipts subject to [GUA uot, The vhs ofA 9, Pa igure IIL 81 shows the curves (for the Kaplaa turbine at the Nacve HEP) fof the dependence of torque Mf, speed a, blade preseare P, and sircavee @ at a certain point of the blade, ‘on time f daring the load increase, and When the turbine 15 brought to rest Figure Ill. 32 shows the Lines of equal specitle loads on the turbine blade at the uurbines of the Volga hydroslectrie plant, for'a power output of 1 = 50,000%0 Figure {. 98 shows the lines of equal principal stresses on the upper side of a blade of the turbine at the Volga hydroelectric plan atanounut 25,000kw, Location of gages is also shown, a es 32, nes ett ee od a dt fhe ae Voge yo ‘es Volga lpdecetectee plat, ats beIn turbine construction, photoelastic strain measurements are Jess (re quently used in model testing than direct strain measurements. ‘The prin- iple of photoelastie measurement is based on the fact that most transparent i207 tropic materiale become birefringent when subject to strain, The changes in the optical characteristics of the loaded transparent model are measured at various points, tus permitting the atreases to be ascertained, ‘The models made of transparent materials are Toaded exactly asthe pro towype turbine part, The materials used for models are celluloid, phevol plastics, or similar materials. When unloaded they are Isotropic, and Light propagates throvgh them unpolarized, 7 es OURE 9 foteaye UASREE: Iclge mien, Sines, Sonoe mis manny Soahaogie som ig ae ae Photoslasticity tests are carried out by means of a polariacope, In the polarigeope, the iight (generally monochromatic) passing through the 90° Tarizer, becomes plane-polarized, ‘and on passing farther through the (eni Sotropie) stressed model, emerges with the propagation velocities in two planes at right angles to each other depending on the stresses. ‘The vibra~ Hon planes for each wave coincide with the planes of-action of the two Erin cipal stresses (e, and 9,). AS a consequence of the differenee In velocities, 4 linear phase shifting occurs between the two rays, proportional to the dif- ference between the principal stresses. ‘A second polarizer (called the analyzer), located behind the model, re~ combines the two waver and throws onto the screen an image of the model ita dark sed Light fringe patterns of different widths, corresponding te the Gistribution of the stresees in the model, “The schematic layout of the polariscope unlt is chowe in Figure 101.34, with the following notations: $ light source, P —polarizer, model, - jerneath is a view of the potari~ ‘Aranatyzer, B—viewing gerecs. Underneath rote ACRE Gy tesh (ASHE? typed with ao activenfietd diameter of seme, “The anit is Mlaeninatad by & swith 180% 18D am photographic camera JAgrOX TOO may, the unit cam be located ia damp of high lightintensty and is provided = ‘Owing to its small size (3360% Telatvely small rom.Chapter v DESIGN AND SELECTION OF ‘THE WATER PASSAGES OF THE TURBINE In rosction turbines, the water entore through casings or uines, ex tremely diverse both in shape and desiga, ‘These may be open flumes, cylindrical,or soroll easinge {made of concrete or metal) ‘The type of casing depends on the size of the turbine and on the water head (precsure), Figure IV. 1 chows the fields of application of various types of casings, ‘tepentiing upon the turbine output and head, ‘Open umes are used only for small turbines with runner diameters of up to 1.2m and heads up to 8 or 6m, ‘To obtain favorable hydraulic characteristics, relatively larze casings ‘are required to prevent the water velocity from éxceeding I m/sec, The ‘width (B) of the easing (ina plane normal to the turbine center Line) shoald bbe no legs than 213. For higher heads, the over-all sizes of open fumes become go large that cylindrical or gorolt casings become preferable, Cylindrical atecl casinge with frontat water inlet are used for Hovizontal- ‘shaft turbines with runner diamotera of 0.5 to L.0m fm the range of heeds Trom 5.5 0 28%, 80 ‘The most common type of casing fa the seroll type (Figure 1V. 2). The radial erges-sostional area af the gcroll decreases uniformly trom the en trance toward the tip (nose). The spoed ring, which carries the turbine, is peated inelde the casing, with the dietelbator incido it, The speed. ring consists either of separate well-streamlined columua (atay vases) oF of & firoular piece consisting of an upper and a lower ring and the stay vanes, In conerete scroll casings the speed Ping tranemite the load feom tre seroll ceiling to the foundation of the casing, ‘The spsed ring in metsl casings te the framework which holds together the entire casing. ‘The scroll casing ensures satisfactory water inflow with the smetlest overvall casing sige. In well designed casings, the loseee are very small, Unlike open fumes and cylindrical casings , tho ccroll casings persit mony ‘components of hydraulic turbines to be located outside the water ow, is, 2, Sol ep Scroll casings are made of concrete or steel, depending onthe avatlable head. Concrete casings with T-shaped cross section are weed for heade up te 40m. For heads above S0m, round, welded or cast casings are wacé Siphon-type seroit easings are used only for very low heads. Thie type of casing permits installing even Targe turbines below the headwater level without Targe-seale excavation work,NR AR ARAN ‘The ceiling of the siphon casing is located above the headwater level: the siphon is filled with water by means of an efector or a vacultn painp, Pigure IV. 3 shows schematically a siphon-type scroll casing, CURE IV. Somes aout of sip seat ea For auccesstl imctioning of te siphon, the vacuum (negative pressury) atthe highest poi of the flow ahead ofthe runner must be fo Week Incertatn sipnon-type castnge developing a considerable vaceures he water fow ini te trbine may be stoped ty ecmiting at ‘Toe overval sie (8) ofthe casing (igure IV. 2) depends on the one veloping angle (also called "nose angle”), Gm, of the spiral and on the Inietctoss-sectional aren, whieh in tara depends on the selected water” * velocity Y, at the entrance. and onthe discharge, Figuse'tV.2 shows design of several serall casings wth ifferentnose angles aad cross-sectional shapes. Circular stsel scrolls for meaium-nead ‘ $d high-head tines uovaly have enveloping angles ap 10 ean 343 360". “Low-head turbines with concrete scrolls ave an envellping angie fou % 100" oF even tess, FIGKREW.4, Compution Seinen tonal se flea te tet cos esos ee Tn); fr dierent so “te ne eo A large nose angle of the spiral requtres inoreased casing-width 3. ‘Too width (B) ig the sum of the epeed-ring dlameter D, and the eimen= ‘stone in the horizontal plane of the eroea sections land li. it {s obvious that the discharges through the eross vections Land I, and consequcnty, their dimensions, diminish with the angle, "The cross-sectional shape of the scFall also affects the magnitude of B. ‘The magnitudes of B for clrevlar and T-shaped oasings are shown in Figure lV.a = ‘The circular cross section has tho largest entrance radius (R), lace the-'-shaped erogs section is narrower and elongated in the vertical plane both in the upward and the downward direction, ‘Alterative designs of tho T-shaped eros section of seroll castage in common use are shown in Figure IV. 5. With respect tothe distributor cen erline, the cross sections are symmettical (a) and ssymametrieal (ood), ‘The ratio between dimensions m and = depends onthe design ofthe powerhouse substructure and the location of the turbine equipment. ie i = =a Sov 9 FIGURE, &, Degavtne forthe Tataged oe nn of ‘ttt sl ergs AI thete erogs sections are almost equivalent hydraulically. The crose section with a lat ceiling is moro convenient for the layout of the turbine luni equipment, "With thio particuler cross section it ig easier to locate passageways to the turbine pit, and to install the auxiliary equipment and the pipes. However, as this type of easing ie at a considerably lower elevation, the distance between the bottom of the scroll casing and the ceiling of the horizontal diffuser (enlarged section) of the draft tube might prove lnsut= ficient, aTRA ea eee Authough the upward-clongated asymmetrical shape makes the layout of the turbine equipment inside the pit more dificult, # leaves mote free space between the seroll and the draft tube; thia miy be vaed to accomodate lilleries for the dlecharge of floodwater through the powerhouse. In selecting the dimensions of the seroll-cating entrance section, o8- pecially