Series circuits

Current

In a series circuit the current is the same for all elements.

Resistors

The total resistance of resistors in series is equal to the sum of their individual resistances:

Electrical conductance presents a reciprocal quantity to resistance. Total conductance of a series circuits of pure resistors, therefore, can be calculated from the
following expression:

For a special case of two resistors in series, the total conductance is equal to:

Inductors

Inductors follow the same law, in that the total inductance of non-coupled inductors in series is equal to the sum of their individual inductances:

By reciprocity = so that the last two groups can be combined. The first three terms represent the sum of the self-inductances of the various coils. The
formula is easily extended to any number of series coils with mutual coupling. The method can be used to find the self-inductance of large coils of wire of any
cross-sectional shape by computing the sum of the mutual inductance of each turn of wire in the coil with every other turn since in such a coil all turns are in
series.

Capacitors

See also Capacitor networks

Capacitors follow the same law using the reciprocals. The total capacitance of capacitors in series is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of their
individual capacitances:

.
Switches

Two or more switches in series form a logical AND; the circuit only carries current if all switches are 'on'. See AND gate.

Cells and batteries

A battery is a collection of electrochemical cells. If the cells are connected in series, the voltage of the battery will be the sum of the cell voltages. For example, a
12 volt car battery contains six 2-volt cells connected in series. Some vehicles, such as trucks, have two 12 volt batteries in series to feed the 24 volt system.

Parallel circuits

If two or more components are connected in parallel they have the same potential difference (voltage) across their ends. The potential differences across the
components are the same in magnitude, and they also have identical polarities. The same voltage is applicable to all circuit components connected in parallel. The
total current is the sum of the currents through the individual components, in accordance with Kirchhoffs current law.

Voltage

In a parallel circuit the voltage is the same for all elements.

Resistors

The current in each individual resistor is found by Ohm's law. Factoring out the voltage gives

To find the total resistance of all components, add the reciprocals of the resistances of each component and take the reciprocal of the sum. Total resistance will
always be less than the value of the smallest resistance:

For only two resistors, the unreciprocated expression is reasonably simple:

This sometimes goes by the mnemonic "product over sum".

For N equal resistors in parallel, the reciprocal sum expression simplifies to:

and therefore to:

To find the current in a component with resistance , use Ohm's law again:
 .

The components divide the current according to their reciprocal resistances, so, in the case of two resistors,

An old term for devices connected in parallel is multiple, such as a multiple connection for arc lamps.

Since electrical conductance is reciprocal to resistance, the expression for total conductance of a parallel circuit of resistors reads:

The relations for total conductance and resistance stand in a complementary relationship: the expression for a series connection of resistances is the same as for
parallel connection of conductances, and vice versa.

Inductors

Inductors follow the same law, in that the total inductance of non-coupled inductors in parallel is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of their
individual inductances:

If the inductors are situated in each other's magnetic fields, this approach is invalid due to mutual inductance. If the mutual inductance between two coils in
parallel is M, the equivalent inductor is:

If

The sign of depends on how the magnetic fields influence each other. For two equal tightly coupled coils the total inductance is close to that of each single
coil. If the polarity of one coil is reversed so that M is negative, then the parallel inductance is nearly zero or the combination is almost non-inductive. It is
assumed in the "tightly coupled" case M is very nearly equal to L. However, if the inductances are not equal and the coils are tightly coupled there can be near
short circuit conditions and high circulating currents for both positive and negative values of M, which can cause problems.

More than three inductors becomes more complex and the mutual inductance of each inductor on each other inductor and their influence on each other must be
considered. For three coils, there are three mutual inductances , and . This is best handled by matrix methods and summing the terms of the
inverse of the matrix (3 by 3 in this case).

The pertinent equations are of the form:

Capacitors

The total capacitance of capacitors in parallel is equal to the sum of their individual capacitances:
 .

The working voltage of a parallel combination of capacitors is always limited by the smallest working voltage of an individual capacitor.

Switches

Two or more switches in parallel form a logical OR; the circuit carries current if at least one switch is 'on'. See OR gate.

