Geophysical Prospecting 33,696-715, 1985.

VERTICAL SEISMIC P R O F I L I N G I N COAL*

S . A . G R E E N H A L G H and M . S U P R A J I T N O * *

ABSTRACT
GREENHALGH, S.A. and SUPRAJITNO,
M. 1985, Vertical Seismic Profiling in Coal, Geophysical
Prospecting 33,696715.
The intellection of seismic wave propagation in coal measures demands direct observa-
tion of the wavefield progression. Two vertical seismic profiles with high spatial and temporal
sampling, were recently recorded in the Sydney Basin coalfields as part of an experimental
coal seismic program.
Static corrections and interval velocities were obtained by an automated system to
determine first kicks and pulse rise times. Upgoing and downgoing waves were separated in
thef- k-plane using a novel technique of contour slice filtering. The isolated upgoing waves
clearly display reflections from the major coal seams within the stratigraphic sequence. The
downgoing wave spectra were subjected to attenuation analysis. The deduced specific quality
factor Q for Permian coal measure rocks lies in the range 20-70. Similar estimates were
obtained in the time domain from measurements of pulse broadening.
Synthetic VSP seismograms, computed using an exact recursive formulation, are an
indispensable aid to interpretation. They illustrate the filtering effects of coal seams and
sequences, and the effects of the contribution of internal and free-surface multiple reflections
in the recorded wavetrains.

INTRODUCTION
In recent years substantial progress has been made in the development of seismic
practice consistent with the requisite resolution for coalfield exploration (Farr, in a
paper presented at the SEG meeting in Houston 1976, Lepper and Ruskey 1976,
Peace 1979, Ziolkowski 1979, Harman, in a paper presented at the 4th International
Coal Exploration Symposium, Sydney 1983). The success and scale of the high-
resolution seismic operations of the British National Coal Board, for example,
clearly attests to the potential of the method (Ziolkowski 1979).
In essence, the problem is to generate, detect and record as high a dominant
frequency and signal-to-noise bandwidth as possible, and to preserve this bandwidth

* Received August 1984, accepted for publication October 1984.

**School of Earth Sciences, Flinders University of South Australia, Bedford Park, S.A. 5042,
Australia.

696
 VSP I N C O A L 697

Table 1. Some uses of VSP.

Identification of primary Trace events to their point of
reflection events on surface origin in subsurface.
seismic txofiles Tie a surface profile to a well

Multiple recognition Identify multiple reflections.

Separation of upgoing waves

Determination of deconvolution Determine earth attenuation.

parameters Examine filtering effects of
layers.
Study ghosts and near surface
reverberations.

Prediction ahead of the drill bit Map structure/lithological

variations.
Detect basement and intrusions.
Locate/recognize overpressure
zones.

Establish detectability of a target Assess exploration capabilities

horizon of an area.
Select optimal field procedures.
Aids field exploration trouble-
shooting.

Supports seismic stratigraphic Determine reflection/transmission

exploration response of key horizons, e.g.
oil-water, gas-liquid interface.
Establish empirical correlations
between velocity and absorption
coefficient and various parameters,
e.g. sand content, type of pore
fluid.

Velocity determination Determine stacking velocities

(interval velocities)
Compute amount and direction of dip
Perform more accurate inversion
of traces to yield acoustic
impedance at well locations.