for m= 0 or m0, care should be exercised to prevent the cross section from becoming too nerzow. The following proportions between « and b, resulting from practical experience, are often used (Figure IV. 8): for n= Oorm=0 Bans—is: for a>0orm>a fb atteth i520, [A tanger ratio between 6 aad ¢ ahould be employed when tt Is imperative te obtain a emailer serall-eaaing wisth 2. ¥ ‘The following valuee for the tiper (coniety) of the scroll angles are recommento Be 200 35": Y= 20% 35 formen; Yo 10020 form >a Y* 10% 18 form = 0, ‘The dlameters D, and D, of the circles formed by the leading and ‘wailing edges of the stay vanes (see Figures 1V.2 and IV, 5) depend on the runner diameter (Dy). “Table 1.1 glyes the values of these diameters as a function of the run nner dimensions, according to LIZ, data, ‘A number of seroll casings used in practice are given a8 examples. ‘The schematic layout of the scroll easing for the turbines vf fhe Uglich HEP is showa in Figure IV.6. ‘The enveloping angie @* (92°. The eacing hes s T-shaped eros section and a fat ceiling. Two 2 m-thick columns called piers, are provided at the casing inlet section to reduce ita internal opening. ‘The distances from the turbine center line to the trailing ages of the piers are 10,500 and 11,000mm and were selected so es to leave aut- ficient apace for the water entering the casing, Ae shown in the figure, one of the piors hae an inclined traiting edge (eee projection (a) in Figure 1V 6) parallel to the seroll cone goneratrix, for the same purpose Figure 1.7 shows the design of a turbine scroll casing ot the Volga EEP. “To suit construction conditions, the turbine design had lo provide for & aymmotriosl layout of the turbine unit, with the center line passing through ‘he middle of the turbine bay. A soroll easing with an enveloping sogle = 180° would not meet thie requirement, A sorall casing with an eavelop~ ‘ng angle q * 185°, with the bottom of the floor eloping gradually, wes there fore used. One dividing pier was provided at the casing entrance, ‘The scroll shape determines bath location and shape of the stay vanes, As well 26 the load on them. Hence, tho design of the epeed rig has to Se coordinated with the design of the easing. Speed-ring design will be'con- Sidered i a separate chapter of this book ‘Steel scroll casings with circular cross section, for medium heads, are made of steel plates welded to the speed ring. Formerly, the plates were Hiveted. "The schematic layout of this casing i@ shown in igure IV. 8,8 plan and 2 croas section of the welded casing are shown in Figure IV.9. ‘This cooing ie intended for a turbine operating at = 100e. Direct Dyed Dy, a nen of fo nds ss nes oni mer dace Sie e fsaw | coo | 10 | ann | cooe | sto] ase | arn | sooo Dian ofc oes te reve eo Pitan eta Dereemererreeeesof3tso | on | sae } aio | arse | moo} ato | amo | ace by mxedg apne iageapet Dy, mm |2060 | ano | evo | sean | see | sreo] age | asco | sane aymecoring eye | ay Dito cists. [68 foo | sa | os | ero | xno] ere | ne | see fino fen byaeeiag sayrare : kageiger Basan | 6250 fase | oon | a0 | reo | atao} suo hove | ase fase fcr [As shown in Figure IV. 8, proceeding from eros section No, toward the seroti-easing nose, the cross sections change gradually from circular tooval. This is necessary to ensuire a cross section of required avea at the seroll-casing nose. Ifthe cross sections near the nose (e.g., sections 23 or 24) were also efreular, there would not be enough space leit for them between the circular entrance section and the speed ring. ‘The spiral con: tour is represented on the plan View by a broken line from sections | to 23 instead of being shown by the theoretical curve. ‘The scroll casing may letsily be constructed from conically rolled plates. the spiral easing sections were not made of fla plates, but, as demended by theory, of curved ones, they would have to be stamped instead of rolled, which would require large quantity of expensive stamping dies, ‘The replacement of the curvilinear contour of the spiral by a polygonal contour soaroely alfecte ecnditions of water flow. ‘The nutuber of sections ig solectad so as to make the contour eutficlently smooth, Each cross section requires plates of different thickness, The plates ‘at the entrance secticn are 30mm thick, becoming thinner ay the cross= sectional area decreases, until they reach S~ 16mm at the spiral nose, Ia apirals with a full opening angle (9*) all the speed-ring siay-vanes have the same profile. cy"GLAE V7, Srl Sag fer kits of he Voge HEP nen ena 96i ae 3h mes, eae 98 cf seed rt aig Depending on the dimensions of the entrance cross tection and the i= mensuns of tho scroll itself, the speed ring 1a mace of a single piece or meeiGral clemenis, The amber of elements iz decided upon according or eso transportation facilities available (rail or Water), The welded scrolls Ge Sescmbled in auto, At the factory, only the first scroll ofa batch is filly asscrebled (Figure IV. 10) in order to check the drawings of the plate fevelopmonts, and fo fit the sections together. They are welded into sec~ ‘idee suitable cor transportation to tae erection site. As for the rest of the “onotts, only that part of the scroll nose Which Is most complicated in shape SE tesembied at the factory. Since the scroll s welded. in situ, and the Molded pints get no subsequent heat treatment, the welding electrodes Ind the material have to be carefully selected. For the erection of large~ Sie scrolls, special tightening bolts, jacks, and other equipment must be ‘Sovided to faciiitate correct assembly. ‘The dimensions of scroll casings Rive increased considerably in recent yeirs, due to the coostruction of large turbines. Plates have algo become thicker. Since it has proved to bbe more difficult to roll the thfoker plates in existing plate-bending rollers, fhioner plates with clbs are aow being used ln scroll construction. ‘The schematic layout of this (pe of scroll is shown in Figure TV. 11. In this Gesign, however, the total weight of the metal and of the electrodes used {ncreases, ‘The plate thickness for welded scrolls is selocted according to internal water pressure only, since the ecroll casing is « thin shell and Canaot withstand external weighls without buckling, ‘Therefore, the scroll Sasing 1s installed so that its upper part is open. If the scroll is embedded fa concrete. an elastic layer should be provided between the scroll surface and the concrste foupdation to protect the acroll casing from the.wefght of the concrete, ‘The conorete layer above the scroll is arch-shaped arid sup~ ported outside the seroll. o”URE V1. Dela a wld wl sing whe CCast~steel scroll casings are used for high-head turbines (Figure V.12). ‘A hlgh-head turbine is usually characterized by a amall water discharge, fhe entrance cross section of the scroll thus becoming rather small, Be-! cause of the high head, the scroll walls have to be very thick. To facilitate allroad transportation of cast-steel serolls, they are uaually made of ‘Several sections dividedalong radial planes andholted together at the lenges. Figure IV. 12 shows a scroll casing of « turbine (or & head of 200 Cast seroll casing usually serves ae support for the turbine and accom modates the distributor, servomotors, guide bearings, and other compo~ nents. Therefore, boctes and projections for locating the sezvonotors ‘and conneotiona for the pressure regulator and other parts should be pro- vides on the aevell, Cast screll casing’ are usually completely machined at the factory, whore the temporary assembly for inepeetion purposes, and hydraulic tests according tothe standards inforce, are algo esrried out, 98 When designing & cast scroll easing for higahoade, consideration must be given not only to the atrength of the walls, but algo fo the rigidity of the = flange connections, If the latter are too thin and inauifieleaty rigid, they sight not ensure sufficient tightness of the whole assembly, ‘Usvally, east scroll casings are not completely embedded in concrete, but are elther laid on a ring-shaped conerete foundation or partially embed= dee in it. tn designing & scroll casing the firetparameter tobe established is the water discharge. Unvaly, the serolt te designe for a discharge Which Corsceponds te the maximum power output ualer the Fated head, The socol Shay slo be designed for a ciscnarge corresponding (othe maiimum eff leney. In tis chae the distension wil be fers. ft is soonetimes neces Sanyo design the scroll forthe mesimumevischarge