Cells and batteries

If the cells of a battery are connected in parallel, the battery voltage will be the same as the cell voltage but the current supplied by each cell will be a fraction of
the total current. For example, if a battery contains four cells connected in parallel and delivers a current of 1 ampere, the current supplied by each cell will be 0.25
ampere. Parallel-connected batteries were widely used to power the valve filaments in portable radios but they are now rare. Some solar electric systems have
batteries in parallel to increase the storage capacity; a close approximation of total amp-hours is the sum of all batteries in parallel.

Combining conductances

From Kirchhoff's circuit laws we can deduce the rules for combining conductances. For two conductances and in parallel the voltage across them is the
same and from Kirchhoff's Current Law the total current is

Substituting Ohm's law for conductances gives

and the equivalent conductance will be,

For two conductances and in series the current through them will be the same and Kirchhoff's Voltage Law tells us that the voltage across them is the
sum of the voltages across each conductance, that is,

Substituting Ohm's law for conductance then gives,

which in turn gives the formula for the equivalent conductance,

This equation can be rearranged slightly, though this is a special case that will only rearrange like this for two components.

Notation
The value of two components in parallel is often represented in equations by two vertical lines "||", borrowing the parallel lines notation from geometry.[4][5]

This simplifies expressions that would otherwise become complicated by expansion of the terms. For instance, the expression refers to 3

resistors in parallel, while the expanded expression is .

Introduction
In this section we look at how to analyse circuits which contain resistors in series and parallel combinations.

Identifying and Analysing Parallel Circuits

The figure below shows a basic circuit which contains a series-parallel combination of resistors. The resistance from point A to point B is R1, the
resistance from B to C is the combination of R2 and R3 in parallel. The total circuit resistance (from point A to C) is the series resistor R1 in
combination with the parallel components.

A more complex example of a series-parallel resistor circuit is shown below

here the resistor R6 is in parallel with the resistors R4 and R5. Also the resistors R3, R2 and R1 form a parallel combination. It is also clear that the
two parallel combinations are in series with one another. To calculate the total resistance of a series-parallel circuit we use the techniques we
have developed in the two previous sections. To illustrate the basic analysis procedures we will use a couple of examples. First we consider the
circuit below

and wish to calculate the total circuit resistance. The current will clearly pass through the 80 resistor before splitting into two components in
the parallel combination, at point A the parallel branch currents will recombine and flow to the positive terminal. To calculate the total circuit
resistance first we work out the effective resistance of the parallel combination, using the method from the previous section.

Rparallel = 1/(1/100 + 1/50) = 33.3

Using this result we can redraw the circuit above as follows
The total circuit resistance can now be calculated by summing the two series resistances.

RT = 80 + 33.3 = 113.3
Next we will examine the slightly more complex circuit below.

Using the same procedure as above we first work out the equivalent resistance of each of the parallel combinations to get the effective resistance
in series with R1. We begin with the resistors R4 and R5

R5-4 = 1/(1/37 + 1/45) = 20.3

Now we work out the resistance in each of the parallel branches. For the top branch the resistance is equal to the sum of the resistors R2 andR3

R3-2 = 49 + 51 = 100
for the bottom branch it is equal to the sum of the resistors R6 andR5-4

R6-5-4 = 75 + 20.3 = 95.3

Now we are left with a circuit equivalent to the figure below

So all that is left is to work out the effective resistance of the parallel combination R6-5-4 and R3-2

R6-5-4-3-2 = 1/(1/100 + 1/95.3) = 48.8

So the total circuit resistance is

RT = 80 + 48.8 = 128.8
The systematic approach we have introduced above can be used to work out the effective resistance of any specific circuit. However if we know
the voltage or current properties of the circuit we can employ the same approach to calculate the unknowns. In the AC circuit analysis section
which follows we will look at circuits which contain resistors, capacitors and inductors and use a very similar strategy to analyse the circuit
response of these systems.
Ohms Law

Boolean Expression

Rectangular shape
Distinctive shape
(IEEE Std 91/91a- Boolean algebra between A
Type (IEEE Std 91/91a- Truth table
1991 &B
1991)
IEC 60617-12 : 1997)
INPUT OUTPUT
A B A AND B
0 0 0
AND or &
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
INPUT OUTPUT
A B A OR B
0 0 0
OR
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
INPUT OUTPUT
A NOT A
NOT or ~
0 1
1 0

INPUT OUTPUT
A B A NAND B
0 0 1
NAND or
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
INPUT OUTPUT
A B A NOR B
0 0 1
NOR or
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

INPUT OUTPUT
A B A XOR B
0 0 0
XOR
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
 INPUT OUTPUT

A B A XNOR B

XNOR or 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

POWER SUPPLY

Half Wave Rectifier

Since a capacitor input filter only draws current from
the rectification circuit in short pulses, the frequency
of the pulses is half that of a full -wave circuit,
therefore the peak current of those pulses is so high
that this circuit would not be recommended for DC
power more than 1/2 watt.