Aid to the study of various Evolution and shape of the source

seismic phenomena pulse.
Mechanics of formation of wavefield.
Reflection/refraction/mode
conversion at various interfaces.
698 S . A . G R E E N H A L G H AND M . SUPRAJITNO

in processing. Specification of the field and processing technologies and method-

ologies necessary for realization of these objectives requires detailed information on
the propagation of seismic waves in relatively shallow straticulate coal measures.
Direct observation of the wavefield progression is accomplished by means of a
Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP). Briefly, a VSP entails recording with a detector array
in a borehole the waves generated in the immediate vicinity of the hole (Gal'perin
1974). A VSP differs from a conventional well-velocity survey in that the total
waveform is recorded and a very short geophone interval is used. The vertical
seismic profile yields improved resolution and increased penetration over conven-
tional reflection data. The technique is widely exploited in petroleum exploration
(see for example, Kennett, Ireson and Conn 1980; Balch, Lee, Miller and Taylor
1982; Hardage 1983, and references contained therein). Some of the most important
applications are summarized in table 1.
Surprisingly little use of the VSP method has been reported for coal and mineral
exploration. The VSP data permits analysis of the filtering effects of coal seams and
sequences and of the contributions of internal and free-surface multiple reflections in
the recorded wavetrains. They provide the elusive link between the synthetic seis-
mogram (constructed from sonic logs) and conventional reflection records.
As part of an experimental coal seismic investigation program, we recently
recorded shallow vertical seismic profiles within the Sydney Basin coalfields. In this
paper, we present results of this study and highlight some novel processing and
modeling aspects.

THE LITHGOWV S P EXPERIMENT

T h e test site
The field trials were carried out at Invincible Colliery, situated near the city of
Lithgow in the Western Coalfields, N.S.W. Mining is carried out within the Permian
age Lithgow seam under the Blue Mountains Plateau. The depth of workings varies
from near-surface to 300 m. The seam is relatively flat-lying and has an average
thickness of 3.2 m. At least two other seams (Katoomba and Irondale) occur at
higher levels within the stratigraphic sequence. The floor and roof rocks are pre-
dominantly mudstones, siltstones and sandstones which dip at 1-2".
Vertical seismic profiles were recorded in boreholes DDH W and DDH Y,
located approximately 1 km apart. The depth to the Lithgow seam is 110 m at
DDH W and 230 m at DDH Y. The latter borehole was sited on higher ground and
penetrated a sequence of Triassic sediments not encountered in DDH W.

Raw V S P data
Single-component data were recorded at 0.5 ms sample rate in Instantaneous Float-
ing Point Format. Explosive charges of 100-200 g constituted the energy source.
 VSP I N C O A L 699

Figure 1 shows the raw VSP record from borehole DDH W. The record consists
of 20 traces spaced at a depth interval of 5 m. In this display, there is no gain
compensation applied, but each trace has been normalized to its maximum ampli-
tude, which has been written to the right of the record. The shot-point was offset 25
m from the well head, at a depth of 2 m.

Hole W , Trace: 1-20, Raw data

0.0 50 I00 150 200 250

Time ( m s )

Fig. 1. Raw VSP data for borehole W , Invincible Colliery, Lithgow. The depth spacing is 5
m. Each trace is normalized to its maximum value, shown in histogram form to the right of
the diagram.

Figure 2 shows the VSP records from hole DDH Y. The geophone depth inter-
val is 10 m. Traces 2 and 3 were recorded at the deepest level (230 m) from shots in a
steel-cased hole offset 25 m from the borehole. (Note the consistency of waveforms
between the two traces.) Casing collapse from subsequent shooting (trace 4) preclud-
ed further use of the shot-hole. All remaining shots (traces 5-20) were fired at 1 m
depth in a mud pit located 4 m from the borehole. The conspicuous low frequency
event at around 220 ms which trails and replicates the first arrivals is a bubble-pulse
type echo arising from reverberation within the mud pit. Fortunately, it does not
overlap the primary arrivals and can be removed by straight velocity windowing
and/or frequency filtering.
700 S.A. G R E E N H A L G H A N D M . SU PRA JIT N O

Hole Y, Trace: 1-20, Raw data

0.0 50 I00 150 200 250

Time (rns)
Fig. 2. Raw VSP data for borehole Y , Invincible Colliery, Lithgow. The depth spacing is 10
m. Trace-balancing has been applied.