corvesponsing fo tne fled power under the minimte head, in whieh ease the dimensions wil increase, For the denign of easing, the Glasharge shoul be rected c+ cording to steney operating conditions "The water flow inthe sero casing should be axiayrmieteicat snd form a potential vorter “Toe mersian section of th scroll is selected oo tat the water flows uniformly around the circamseronce ofthe distribu In our words, the {Stoming condition should be satisties ca ‘=, aD where Qy* the discharge through the méridian section ofthe were, cor- tesponaing fo the nose angie gs Q= (ott alecharge through he farbine. Knowing the turbine discharge, the slscharge through the srell entrance ‘Ssction'nay be determined socordng tote noes angle “Te entrance eroat=neetinal ares (fy) te éatortined according tothe predetermined (given) mean velocity ate enteance section ‘After selecting the sage ofthe geoll cross avcton, the entrance erose section may be etlevlated from he hiswn vase of Fig he adopted oo tance evans section determines the adjacent sestcr's raquires to sietibute the water uniformly around the whole dsribaos elreunference, “The tyerauie competation of the sera easing according the relation” hig 7» const. proceeds fromm the assumption thet won 8 fad flows Sround sn sue, toe momentot momentum ofeach particle is constant the Ligeia, flowing through the apie. pevYorms no work at al, butte merely Cats to whit! by the saroll end distributor. the whirling flow changes ts ‘momentum ony en entering te runner, thus causing the trbine rane to AS was found by practical experience, thi method of computation is sulteble for nose nies @ 190, ant ensures @serol ahape wi tle neray losses for properly selected velocities, thus imparting high ef- ficiency tthe tachine 99‘The mean velocity at the entrance cross section of the scroll is selected according to the head: ty AV. = ‘For concrete scroll casings = 0.0 to 1.1; for metal aerolls & = 0.8 to 10. [At each point of the flow in the scroll casing, the water velocity may be ‘dwided into tWo componente: the radial velocity 9¢ directed along the reais toward the turbine center line, aad the peripheral velocity »,, normal to the radius Figure 1V. 2) 7 he relat weet fo neat avn where @» discharge through the turbine: D,* diameter of circle formed by trailing edges of stay vanes; 2, © distributor height ‘The radial velocity component should be constant, to ensure a uniform water flow around the whole circumference of the distributor, [At each point, the peripheral velocity should obey the law af constant i y= const = K, 2 where 1 = distance from the turbine ceniey Line to the polat considered: é = a constant of the spiral casing. Consequently, the discharge through ay. section F having an outer radios R equal ut { ‘consequently, ow ava ‘The discharge through the entrance section of the terol, corresponding to the largest nose angle @yu15, cue Seen f be, os with known discharge trough the entrance section Q.,. and given enmance velocity and section shape, the entrance cross-sectional ai ‘on and the scroll constant K can easily be determined, “The position in the horizontal plane of other similar scroll sections 1 then calculated. Caleulations for seroll casings of T-shaped ross section. It is easier to calculate con crete geroll casings of T-shapedcross section by the graphic-analytical method, as follows. One draws the entrance section ABCHDE (igure IV. 13) 50 that the discharge Qq may pass through Kt with velocity” ep be determines the position on plane of the other sorell cross sections, ‘Changes in the section dimenaions are cal ‘culated according to a given law. For instance, {he location of the exterior angles shouldbe on the lines A@ and Eff or on curves, such a parabolas, “Assuming preliminarily the constant K= 1 in the formula (IV. 8), we obtain faa Bt. ~ ‘Tis integral Sa calguated by # graphical method, The velvon fas a function of radius ER tor the entrance aeGtion and for tne inter= Iediata sections 1,2,5, and 4, are laid of on Onf(8) hye tho vertical to an arbiteary Seale. 2 ‘The areas bounded by the curves. mab peri, [Yo mymah, mand murah, mre and by the axis of o aril represent te aiecharges Mand @, for K= 1 through the above base) ‘After determining the ares imaab.with due Ta] regard forthe svioatedaoate, te ree ofthe he constant K may be ealvelated from K =e. rove 0.22. cnghieaayie —_-Kaowingtbo value of K, one may also determine CAlcomptninrofeanewte soe! he true values Of 4 Key Oy = Key da = KO ‘ang for a= eat ‘and g= Kd “The curve Q = f(R) may be plotted (see Fig- ‘ure IV.12) from the caloviated 7alue# gag, dy, 4s do Gand the correspond Ing radi Res Ry, Ray Ror Re I tated by the formula ga 28, tg ploted on 1 The curve g=f(R), ealenlated by the fc 2B, ts plotted on the ame diagram, It is obvious that for 1g" 0 the discharge q+ 0, and that the radios Ra corresponds to the angle fag‘The mean velocity through each section 4s calevated from the relation i ship ag. where F; is determined by the geometrical direnstons of the sections. The velocity nis plotted to an arbitrary scale on the ordinates corre~ sponding to each ection, and then eutve 4.4) io dra nt OTE Using the curve @.~7 8), we may plot the spiral contour in the horizon tal plane, as well as its dimensions determined for each section. ae Sometimes, scroll casings are computed assuming the velocity ds~ tetaton tobe tnifray or ting constantly towaed Ge soled eee methods are not contmon in Soviet practice!” ere a = Computation of scroll casings with circa cross section, Steel scrot! i cesings with circular cross section usually have a nose angle of about 960%, fg are computed asouming 07 = const, ‘Tho dimensions ofthe circular sections are usually determined aniyt 5 cally, noe ie gute easy to eatetate the vate of fu Satie way i According to the designations in Figure IV. 14, we have (By +0- ane. By determining the value of & from this relation and inserting ft inthe Sntoarat f $d, we obtain 3 Pt [VERTHa tm olcte VEGF By inserting the value of the integral in the relationship (IV. 4), weobtals ave i ‘Tho discharge through the entrance cross section of the serolt on = OF. For the permissible mean valusof velocity tq, the sectioned | Fada = Se whence ou VS ' 102 ‘The constant € may be calculated by Inserting the values for the en~ ‘veloping angle and the radius of the entrance cross section Qu, into the WGahcnship (IV.6). "The reiationahip (IV.6) glvee the value of e for any fection, determined by the angle oS ~ne quition CV.) makes i possible to calculate the radius ofthe circular” ‘efoss section of the scroll case for the angles q, and to determine Rade try The calevlation is usually tabulated? . nt | VaE els ‘The wplral contour in the horizontal plane may he drawn from the data in this table wea Roetn a conpuaton tthe ol evsag le ‘Tae goroll easinghas.a considerable influence On the losses in the disirib- ator and runner. Analyzing the experimental data obtained én the LMZ laboratories, A. Yu. Kolton points out that scroll caslags of ditierent shape, ‘with diferent nose angles, guide the flow toward the distributor uoder dif ferent angles of attack, thus causing different losses in the distributer. Tastnuch as the angle of aftack changes with the variation ia the degres of thedistributor opening, an optimum opening of tre distributor for a cer tain given shape of the guide vanes exists for each scroll casing. ‘There is an optimum range of discharges for each shape of scroll casing, within which higher turbine efficiencies may be obtained than for any other Shape and almensions itis ther possible —within certain limits, of course —to adapt the region of optimum efficiencies to corresponding discharges by choosing a suitable seroll casing. it as also found experimentally that the discharge capactty of a turbine zea nat depend upon the scroll caning, since the diacharge through the renner fe cetormined solely ty the direction of the flaw prior to entry; thie direction Aepends entirely on the distributor, which acts like a relatively dense radial blade cascade. 