60 Hz Ripple
Depth of ripple slope is dependent on
Capacitance and Load.

Full Wave Center Tapped

A full-wave rectifier uses only one-half of the
transformer winding at a time. The transformer
secondary rated current should be 1.2 times the DC
current of the power supply. The transformer
secondary voltage should be approximately 0.8 times
the DC voltage of the unregulated power supply per
side of the center tap or the transformer should be 1.6
times VDC center
tapped.

120 Hz Ripple
Depth of ripple slope is dependent on
Capacitance and Load.
 Full Wave Bridge
The full-wave bridge rectification circuit is the most
cost effective because it requires a lower VA rated
transformer than a full-wave tapped rectifier. In a
full-wave bridge, the entire transformer secondary is
used on each half cycle, unlike the full-wave center
tapped which only uses one- half the secondary on
each half cycle. The transformer secondary rated
con-rent should be 1.8 times the DC current of the
power supply. The transformer secondary voltage
should be approximately .8 times the DC voltage of
the unregulated power supply.

Dual Voltage Supply

A dual complementary rectifier is used to supply a
positive and negative DC output of the same voltage.
In most cases, the negative current is significantly
less than the positive current requirements so the AC
voltage and current relationship to the DC voltage
and current should be the same as the full-wave
center tapped described earlier.

Unregulated Linear Power Supply

Unregulated power supplies contain four basic components: transformer, rectifier, filter capacitor, and a
bleeder resistor. This type of power supply, because of Us simpticity, is the least costly and most
reliable for low power requirements. The disadvantage is that the output voltage is not constant It will
vary with the input voltage and the load current, and the ripple is not suitable for electronic applications.
The ripple can be reduced by changing the filter capacitor to an LC (inductor-capacitor) filter but the
cost to make this change would make use of the regulated linear power supply a more economical
choice.
 Regulated Linear Supply
A regulated linear power supply is Identical to the unregulated linear power supply except that a 3-
terminal regulator is used in place of the bleeder resistor. The regulated linear power supply solves alt
of the problems of the unregulated supply, but is not as efficient because the 3-terminal regulator will
dissipate the excess power in the form of heat which must be accom-modated In the design of the
supply. The output voltage has negligible ripple, very small load regulation, and high reliability, thus
making it an ideal choice for use in low power electronic applications.

Switch Mode Power Supplies

The switch mode power supply has a rectifier, filter capacitor, series transistor, regulator, transformer,
but is more complicated than the other power supplies that we have discussed. The schematic above is a
simple block diagram and does not represent all of the components in the power supply. The AC
voltage is rectified to an unregulated DC voltage, with the series transistor and the regulator. This DC is
chopped to a constant high frequency voltage which enables the size of the transformer to be
dramatically reduced, and allows for a much smaller power supply. The disadvantages of this type of
supply are that ail of the transformers have to be custom-made and the complexity of the power supply
does not lend itself to low production or economical low power applications.

Typical TV Receiver Power Supply

 Secondary Power Supplies

Flyback Switching Technology

Primary Power Supply, Line Rectifier Sections

 Line Rectifier Circuits: Line EMI Filter, Automatic Degaussing Coil

Hot Chassis

Line Rectifier Circuits: Power Transformer, Line EMI Filter, Automatic Degaussing Coil

Isolated Chassis

Linear Voltage Regulators as Decoupling Devices

Simple Shunt Regulator Simple Pass Regulator Pass Regulator with Gain

.
Fig. 4a Fig. 4b
Simplifier Linear Voltage Regulator IC Example of 7805
The 1N4002 is for protection (optional)
PNUMATIC