Trace spectra
The spectra for hole W , traces 1-10, are shown in fig. 3. Again, amplitude normal-
ization factors for each trace appear to the right-hand side of the diagram. The
bandwidth extends to a frequency of approximately 300 Hz. Broadly speaking, the
figure confirms our intuitive expectation of decreasing spectral amplitude with
increasing source-receiver distance. The fluctuation of amplitudes evident in the
figure may be caused by minor coupling differences between the geophone and
borehole wall, by shot coupling variations and by interference effects. The low
spectral amplitudes at around 50 Hz are the result of recording through a notch
filter. The high frequency spectral peaks (150-200 Hz) can be attributed to the short
ranges (less than 200 m) and the small charges used, both considerably below
petroleum seismic practice (Ziolkowski 1979).

VELOCITYESTIMATION
Automatedjrst break analysis
The first arrivals on VSP record represent the primary downgoing wave. They
provide useful information for estimating the subsurface velocity distribution as well
as for calculating static corrections in VSP processing.
 V S P I N COAL 70 1

One of the most crucial steps in determining the seismic traveltime is to pick the
genuine first arrival. If pulse broadening occurs or if there is considerable noise
present, an accurate measurement of traveltime cannot be expected from the first

Spectra Trace: 1-10, Hole W

375.70 10

301.9660
-
I I I I I I I
0.0 200 400 6 00 600 1000
Frequency ( H z )

Fig. 3. Spectra for traces 1 to 10, hole W (fig. 1). Each trace has been normalized to its
maximum value. The numbers to the right of each trace are the normalization factors. The
top trace, corresponding to the shortest path length, shows the highest spectral magnitudes.

peak, the first trough or the point of inflection, which are exploited in most auto-
matic picking routines. When the wavefront arrives, a sudden and abrupt takeoff of
the trace can usually be observed. We chose this point as the first kick (departure)
which represents the true arrival time of the signal.
To identify the first kick amongst the background noise we use the correlation
method (Bracewell 1965) as modified by Hatherly (1982). Figure 4b shows the

\
702 S.A. G R E E N H A L G H A N D M . S U P R A J I T N O

, T T ?

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 00 90 100 110 120 130 140

Time ( x 0 5ms)

Hole V, Trace: I I up to 141 samples

l ' " i ' ' " " " ' t

m
4

Amplitude V,

Fig. 4. Noise components (a) of the seismic trace (prior to first arrivals), and the correspond-
ing correlation diagram (b). The noise scatters about the line yi + = x.

correlation diagram for hole Y , trace 11, in which each value E;+1 is plotted against
its predecessor E ; . For the early noise components of the seismic trace (fig. 4a), the
resulting points exhibit a scatter about the line E;+l = E;. For the seismic signal
(first arrival), however, the difference between consecutive values are much larger
than for the noise. If we set three times the standard deviation as the normal limit of
the noise, then 99.7% of the noise points will be within this region. An abrupt
takeoff indicating a possible first arrival is accepted if at least five consecutive
differences lie outside the expected range.
 VSP I N COAL 703

Interval velocity results

The automatic first kick determination scheme was used to obtain the velocity
distributions shown in fig. 5. Results are given for instantaneous velocity as well as
for average and interval velocity, using standard formulae (Greenhalgh and King
1981). The lithologic logs are shown to the left of each borehole with the coal seams

Velocity ( k m l s )
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
7
i Siltstone

I
20 ~

Sandstone
Hole Y
40 - $$$
:.:.:.:. Conglomerate
Coal, Stony

Cool

Velocity ( k m l s )
1.0 2 . 0 3 . 0 4.0

z 120
n 2 OiPY Hole W

member 3

LTp$gr.-=-
b- -______ ----

Fig. 5. Velocity distributions obtained from automated first-kick analysis of the raw VSP
data. The three curves on each diagram correspond to average velocity, interval velocity and
instantaneous velocity. The velocities correlate well with the geologic logs, showing a decrease
in the region of the coal seams.

indicated by the dark shading. Although the geophone spacing is rather coarse for
the thickness of the seams there appears to be a consistent reduction in velocity in
the vicinity of the coal.