103Investigations were ctrries out tne LMZZIboratoiee ino the effet of a aeratincaving nose angle on Yeiocty ttetutions, sn aa eae ished fact hatin th serattonting he Fadia snd poripheras velocity sepo~ tenta gana are almort safer, Siseinates ashe te tetsbvtcr ci sumference, and colnclae wilh he rated aloes “The disrination ofthe velocities my Ely and’ is nonuniform in hat port of te etaariner sachet attbutr periphery aot enecloped sp ‘oreesryseicat” Whe aeroll “At ihe casing ale te pe, Honora! velocsos a. afealmoateseal toitero, lerensingfovard te cateope Sona section, and even becoming nefa- hehe vist of the spiel ue Zhe radial volition have maximum velvet tie easing ta at Siminion toward the epial moe ove Figure WV). “Tha smaller the enveloping angle g, he greser the velocity Aetaat.one his lastrated in Figure He 36, Whore the wiociy satsoeuant he components ny and o, ina actoileasingwithancavclegingssnic 908 6 one ‘he investigations also showed thatthe nonuniformity of he flow before entering the distributer Is maintained t's coriin crest behind ee Bera Sor, causing somunicormy fn the low around the runes Gatea Ae ‘uct ends to increased losses inthe runner, while cavitation sppcace eer on those runner blades which at given momma ace epvoaue’ Se eae ‘gentrance, whereas on hose Sadet opposite the apirel port of es casing cavitation is delajec." Consequuly, a grates nose angie Soproves tok onions of water admission & the detebtor ant cnices eee ole form velocity dtrbatio. However. an inereaze ithe nose angle, with the wisth ofthe serol end conseduentt of te turbine bay kept unchsaged, lene o ighey veloc inthe oroll nd, tere o grates Loosen, The snperimeaia! dea from UME show that the optimum enveloping sogle for medlumhead Kaplan farbines Varies frp © 160 10 108 Pw Fecommended value of the oxePaal-wall rads of tt entrance soewe eee Son fig = (3 to 1.0) Dy ‘hn inefease inthe enveloping angle wp to 9 = 240 to 270 forthe same adiua Ry Ieada to a drop in tsbine eficiency of 2 23% Compfative tote onseroll caning theeuatewthand’ othe same mean velocity, but with diffrent enveloping angles, = 100" and 92 105 Showot that he efficiency of the surbion aneel with ge 100" cases fet ftfoteny ofthe turbine model vith = 195" by 1 fo open! FIGURETY, 1, Velen ra eae (92380) ‘The staat serail casingis designed to withstand the internal water pres sure, and the thickness of the shell is determined ag a finetion of this pressure, 106 aterual water presstrein the sorll easing changes aecording tothe Tbe condone, I ie constant during the steacy operstion of the ee turbine, ahd varies during the transient regu- lation process, “Unel recomiy, the design ofthe seroll casing for strength was carried out by the method proposed ty AvE. zhmud’ [21]. According t Elm computation fs based onthe assumption thatesch Taal section through the scroll easing {o's shel, cblained by rotating the given sec tion about the turbine center ine, es varia Sone inthe casing exons sections ave neglected or the snli regrescnteg tm igure IV, 13, the relationship between the strens at pots’ A and tne pressure p, is exprensed (according te Timosnento) by Behe. wv.) rene 38, Seem se Se bd of eiaee ese where 0; normal stress ata horizontal sestionof te shell dye porsial stress at « meridian section t= radius of curvature ofthe meridian section, SLE TSINS of curvature of the conical section 2 She inteknes See \e stresses @ acting in a any sing-shapedzconic section of the Bhel, the 6 rating tne tell, end os norma io 0, cause te Fingtobecome elongated; the relative ocpation, alowingfor tantverse comprersiondue to ey, ia giveaby * Mise V6, w, where r= radius of the ring, B= modulus of elasticity, y= Poisson's ratio (= 0.3 for steel) Consequently, the changes in the radius of the ring-chaped seetion are av. a ses the atrsses Aue to he iniernal pressure, addtional stresses cova in the shell tthe juste beiweun the seroll andthe speed ing and at Secale battoen screll clement of leven: thickness atthe merida siadoatmhene tee typos at steases are n60e0, the reauting ress Cstosites : ‘Stones othe del ty sterol pressure nse sel wesc tne snr moriian secon, rough te sorll loent the srl she ‘Sonesta torus tngarelve 1. ete rains of he meridian seston of BiPtotae tne otferprinlpateadive ey at any point Ast radius? en dees: 108eee cain eR i d | ‘Then, according to formula (V. 6), Beatga ng Ot A om, v.10 ‘where ay = the transvereal‘steess in the thin-walled cylindsical shell of radia ey ‘The stress oy in the meridian sect be an 8 section can be determined from the cone m of equilibrium of the forces acting on the shaded surface of netsnny Bude, sina = pe =, whence on eee mle ee, avy 106 1 results from the expression GV. 11) that stress 9, increases in- versely with ¢, becoming largest at the polat where the scroll clement Ssconaectedto the speed ring, where t=r. For r= sya, = og Ie fol- lows trom the relationships (IV. 10) and (v.11) ‘av.12) Consequently, the stresses Ina meridian section of the torus are con ‘stant, and equal to the corresponding stresses in a cylindrical pipe of radine ey : For an elliptic meridian section near the spiral aose (Figure IV. 18), we employ an auxiliary system of coordinates x,y. The equation of the Shipse is Steet the radius, is related to the coordinate « by ‘and the coordinate ¢, 4 expression parte For constructional reasons, 9 is always greater then a, The angle @ is determined feom the relationship, seen pets waaay Qi of the meridian section, i.e., the radius 18, according to the formulas of differential ‘The radius of curvate of curvature of the ellipe geometzy, wa a ieee ait Accordingto Meunier's theorem, the radius of curvature @y of a conte sec: tion is a=. v.18) ‘The stress o,, in the meridian section; is analogous to the strese in cireular section av.n6 From the expressions (LV. 16) and (1V.8) we find i) = gigetaomas sor van amal$fod obtain for p= on age JER Sxpression GV. 16) te conclusion can be drawn that the greatest possible stress to the speed rin value of =r be, Fora 6 ‘the cross section become’ circular, se gag ee 2 the fonts between the seroll slements and the apeed ring. ‘Since the speed-sing edges are very right and Go not deform eect i ATOT Saments are assumed. to be rigidly fartoned to the oped tiny, As a consequence, additional local stresses will arias in the coroll sant; io compute local stresses in the jointe (with the speed ring), whe nee ssee Be edge of the scroll element must be determined) for thie puree SRE Js considered to be tree, not rigidly attached, and subject ont te seal (On the basia of the calculated stresses, one determines the forces ad ioments acting at the joints, and the value of the bending stress; Trost he formula given in A.E, Zhmud's manual mentioned store’ th V alte a, v.18) for vw 0a ey~ 4 (es 0924), ev.29) cree gal tensile stresses in a cixcilar meridian section, sn the joint Zplyeen the soroll element and the speed ring (ran), saat treet? SLRS Shell stresses o,, accoxeing to relationship G¥.1ifland We ceive bending stresses according to relationship 1, 10) ofl + 4) 47 loo For a steel soroll casing spe mt aN av.20 o1> (L185 0206) = (11860208) Since the ratio 7 has its maximum value inthe scroll elements nearest eyiptrance cross section of the casing and is there approximately equnt 1013, the maximum value of) 9 Ona 1S5B. The relative increase of the total stress at the joint between scroll ele~ ‘ent and speed ring, due to bending, namely age. 108 variev between 10 and 30%, increasing with te Fedtion af the rato For an ellipteal meridian dection, the bending stresses are L Wb trang om +47 eeiesapee tht VET EIUHH]. v.20 ‘The Votal tensile stresses occurring in the Joint between the elliptical scroll eloment and the speed ring (rer) equal te um ef the Bonin Stecoses op and the meridian sell trvaves daterminea fro ihe ce nonin 10) 4 -V3a| Seeeoaga AE ETT OHA + PERVERT AT ORa & v.22) Poca set st cte, Piso’ sate ¥# 0, so tat 0 = (eens EVE IOH| + 108( 954 VETTES evan Fora b, the formulas (IV. 22) and (IV.29) become the formals (LV. 20) and (V2, : ‘Stressca in the joints between plates of varying thickness in a meridian section. The streascs are determined in the same way aa the stresses In re joint Between the seroll andthe speed sing, 7 "fhe masiotrn beng tiene fe the thinset pte fe determined from, fornia lor 5) (t0 (+8) +2(46)F xfer ae av.20 Ong EMV 0.3), the formula becomes (oe Fearn era) Sing 725th) Sern 8) 48) 42(6)F where ar, + changes in radius of the efrevlar aection, due to defordation - of the thin plate section; - ‘changes in radins of the circular section, due to deformation fof the thick plate. For steel plates (w v.25) Agcporeern nnn ee anaes Deformations Ar. are calculated according to expression (IV. 9), Tnorder to determine the total tensile stress, the bending stress should be added to tne corresponding shell stress ‘The stresses, calculated in this way, agree closely with ihe stresses actually