S E P A R A T I OONF U P G O I N GA N D D O W N G O I NWGA V E S
A VSP contains the direct transmitted wave plus all possible upward and downward
reflected waves (primaries and multiples). For seismic interpretation, for attenuation
704 S . A . G R E E N H A L G H AND M . S U P R A J I T N O

analysis, and for comparison with a conventional seismic profile it is necessary to

isolate the upgoing waves (UGW) from the downgoing waves (DGW).
To accomplish this separation we employ the technique of contour-slice
filtering (Suprajitno and Greenhalgh 1985). An essential first step in the process is
to window the data in the time domain and to apply band-pass frequency filtering.
This prefiltering not only improves the coherence of the seismic record but prevents
spatial aliasing. The band-pass filter employed by us is a box car spectral window
convolved with a Gaussian frequency function, which produces a smooth taper and
minimal side-lobe effect. Figure 6 shows the traces of fig. 2 after bandpass filtering

Hole Y, Bondpass filter: 60-240 Hz, Alpha: 100

0.0 50 I00 150 200 250

Time (ms)

Fig. 6. VSP data for borehole Y after bandpass filtering from 60 to 240 Hz. The filter is a
boxcar spectral window convolved with a Gaussian frequency function of slope 100.

using corner frequencies of 60 and 240 Hz. The filtered traces display virtually no
ringing and are a considerable improvement over the raw data.
Figure 7 shows the two dimensional f - k-spectrum (only upper half-plane is
shown) for the filtered traces of fig. 6. The contour slice filter is implemented in the
f - k-plane to remove either the UGW or the DGW. For example, DGW isolation
 VSP IN C O A L 705

Hole Y : 4-18

UGW DGW

200

160

-
-
v)
\
U

U
)I

5 120
U
3
?
LL

80

40
0
I I I

- 4 + kN

Wavenumber (c/rn)

Fig. 7. Thef- k-spectra (upper half plane) for the filtered traces of fig. 6. The diagram shows
the result after downward levelling to the - 20 dB contour.

involves the following steps :

(1) mute the UGW quadrants;
(2) define a contour level of rejection in the DGW quadrants;
(3) set the filter response to zero below the contour level and equal to the
spectral magnitude above the contour level;
(4) multiply thef- k spectrum by the filter response;
(5) apply two-dimensional inverse Fourier transform to yield the DGW seismo-
grams.
The advantage of this process is that its pass band-stop band does not greatly
perturb the " naturalness " of the f - k-spectrum. By contrast, a conventional veloc-
ity or fan filter cuts the spectrum vertically and produces ringing in the filtered
output.
706 S.A. G R E E N H A L G H AND M . S U P R A J I T N O

Hole Y, Trace: 4-18, DGW

0.0 50 I00 150 200 250

Time (ms)

Fig. 8. The DGW seismograms obtained by contour slice filtering in thef- k-plane, bore-
hole Y .

The contour slice filter procedure, when applied to the data of borehole Y , yields
the DGW seismograms of fig. 8. The isolated UGW traces, after static correction,
are shown in fig. 9. The static corrections, which are equal to the first-kick times, are
automatically computed and added to the traces to produce a vertical alignment of
the UGW. This alignment visually enhances the data and facilitates a direct com-
parison of a VSP with a surface reflection record.
The isolated upgoing waves for borehole W are shown in fig. 10. Primary
reflections originating from the Katoomba, Irondale and Lithgow seams not evident
in the raw data for both VSPs (figs 2 and 3) can be seen quite clearly in the filtered
sections (figs 9 and 10). Surface multiples and internal multiples can also be recog-
nized on the filtered display.

A T T E N U A T I O NA N A L Y S I S
Attenuation is an important seismic attribute (Toksoz and Johnston 1981). The
measurement of attenuation from a VSP survey is considered to be the most reliable
field method for this purpose. Analyses of anelastic absorption from VSP data have
been reported in the literature using the transfer function method (Tullos and Reid
1969, Spencer, Sonnad and Buttler 1982, Lee and Balch 1983) and the spectral ratio
method (McDonal, Angona, Mills, Sengbush, Van Nostrand and White 1958; Kudo
and Shima 1970, Hauge 1981). Both methods suffer from difficulties in isolating the
first arrival from the interference of other waves. Near-surface reverberation and
 V S P I N COAL 707

Hole Y, Trace: 4-8, UGW - after static

0.0 50 100 150 200 150

Time ( s )

Fig. 9. The isolated UGW seismograms borehole Y . The traces have been statically cor-
rected.

20 Hole W Trace 1-15 UGW Prefilt 5 0 150 Hz

40
-E
f
60
0

80

I00

00 50 100 150 200 250

Time (ms)

Fig 10 The UGW seismograms for borehole W (no static applied).

708 S . A . G R E E N H A L G H A N D M . SUPRAJITNO

tube-waves are two types of noise which often dominate the VSP record. These
waves have amplitude-decay characteristics which differ from those of the body
waves (Hardage 1981; Lee and Balch 1983). Scattered waves are also present on a
VSP record and may interfere with the direct transmitted wave. If scattering occurs
attenuation will be strongly frequency dependent : it is reported to be proportional
to the fourth power of frequency (Busby and Richardson 1957; Johnston, Toksoz
and Timur 1979).
With the spectral ratio method in multilayered media the choice of the correct
geometrical spreading factor for amplitude compensation is difficult. Furthermore,
unless reflection/transmission losses associated with layering can be removed, the
Q-value is always underestimated.
We have tackled the attenuation problem using an alternative time-domain
pulse broadening scheme which overcomes most of the above difficulties. We have
also developed a revised spectral magnitude method which acts on the primary
downgoing wave.

Spectral magnitude decay

The change of spectral amplitude with distance provides a direct means for measur-
ing anelastic absorption. The process can be summarized as follows:
(1) separate upgoing and downgoing waves;
(2) isolate the downgoing (transmitted) first arrival;
(3) compute spectral magnitudes;
(4) statistically manipulate the data for estimation of Q.
Step 1 is best accomplished using the contour-slice filter process outlined in an
earlier section. For isolating the first event from other arrivals in the DGW, a
time-shifted Gaussian window is used. The center of the Gaussian function can be
shifted to the maximum of the DGW. Normally, the maximum amplitude of each
trace corresponds to the first arrival DGW. The slope of the Gaussian window
should be fairly gentle and appropriate to the width of the window. A narrow
window may damage the pulse broadening and should be avoided. On the other
hand, a wide window will admit reverberations and internal multiples, which will
corrupt the attenuation estimate. A compromise must be reached after preliminary
experimentation. Figure 11 shows the isolated downgoing first arrival for hole Y .
Histograms to the right of the figure illustrate the relative amplitudes.
The spectral magnitude of the isolated first arrival DGW is then computed by
the Fast-Fourier transform method for each level of the receiver. Ignoring source
and geophone coupling differences the amplitude at frequency f and depth x can be
written as

where n is the geometric spreading factor and a ( f ) is the absorption coefficient. The
factor n lies in the range 0.5-2. For spherical spreading in a uniform medium n is
equal to one.
 VSP I N COAL 709

Hole V, Trace: 4-18, Isolated 1st arrival DGW

0.0 50 I00 I50 200 250

Time (ms)

Fig. 11. The isolated downgoing first arrival after Gaussian windowing of the traces of fig. 8.