measured on scroll modelo by means of stray seuee ‘The plates, whose thickness hae been determined by calsulation, should be chosen irom the existing specifications for rolled sections and plates, A thickness 2mm greater than the calculated value io usually aviected, since allowance must be made for prolonged operation of the scroll case, ‘8 well as corrosion and erosion caused by suspended inaltet fa the water Material for the stect plates and the Welds niust be give alicia at~ fention and, for this purpose, material of high plasticity is ususlly choses ‘This is important since the casing plates, apart from prelimigacy so ending and stamping. undergo bending operations, during assembly and erection, Furthermore, 2 material of high ductility anacees sa esos ‘moothening-out of stress peaks should the seroll elements deviate thom their calculated shape. Since brief pressure Auctuations in the geroll ovcur only during the regu- lation process, the permissible stress is woually gelected according to the static head with the distributor closed, allowing for higher stresses during the regulation process, Welded serolt casings are usually made of sheetstecl, having the following mechanical characteristics el fet esse 7 ey= Mig/nnt smn nega foes ogee tiyant petttag npn 26m, ‘Tho permiosible stresses, with allowance for the increase in dyxainic Presoure, are ey = 1,900kg/em?, With allowance for the local teresees, according to formulas (IV. 21 and (1V.23), the permissible steosece ace 8 1580 gf era? The same formulas are used to determine the tasing-wall thickness ‘The wall thickness of the casing is selected, bearing in wind the araiia= Dilly of all-cast casings or casings made up of separate segments ‘The transportation facilities chould also be considered, (Cast scroll casings are usually made of sieel having the following ohar- acteriaties pa pte E ay + Shyam? ceumae eg er Sighn? tect ng te awe ‘The permissible stresses are 10 to 20% smaller than for Welded exsinge, since, owing to the complicated ahape of the cast pieces, thé cast metal liable to display nonunliorm charactoristies, ‘Scrolis for high-head turbines, in which the water stream carries sus ended matter, are cast of corrosion-resistant steel, uo ‘The assumption made inthe foregoing method of computation, that tho speed ring to which the spiral casing 1s connected 1s" aboolutly gl Bes not azree with the sctial conditions. The laste. dnplacernen of the upper part of he opeed ring io Hable to be so great that tieitionl bond- ng stresses arise in the ca ‘MH tie comection, VS, Potioey and V-L.Mitheev /72/refized the ethod for caleslaton of scroll casings; their wletnod constdere the efact of de- formations in the upper part of the speed ring onthe state of strens tn the Joints of te scroll -———: covets pate ngs es “| ee e [PIGUME W730, Rfid euleusin ete jn Reve era an pe ng, ‘The upper band of the turbisie speed ring is calculated as a complicated ribbed shell-plate construction (Figure IV-19), fixed by its upper web to ‘the cover-plate flange, and by ita lower web to the stay vanes. Tho least rigid element ia this construction is the lower curved flange. Since the stay vanes ave distributed closely along the apeed-ring eireunterence, the lower Mange between two vanes resembles a short cylindrical plate whose length is 4 (es measured on the outer flange perimeter), built in along the juaetion line between the web and the stay vanes. ‘The bending moment , the thrust force G, and the meridian force 7” ‘at the junction between the lower flange and the acrolt must all be determined, Since, in a toroidal symmetrical shel, the meridian force only slightly depends on @ and @, the force T's determined irrespective of @ and ‘The scbere assumes the existence of an inflexion point at the junction, mmSete sar hs eC EE In order to determine the forces @; and 6" at the joint between the serell fand the lower flange, two conditions are stipulated under which the relat- ive radial displacement and anglea of twist are equel to Zoro, ‘These conditions are expressed by two equations: toa = 40a = 3, ay. 26) by solving them, we obtain 7 Gn ERE. av. r= aa Gv.ze, where the following notations are introduced: A, = (Cans + Gy cy 08 + (Cnt — = C9028 89 sn 8, os By (CsI Go + a; arenas r Nan + Od: He. Am Oye THC ay + Cy 8 6) 8 (8) — Alla sin + Coy c08 9 sin, — DE B= [eyo 8) ~ Cu sin & — O91 Jn the formule G.29), the C's, provided with the corresponding subscripts, re coefficients allowing or the infuence ofthe lower flange, "The discction fe taken aa divection 7(Figure IV.18, detail 1), 7 ae direction # ado ‘2 direction 3, Here, the theorem of reciprocity Nelda te. Cu —"Cai Cia yy and Cy = Cre ‘The leiter ¢ denotes the influence coeffictents on the periphery of the toroidal shell, where direction 1 colacides with that of G,, and diceetion 2 is opposed to that of the force causing moment @. For é torus we have ‘iy the radial displacement for the moment-tres condition due to the hyardstatio pressure is determined by the well-known formula af the ‘theory of sheila 4 BE went toy. s0 Where R= radius of the shell cross section; = radius of the torus axis; 5 shell thickness, he Poi Jon's ratio; ‘the total meridian stress is are ay. _rrhere is founé from the formula 7 To Sin v.92) rae Thos, the sostin of the probes reds to the determination ofthe in- ‘quence couticlont for to lower ange andthe trvey ie t he deter= ‘Bisation ofthe saplacemeat ofthe shel edges prodaved Hy the boundary if onder fo determine th deflectionof anopencylindca shel, we apply the bocelled theory ofthe sondogenerative boundary effect in ahele wis Sore gainian corvatre, ‘The solution tots protlom apie tote com funtion ofthe lower Bonge builtin at tse sides, was giren by A-L. Eoltdeaveaer ie [22]; note, oly the final formulas forthe coeticiant are presented: = BE 020 Bad MO, + Ba C= BBO yen — fa + FRO oy Bad + On Oat Ce FO ory ea F0— : Goat bat t ag epag C= Ca EB 00D = M0 — 08+ Banh C= Coa = FEE il 4 ooh — fet) — = M084. oan + Da Cam C= — SEB rc eas —Ba) — 0a Ban v.39) where Jy ~the baste functions ~are determined {com the following forma Tas for © = —28, Figure IV.19, detail 1) so— FP erawcote + chbo-cs aa), : tn Fe [oe Fass onabo chided) av.se 4 sa J (thas-snbu-+snbo:cin00)] + oeasing ni eo igh ee) napees Se 7 Chew cst —chbocos a8 + shasta + ae rn hr [40-E thaw ert cha aa) + “+00 (Chaos bo ~ sb ao]: 467 (hows bo— she dnc 2 ahr [6 F Crowe + shewrcsae)— ~ SF thawte + teins): 402 puto one ehoncst thang ++ hbo: 1 = tr [0 § (havin bo shborcrae) — FX hee cates) {i these forenuiag bared $22 ,2Ise of the tirst eigenfunction of the ‘Axed at both ends to an eladtle fosmdation For maf Pe Sak at — ab éeillations of a beam rigidly SHE Goth, —enan), Here, A= 4.7900. ; ‘fr Hirst term of the Mounier expansion according to the ‘eigentunction q, for a singe steces, _ : a) hear ‘The omer coei the forrailas ‘Melente-in the relationship (V. 83) are determined from: v.40) ov.se where Fe ht 8a bas Fim n+ an bas ia Fees oun) Bag. Pod tt) tha gti Oe GBS: neo — Hits ty riage ee) ee v.35 Ze slate of sreay in a voroidal shel wes investigated by ¥.5. Postour ve and ViL-Miieny /72/.. The following forenlas give the govicont ot Intueace a the bls shell edge eu (= aa one ee Braet a9) av.sn oer aa whee ova Omi: v.38) ‘An example of seroll casing computation is given below for the following ‘nna aan wba i is ce tera ac ee i Foren woe nsB 4 xy tye @ and b are determined trom the fori 8 : ane St termined trom the formulas (IV. 35 to IV. 37), : MLS LTB Ay = 2.8700; a 2.6516; b= 1.0080, i 2. ‘The basic functions wy are given by the formulas (IV, $4): : Yo = 09176; yy = — 0.951%; yy = 0.4850; yy = 0.474; i Mo 3.8516 3 10-y, ~5.728-105, i We 1.086910"; yp 1.4948-10-4, 3. The aueitiany cod Mary coefficlents are computed from formalas(1V. 40 to TV, 42) : 4 = 206.1688; B, = —25910:10% a, = 294.866, Br = —0748; "F, = 0.9666, Fy —0.7740; Fy ~ 1000710, Fy LO0TT- 10% Mg = —2062t: My 3BMO: Ly = 1.5887 10% Ly——1.9981-10-%, 0.1989; ©, = 1.2890; ty =— 19381105 34 = -29014-10-, 44, The first eigenfunction and the fieet 6 first erm of the Fourier expansion are determined from formulas IV. 38 and IV, 39. : a 14600; f= 0.8169, 8, The influeiee cosfficients are wid et etermined from formulas (V. $9 ad FGuy = 168, Oy, = 1.81; BGyy = ~8.59-10% BC, ~ 7.505" BCyy = 205.1; EC 29.0, ayy 40908; Fay, = 10.1: Eays = 8.19, ©. ‘The moment-te dfaplacement of the 7 splacement of the shell ty and the force 7” per nit tength according to tormalas QV. 30 and fPes0) ee ace Eh, = 12110; 7 = 60 kg/m, The dlaplacemeats are determined from formulas IV. 23) Ba, =~ 515, £45 —— 1848; Boy 19848 28 = NE; BA = TORI 1 BB een 8, The woment per anit length ofthe joint between th ‘speed ring is given by formula (IV, 28): ve Pere © = 5-108 ug, the resulting meridian stresses in the built-in edj {Re semtig 1g, computed frosm formula 01 = $690 g/om?, us “Whoa using the method whch Sgnores the effect of speed-ring deforma ‘yom, the atrese at the scroll jolat 1s, : 2, = 1010 kg/ em? ‘The considerable effect of the deformation of the lower speed-ring flange ‘oa the stresses in the seroll was confirmed at the LMZ laboratory by Godel fests of the scroll cadings for the turbines of the Bratsk HEP. "Analysts of this solution shows that the stresses at the joint depend ‘Bainiy on the rigidity of the lower speed-ring flange. Thus, the bending Grenses decrease if the flange rigidity is increased by means of additional © Fibs. The amoothaess of junction between the lower speed-ring flange and “fhe scroll wall plays an important pest, ‘Sven a small inflexion of 7 to 10° increases the stresses coasiderably. "aphe shape of the lower flange alvo affects the state of stress, The most suitable shape of the junction is a conical ribhed surf it should be noted that the upper ring in modera high-power tarbines is embedded in concrete for increased rigidity; ince the foregoing caloala~ {Hons did not allow for the influence of the concrete, the bending stresses under field conditions are amaller than the ealeulated values. ‘The fiction of the gpsed ring isto transit the loade from the concrete pit of the turbine, the weight ofthe turbine anit and the aia load of water {D tee turbine foundation, or concrete reroll casings, the speed ring con Sisto of separate say vanes or of an aanslar construction consisting’ Sr upper and a lower cing held together by ibe (aio called slay vanes oF Slatonary quite vanes), The epeed ring iz mounted inside tho scroll be= frcen ls upper and lower cones.” The stay vanes are streamlined to suit the flow tines in the sctolls ‘Tho etay vanes are fastened to tha concrete by top and bottom fangss, The dimensions ofthese flanges are chosen accord [2G lo te pormalecisie pressure onthe concrete, One of the vanea ta the scroll nooe itaetl, Uaualy, the glay vanes inside the scroll are of the same profilo, while in the open pact of the cage, the profile varies Witi We Tow Encclians Figure 1¥- 30 shows the lotic of the stay Vanes inwrzemt— “Gero casing. Some sposdsring Gesigas are shown sn Figure 1V.21. Ia ¢e~ Signs wove the thouel hearing ir located on the turbine coverspate, ft ( {nove convontot, and safer, to tranarait the toad to the foundation Py means Stan sonular speed ring, than trough aeparate stay vanes, Wheo deoign= {og the speed ring and gelecting te construction, consideration must be {iven to the fact thet the annular speed ring will Bethe largest part of the Kiroine detcrisining ita-cimeneions and the required equipment for mack lng’ 'The speed ring with bolted stay vanes andorithout a lower Ping 1s Simpler in constevelion, ‘But, since the lower ring andthe ink betwen I nd the lower ring of the distibutor are absent, tne turbine bias a0 independ ‘ot casings The distributor rings are assembled into a single structure by meana'of the concrete, but this is liae 0 cause misaligomect of the tribute due to setiing of the concrete. ‘The material for the epeed ut"ing should be selected according to the load acting. ifthe speed ring id aubject only to compression, it may be made of cast iron. If on the ether band, the spced ring is subject to both compressive and lenaiie losas ae fs usually the case with mediam and high neade —the speed ting ie trade ol ateel. For welded-cast constructions, the upper sné lowsr Sings aed the ribs (stay vanes) are made of cast steel, welded together aa a ciowie segment. Figure IV. 22 shows a velded-cast speed ring. Formerly aeced rings were made ofa ingle all-cast segment, bat wth the advent of sow east: {ng techniques, previous methods became obsolete, Today, the acpasate are divided info smaller etements, whieh makes thelr casting more convent, nt, | In Welded constructions, the upper and lower rings aed the tise are made of steel plates roll-benf of stitapad @ shape, The type of speed. ring design is selected according to the parameters and dimensions of the tare bine and the technological possibilities of manufacturing, For this purpose, 4 delailed technical and economic analysis and a comparieos of alterne: {ive designs should be made. The speed rings for the turbines of the Vela and the Votinsk HEPs, designed by LMZ, are of the welded-cact type, oe shown in FiguresIV.2i,band1V, 22, Welded speed rings with Boller stay vanes were designed by the KNTZ, for the lacge Kaplan turbines of the Kromenchog and Dnieprodzershinske HEPs, Spced rings of this type ave shown in Figure IV.21,c. Tho upper band of the speed ring ie tacterea the upper ring of the distributor. ‘No lower band is provides,” in the aes sign of speed rings, the selection of « suitable shape for the outer edges of the upper and lower bands musthe carefully made to dbtaina smooth roaeed {transition line in the scrol] segment. The transition {rom cone to plane bee {seen the speed ring and the serol, as used in certainedesigne, Is not oreee cal, since in this case, higher atreases occur in the embedded axes tons. The number of stay vanes (ribs) is usually taken as half the nem Ber of the guide vanes. The slay vanes are arranged so as te leave sosquate ‘space between the trailing edge of the stay vane ami the guide vance, For semi-seroll casings, additional stay vanes are usually, provided ‘in We ope Part of the seroil to enure etter conditions of flow toward the elstesbater: — ~ ~ Experiments carried out at the laboratories of the LMZ, LPI, MISt, and ‘other plants showed that the power eharacteriotics of tusbiaes with sent scroll casings ean be improved by a propex azeangetnent of ty say eac-the aose of the open part of the scroll cas oe ‘Tic dimensions of the stay vanes in tho horizontal plane, as well as thelr shape and tocation, depend on the geometry of the turbine, on the conaitingy 8t flow, and on the strength required. ‘The camber line cf exch stay wen plotted trom the low lines: the vane profile is selected from the existing tested profites-and. checked. for. strength, Figure 1,20 shows the location of tht stay vanes of a farbine with a semf-scroll casing. TaLMz practice, th (mean) elrcie Dy passiog through the nose Da From tho nose to vane No. 10, the stay vanes are located at eqval angles 9f 80%, and from vane No, 10 t9 No, Id at angles of 13, THGURELW-2L. Voto peo pes age ta‘he camber lie of the sty vane in crawn by dividing the interval R, — R, © ty ar ‘00 the basis of se Seen te tre Siermtacd, For a scroll, assuming %,¢#,const fn the figure, ten, interval into several parts by arcs. Afterwards, {the rated parameters for the scroll ease, the angle be Hon of absolute velocity and its peripheral companent a ie K fan ha gh meant o£. Consequently, tan 8 remains unt changed a} 1¢ whole flow Tine, F. given increments dr we find inorei Gs popsrisnal to gem He POR ementS de proportional td dade HE Kt, We then plot the camber 1fne for the stay: streamlined profile, we obtain thelr geomer ates, and by giving them 2 trical shape. anne pecs one vee to Wo, 19 in the oped part of the casing i: the entrance angle for sleslations assuming the peripheral veloc~ from point A (vane No. 8) {0 point 2 (apiral Sem tag Tit Et orn tag, av. 45) here 6, « peripheral velocity componeat Beier De. forthe vane considerede meTeMe® WHE dln fea 7 erloneral velocity component on the diamete ‘a4 7 erioneral velocity component onthe diametss boy Point 2 on the diameter D! at point A; onsidered, with respact to the Angular position of the vane ‘Spiral nose: ‘We enveloping angle of the casing part outside the spiral depends on the nose shape, ang is determined from saan njgcotind = gfqzcotans, v.40 tn practice, angle & ie gotermined by drawing the velocity triangle at the She peripheral velocity component oy at point Ais aed. av.sn the sorol constant _ 7 MEaations (140) sna (1V-47) enable wo determine the cowtietents ap ot forma V4, and Be valve of for each vane hating a par~ Mune uate ; ‘The camber line for each stay wine n the part ofthe casing outide the rll orawn graphicely. ‘Figure IV. 2 slows standard apecdring Go gna used by LMZ. Computations for strength. ‘The strength computation of the speed