After compensation for spreading and taking logarithms, we obtain for the
corrected spectral amplitude

In A(f; x) = In A , - a ( f ) x . (2)
Thus, for a given frequencyf the attenuation coefficient a ( f ) is determined as the
slope of the (x, In A) graph. Weighted spectral averages are used as protection in
the regression analysis against small errors in the raw spectral estimates
(Schoenberger and Levin 1973; Buchanan, Jackson and Davis 1983). Our spectral
averaging is carried out symmetrically over five neighboring values.
For each frequency component a (together with its standard error) is computed.
The whole process can be repeated for various values of n and the resulting statistics
compared. A representative spectral magnitude vs. depth plot for the 140 Hz fre-
quency component of hole Y is shown in fig. 12. Least squares analysis of the data
yields an attenuation coefficient of 0.009 m-. Analysis by eye might yield a slightly
higher value if the data points for distances beyond 160 m are considered dubious
and rejected. We have no information on which to base such an assumption and, in
fact, would probably assign a higher rather than lower confidence to the larger
path-length data. No weighting was used in the regression to keep it as objective
and consistent as possible.
The composite result for hole Y-with error bars for each frequency estimate-is
given in fig. 13. The attenuation coefficient is observed to increase linearly with
frequency over the whole range. This linearity is widely observed (Lomnitz 1957,
1967, Futterman 1962, White 1975; Kudo and Shima 1970) and suggests a constant
710 S.A. G R E E N H A L G H A N D M . S U P R A J I T N O

Hole Y, Trace: 4-18, Amplitude decay at: 140 Hz

Or--

Attenuation a = 0 . 0 0 4 / m

4-

3-

2-

I I-
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 4 3
Distance (m)
Fig. 12. Attenuation diagram showing amplitude as a function of depth for the 140 Hz
spectral component.
Hole Y. Trace: 4- 18, Spherical spreading
-I

60 80 I00 I20 140 I60 I80 2 3

Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 13. Attenuation coefficient vs. frequency for borehole Y . An approximate linear relation
can be fitted to the data implying a nearly constant Q z 60.
 VSP I N COAL 71 1

dissipation factor of Q = 60 for this coal measure sequence. The result for hole W is
Q = 20. This lower value corresponds to a shallower, less consolidated sequence.

Pulse broadening
There are numerous theories describing the effect of dissipation in shaping the
seismic wavelet (see for example, Ricker 1977). Kjartansson (1979) classified these as
either constant Q-theories or nearly constant Q-theories, with pulse broadening a
feature of both. Gladwin and Stacey (1974) established from field measurements the
following relationship between pulse rise time z and Q :
Ct
z = 20 + -, (3)
Q
where z0 indicates the rise time of the source, C = 0.53 f 0.04 is a constant, and t is
the traveltime of the pulse. The rise time was defined as the amplitude of the first
peak divided by the slope at the first inflection point.
The traveltime t is that of the first kick and can be conveniently computed using
the automatic correlation method employed for velocity analysis. The first peak and
the point of inflection on the flank of the first arrival can likewise be determined
rapidly and accurately. For example, the inflexion point is found by searching for
the maximum first derivative with a Langrangian central-difference formula.
The specific quality factor Q is extracted from the resulting rise time vs. arrival
time graph by the method of least squares.
The first kick traveltimes and corresponding rise times from the raw VSP record
at borehole Y are plotted in fig. 14. Linear regression analyses of the data yield
Q = 70 f 4.5. For borehole W , the result is Q = 30 f 2.5. These Q-values are in
close agreement with the independently determined spectral magnitudes given
above. The discrepancy can probably be attributed to transmission coefficient losses
which are incorporated into the spectral-method estimates.