ring = consists of determining te stesses caused inthe slay vanes bythe Weight © Gite conerete the weight of the turbine eat andtheaterpresaure, "fhe Itads on the say vanes are determined for the folowing cases: with ie ‘rbine stopped” with no water In the scrol under normal operational _ Sencitons daring gad atop. when the pressure in te soll may rae de api closing of the dlatetbator. "Tee calculation of ho forces acting on each say vane isa statically to~ dewerminate problem for simplification Wis assumed that, owing € the cuced rig of the upper and lower slage (anda). each stay vane ean Eevconsdered a6 an independent clement. ‘The loa onthe stay vanes Ia ‘akenas proportional totheangular goition gf each vane. “The wanes Are Subject to vertical lous, steady Ios due fo Welt ad variable loads ue fo water pressure, ‘The ranoverae foree of the water flow lo sully ~Glgrogurdd, ce olla smal value nd to the streamlined shape of the ‘he dlagrash ofthe loads acting on the vanes is shown in Figure TV: 24. “The plan view ath igure shows ihe dependence ofthe load on vane inee- ion lathe sro the weigh ofthe conérete and of the turbine int f+ water presoure lathe pePoll, taken wp bythe sefoll walls and the ‘The loads are determined for the folowing three case: 1 "he teins la not operating: there Sas water inthe aezoll 7 = Ol compressive forces only are acing oa the say vans. \ A= HA where Q, = weight of the concrete carried by one stay vane; Q, = Wetght of the turbine and ganerator componeate carried by one stay vane, “ 7 ma‘The weight of concrete Qi carried by one siay vane is usually determined py he powerplant designers in accordance with its location. PY he weight of te trbine and generator parts carried by oe stay vane gly : ova i hice 20 = total weight of the turbine and generator parte ‘carried vy the s ‘Stay vanes (stator and rotor of the generator, turbine cover 4 plate, gate ring, trust bearing. turbine shat, runner. guide & bearing, etc.); : = angle between each stay vane ei “tg, The turbine is running under normal conditions (p # 0). In addition ee So' the axial load due to the concrete ane the unit Weight, the stay vanes are B-Sigo acted upon ty the water pressure, + | asanasessase |, 7 Nee aaeagaecees HEAPS v.49) = [sasseeesaass |) = Seen escaanseaa snhere P= load due to water pressure onthe seroli-casing ceiling, trans = = mitted to the stay vane; <_{ sagsassaainags | 7 'P, + load-due to water pressure oa the speed ring and on the uoper ;| = | amecseangaee || | = Fete mcrae fering ante he oy vane 3 ls = Bilal load acting the eunner abd transmitted to the stay vane ; 3,1] @ a 3 When determining the load Py, it must be noted tat the waterspresaure i EE/E/_ ¢ Saas Sgeseasaae load on the easing cling transmitted tothe casing wall and tothe stay 3 aeces | #8] 3} tne 1s proportional to the angle @ between the slay vanes, 7 228: ig = S[aas sgesesgesse "Phona trapezoid is drawn between the contour ofthe spiral and the siay _| SRSSSSsoasees | G2 SURES SEES _ vages ts comoll (Pig 1V.23) i termed, ao he ond Py oa at gan B9GSS289892 eee " aan aaeaeseates . pad. wnere bo EES. f= S528 Consequently, ; } rea pag 1 wan, 2 i : i ; Q ; 3 mpl i Pap aesabon wv. 30) i Li 3 : He a r here «6, and& + dimensions of the trapezoid (Figure 1.24); z wes ¢ Diz pressure onthe scroli-case Geling, cotermined from a re] i fhe formula 5 aa ‘ 2 Fie : a3 nay (u-¥). Be where H = level difference between headwater and sorell-casing ceiling. at ous =volociy of flow in eor0l, easing. saa 98 oe 12acoment nn spoonso(—$) owen ‘The lond due to water pressure’ on the speed ring and from the upper water passages of the turbine, taken up by one stay vane, ia detercuned {rom the forsale see a v.52) Pam oe where D, = diameter of the circle formed by the etay-vane leading edges; D, = diameter of the turbine shaft, ‘The prosgure in the water passages is nara) ‘where i= level difference between the hendwatir and the center of th distributer, ia ane dnecke. ‘The coetticient aae1.5 used Sn theae formulas allows for the nonunl- formity of velocities, . ~# afm) Or onde (ov. 53) ‘The axial load of the water column acting oa the runner and transmitted to the stay vane ig av. 50) where P, = axial load of the water column on the runaer. UK, “Load drop and rapid closing of the distributor. ‘The loads due to tte weight of concrete, the weight or the nydro-anit pate, and the water pressure over an¢ above the hydrostatie pressure, seting on the slay vane Cer= Qt O—PL— P+ Pe, avs) where P,* load due to water pressure on the scroll-case ceiling, trane~ mitted to the stay vane, 'P, = Torce caused by the Water pressure on the ring surface between the leading edge of the vane (D,) and the piten eile of the guide vane axes (Dy) transmitted to the stay vane; force caused by water pressure inside the distributor, trans mitted to the stay vane. It 49 positive, since after a rapid closing of the distributor, a pressure drop (vacuum) occurs i the latter, $0 that the foree is directed downward, i ‘the force P, due to-water pressure on the scroll-casing ceiling during drop af generator load is transmitted to the stay vanes and is calculated Srakay ss for normal conditions (formals (V.50)) atetamn, v.50) here ps = pressuce on the acroll-casing ceiling, determined trom the ana (1428). ‘unere’ Aff increase of head in the scroll ease due to water hammer c= arring dating rapid closing of the distributor. Consequently, orto (+4) an ay.50 ‘the force Py on the ring-shaped space between the speod ring and the dis~ frlbuton, wansmitted to the stay vane, la computed from the formula P= BE (0014-2), av. 50) ‘The force Py due to preseure of water inside the distributor is transmit~ led to the stay vane and la determined from the formula Paneth See ov, 50 were n+ negative prosmure inside the aietributor, after audéen closing Unlaliflaken as n= hglem? “Ad calelating the Losde Qy Qrand Qu, setng onthe stay vanes for suetd tees gece operating coutitions "one may eithr select te ra NEG Sha al required crossesectional area of te stay vanes, oF ler™ ‘Sine tne compreselve and teneilestrenseson the exiting areas “Tue stay vanes, subject to compressive stteases, shouldbe checked for = ibject te naghe iv “OE, x1az, oaty th stay vanes subject tothe highest compressive sires~ sed tae wits te snulentcross-aestional area, are goeeked for Duck i hr srengd computations, the sires i determines with llowasce for ting : v.60) aeswhere @Q * load on the stay vaae; F = cross-sectional ares of the stay vane; 9 = safety coefficient, ‘The coefficient @ depende on the material and on the slenderness ratio aad, av.s where n= cottticient; 7 stay-vane Length; 4» minimum radius of inertia of the stay vane. VE. where J.* mintinem moment of inectia-of to of the cress section, ins values of the coefficients @ for steel as funetions of the slenderness ratio 4 are giveninTableIV.2, This abte fa reproduced from reference [o)> Degen fone a nde ae Coir y be seaus: Sn | 10 | ove | oss | ose | vr | ose | om | are | ano | ome seats: 300 | ost | ost | ast | oss | o2o| sae] aaa] oz | oa | oat | one Pe heels eae lad Maleate ele eget tEo ox ae ot separate gay rae, he pe and ver Sane Seika Ct eine arden: fr he Rela pee 2 ratanerets oF REACTION Th coat Bae Seometcical parameters ofthe Kaptan ane Francis runners umber, [sanimun) opening angle ofthe Bladen the tioeoees Led Spe of the biden, a5 well ao the ditenslons of the hab oe Of ake apa ings (bands), ete), which aro chosen accovding to the static aod dynes Eimginremieemeate have « marked ct onthe Nyotatytamie eae istics ofthe runner, as wll ao ons power and eavitaton parsannny merit tetallson the dependence of hydrodynamic chanacteintcs upon ge0- erica parametera ho render in retested to the stay by Ae Pees ‘and LE, Btnberg /Si/. "Te proaest work presenta s beset Saon oot the relationship between the geometrical and ipcredjaeas ace ar of tie runner Gay in teteresce to sergio ae gTatelsTuaters, "The baste geometrical pareeters of the Francs rune er GNDEr aid hlekness Bf blades (a, and 8}, aistetuier ee ae = juape of erown (upper ring), radius of curvature of lower ring (for low- = BAG fumners) of te cone angle ofthe lower ring (for high-speed runners), | TeiSiato between discharge (ext) diameter and noininal vurser diameter Th nde oumber, whlch haa a grou testo he alate and dramie Soon en ee BS see ot emer vet ene none ars Seems atively small blade number, the blades are subject to a high specific load, ES ede rember cite a vale oe aa ea eet ee ee Ugible to increase the efficiency and the specific speed, With the increase in CS eerelp tree et perenne erence 27. 4ation characteristics are improved, aes ae aaa pegs ae emer re a ety mena erg mt = __glency, but alzo in the specific speed, in terme of both rpm and discharge, Fe es a ete nae comune greene Seed ca) die pi We clap to pape eye terkngior aby conta Remeron Ge rene clieecent eee esata ee comes ‘Since the cavitation characteristics improve with reduction of 8, the blade thickneas & should be kept at a minimam value consistent with strength and riguty requirements. Tf the biade number Le changed, the aspect of the univers characteristic of the runner may, within certain limits, be altered, Tue increase in the blade number displaces the point of optimum efficiency and the powerlimit~ ing line toward the smaller discharges. ‘The meridian projection through the runner (i.e., the contour water pas~ sages) (Figure Ill, 13) 12 defined by: the distributor height by, the radius of Curvature of the lower ring (band) of the distributor, the angle « of the lower ring (band), and the shape of the runner hub cross-section. “The distributor height decreases with the increase in heady the ren~ fer thus becoming more rigid, If, for Increased head, the distributor ge sponte ped, m= Sade named wmmae erento i height were not reduced, a small opening of the distributor would be re~ uited for the given discharge, causing a throttling of the water streare ‘during is passage through narrow slits. Appropriate heights fy of toe te tributor for various heads, ag used in turbine engineering peaction, nee fabulated in Figure Ml 13, he radius of curvature of the runner hand Reand the angle « determine toa large extent, the runner discharge (exit) diameter Dev Aw lessee ‘a ratio BE increases the outiet cross-sectional area and reduces tne ow veloctty (pressure drop) after the runner. However, in auch easea, {he flow conditions around the lower runner hand should rot detericnst ince otherwise the efficiency is reduced, ~'Phe-relationsmip veceecy “a and Ht aay be seen trom the table below {according to LM2) Bane of hend Et) Aithough the shape of the nub cross-section affects the turbine charac teristic only slightly, a curved shape nevertheless ensures higher ere ficiency than a straight shape, “On the other hand, « rumer wllits sitaigat hhub shape is easter to build. "‘This-ie of particular. importance when wetted conetructions are used, Therefore, the hub shape should be selocted ae. cording to the turbine parameters with due regard for manufacturing aod High turbine effictency demands runner blades of « cémplicated shape, determined by hydrodynamical computations. On ths sites hand, ceeot’= gated shapes of Praneis runner blades and iaterblads ehatnels renee sho panulacturing process more difficult, ‘With narrow and highly cereed trac Shannela, for an ali-cast runner, it is quite impossible to maintain the thee oretically computed shape and the smoothness required. The todeorrnel= eal design of the Francis tunner should therefore comply as meee osetble ~ with the manufacturing conditions, and among different sensors [uth gmivalent hydrodynamical characteristics, saue of manufacture should be the criterion governing final selection, Kaplan runners, ‘The basic geometrical parameters of the Kaplan runner a5, the blade number, the blade-opening angle or the ratie of tale Ieeeth (D to blade pitch (2) (is), the blade thickness 8, and the dlameter aad shave Of the heb, Apart from the above-mentioned geometrical parameters of the runner, {he shape of the throat ring also affects the cavitation and power chererre = Jotles of the runner to a great extent. ‘One of the basic paramcters of the Kaplan rumer, determining {ts hydro- {ynamical chacacteristics, is the shape, and especially the diameter: ot the mb, ‘The increase of tho hub diameter, boy decreasing the discharge area, lowers the discharge capacity, the if lelency, and markedly increases Porte Ruan dette owe a cee paged.) n evefficiant. Tass gf great importance, especially for ritca avian Funnera, where a consicorably toreade of te hiSe Seeinead Koplan Tonners, w : z, re, im order to aecommodate'& Fidiapeter ratio Rap SP 2 required, : one of blades subject to large hydrodynamic forces and mo- ris. ‘hbub-tip diameter ratio on the maxi- 1.28 shots dopenenee ofthe hab-tp : b EiGta Tr wrtge cert specie sees hen br sey he S fneeswerteiy ith ie incre inn ching om 0,8 or Pe Towion pebnm ecm eorahtee Sen Mtsease in this ratio leads to a rapid increase in the (erifical) cavitatios Sacre nn lon corceoponding seduction nthe dacharge Sapaigy. Thie Seer ain Sbotecle to the wae of Kaplan turbines for higher head andhence Neceosity to improve Kaplon runners yet further by reducing the tub se cscler ratio i every possible way.” Another way of Pedveing. dy shart from improving the hub design, is to develop a blade design subecing i aiiiinum effect of hydrodynamical forces and moments exerted out ar seer aide range of operating conditions. Ry reducing the force a ane. CURE W.28. Dependence of the bey diameter too ee, fr apn ene o—9 eee © “dor pitch ratio), which determines the specific speed almost aoe tel ie erica cavinion coficer. Since, withthe ierense tn ce Te eect son St te een a ines teiorety aecmhaat ask ae aaa ee tcrnig rg 120‘may be obtained by increasing the mamber of blades, The maximum num= Der of blades fitted in U.S.S.R. high-head Kaplan runners is elght. A {ur C ther increase in the number of blades ~ae in Fréncia turbines is lable to ccatso an excessive throttling of the streata flow and impair hydrodynamic ( ‘characteristics 1l should be noted that, due to design conaiderstions, the increase ta the ( blade number: involves a certain increase in the hub-tip diameter ratio: therefore, the gain [i efficiency] due to increase in the overall blade roa is not accompanied by a corresponding improvement in the cavitation characteristics, It (s therefore advisable to avoid increasing the MMB-UiP Giameter ratio when designing runners with an increased number of blades, Power and cavitation characteriatios requifé thinkin blade thickness, ‘but without impairing etrength. ‘The deetgn of blades for minimum thickness oquires precise computation of the static and dynamic blade atreagth and c the accurate determination of the distribution of hydrodytamic loads on the Dlades under various operating conditions ‘The throat~ring shape also affects the discharge capacity of the runner and its cavitation characteristics, 7 Usually, that part of the throat ring located above the runner centerline ‘ has a cylindrical shape, whereas the part below the sinner io epherical. ‘The clearances between the blades are thus reduced to a minitnum and re main constant during blade pivoting, fact which reduces leakages and coa- Sequently increases efficiency. ‘The spherical part of the throat ring is characterized by the throat (can~ nner-discharge) diemeter D, and ie connected to the draft tube through # : ‘conical section, ap ae Ae ‘The throat ring is an essential part of the Kaplan turbine, At ite top, st fs connected to the lower ring of the distribator, and at its bottom, to the . dratt-tabe cone, r Figures It, 12 and UI, 15 show the optimum profi of turbine water pas~ sages located near the throat ring (according 'o LMZ data) ( “The spherical part of the throat ring extends downward approximately @ ‘distance equal to the Iongth of the blade at its maximmam pivoting angie, ‘The cylindrical throat ring gives larger clearances between the blades and the ring and permite an easier access to the runner from above for in- < Stallation oF diemantling. ‘Throat rings are lso provided with a spherical upper part manufactured ‘outside the U.S SR. Openings with detachable covers aie fited in the une er part of the ring, throagh which the blades may be ingerted or removed. ‘ For dismantling, the plates are removed, the blades brought with thelr peri Phoral sections into a vertical position, and the runner can thus be lied | Upward, Research was carried out at the LMZ laboratory to determine the in i fluence of a completely apherical throat ring on turbine efficiency, but 10 gain In effictoncy wae observed, Thi may xy apparent be explained by 2 ‘deterioration of the flow distribution around the lower Fing of the disibator, é {due to the spherical threat ring. resin T 4 ea] fo] i i 8 Lay Esuesaet AGcat 5 seeieses 998 peels seneeaseveus: qonesssned BEES wansenusus y= 2 SREReRTETE ies he dre opto fer Sign ata a a Sana nse, 180 ae