SYNTHETIC
SEISMOGRAMS
Figure 15 shows the synthetic VSP seismograms for borehole Y , assuming a simpli-
fied three coal-seam model of the subsurface (for the geologic log, see fig. 5). The
velocity and density values assumed in the model were taken from detailed pet-
rophysical measurements carried out on numerous rock and coal samples collected
in the area (Greenhalgh and Emerson in a paper read at the SEG meeting in Los
Angeles 1982).
The computations were performed in the frequency domain using a rapid, exact
formulation (Suprajitno and Greenhalgh in a paper presented at the 3rd meeting of
the ASEG, Brisbane 1983). The method is based on the recursive determination of
the " resultant " phase-related reflection and transmission coefficients for a layer
stack (Hughes and Kennett 1983). Surface multiples as well as internal multiples can
also be controlled.
712 S.A. G R E E N H A L G H A N D M . S U P R A J I T N O

Hole Y . Trace: 4-20( 6 excluded)

4.404

4'01
3.60

3.204
0=70+4.5

2.00-

1.60-

1.20-

1.80 1
0.000.01 0.02 0.03 004 0.05 0.06 0.07' 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.1 I 0.12 0.13 C A

Traveltime i s )
Fig. 14. First-kick traveltimes as a function of pulse rise time for the raw data, hole Y . Linear
regression analysis yields Q = 70.
Hole synthetic

One-way time (rns)

Fig. 15. Normal incidence synthetic seismograms for a simplified three-seam model of bore-
hole Y . The sample rate is 0.5 ms and the trace spacing is 10 m.
 V S P I N COAL 713

The traces of fig. 15 represent the compressional wave at normal incidence,

appropriate for an explosive source offset only 4 m from the well-head. The sample
rate is 0.5 ms and the depth increment is 10 m. A source waveform with a dominant
frequency of 100 Hz was used. Multiples were restricted to order 3, to avoid aliasing
and wraparound-problems with the discrete Fourier Transform (Trorey 1962, p.
769).
The seismograms show the downgoing wave and the primary reflections from all
three coal seams. (Note how the upgoing primary reflections and the direct down-
going wave intersect at the various interfaces, thus providing a means of locating
them.) A phase reversal is observed on each reflection due to the low velocity coal.
The lower interface for each seam cannot be discerned at a frequency of 100 Hz.
Surface multiples and internal multiples can be seen quite clearly on the display.
Any event which disappears or terminates in the general record before reaching the
first break is a multiple. The display resembles a ray picture in the subsurface. It is
easy to specify the origin of all events on the record in terms of the corresponding
raypaths.
Figure 15 has been constructed in such a way that each trace is normalized to its
maximum. N o gain function has been employed. The histogram to the right of the
diagram indicates the relative trace amplitudes (absorption has been neglected).
The top trace is the normal incidence surface seismogram. It contains only the
upgoing waves. Several multiples are present on the trace.

CONCLUSIONS
Vertical seismic profiles are very useful in seismic exploration. With the method it is
possible to track the progress of the seismic signal as it penetrates the ground and to
observe reflections as they are generated at various interfaces within the earth. The
recent development of VSP technology has been in response to the exploration
industrys demand for increased resolution and accuracy in seismic data.
In this paper we have applied some new processing techniques to shallow VSP
data acquired in the Western Coalfield of New South Wales. Static corrections and
velocity distributions are readily computed using an automatic first kick determi-
nation scheme. Upgoing and downgoing waves are separated inf-k-space using a
contour slice filtering procedure. Seismic wave attenuation estimates are extracted
from the VSP data in both the frequency and time domain. The frequency domain
method developed by us involves first isolating the primary downgoing wave from
interference by other events. The time domain approach is based on automatic
rise-time measurements.
Synthetic seismograms are a useful aid to the interpretation of VSP records.
They have been computed for the coal examples of this paper using a new recursive
formulation. Primaries and multiples clearly evident in the synthetic display can be
correlated with events in the real data.
714 S.A. G R E E N H A L G H A N D M. S U P R A J I T N O

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BUCHANAN, D.J., JACKSON, P.J. and DAVIS,R. 1983, Attenuation and anisotropy of channel
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GLADWIN,M. and STACEY,F.D. 1974, Anelastic degradation of acoustic pulses in rock,
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