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Example 2:
H2S (g) + Cl2 (g) S (s) + 2 HCl (g)
a) Hydrogen sulphide is oxidised to sulphur as it loses its hydrogen to chlorine.
b) Chlorine gains the hydrogen and therefore is reduced to hydrogen chloride.
c) Chlorine acts as the oxidising agent because it causes hydrogen sulphide to be oxidised.
d) Hydrogen sulphide acts as the reducing agent because it causes chlorine to be reduced.
Note: In summing up the two half-equations, the number of electrons on both sides of the equation
should cancel each other out.
Example 2: Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Oxidation half-equation: Zn(s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2
4. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the elements in the formula of a compound must be
zero. Example:
5. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the elements in the formula of a polyatomic ion must be
equal to the charge of the ion.
Exercise:
1. Determine the oxidation number of nitrogen in N2O5.
2. For instance, oxidation numbers are included in names of simple ionic compounds in the IUPAC
nomenclature. The oxidation number of a metal ion is represented by a Roman numeral in
brackets, immediately following the name of the metal.
Formula IUPAC name Oxidation number of metal ion
FeO Iron (II) oxide +2
Fe2O3 Iron (III) oxide +3
CuCl Copper (I) chloride +1
CuCl2 Copper (II) chloride +2
PbO Lead (II) oxide +2
PbO Lead (IV) oxide +4
MnO Manganese (II) oxide +2
Mn2O3 Manganese (III) oxide +3
MnO2 Manganese (IV) oxide +4
3. For elements that have only one oxidation number such as that in Groups 1, 2 and 13, their
oxidation numbers are not included in their names.
4. Oxidation numbers are also included in the systematic naming of anions containing metals that
can take more than one oxidation number. The oxidation number is represented by a Roman
numeral in brackets, immediately following the name of the anion.
Formula Systematic name Traditional name
KMnO4 Potassium manganate (VII) Potassium permanganate
K2CrO4 Potassium chromate (VI) Potassium chromate
K2Cr2O7 Potassium dichromate (VI) Potassium dichromate
5. For non-metal elements that exhibit more than one oxidation number, the oxidation numbers are
written as Roman numerals in brackets, immediately following the name of ions containing them.
Formula Systematic name Traditional name
KNO2 Potassium nitrate (III) Potassium nitrite
KNO3 Potassium nitrate (V) Potassium nitrate
HNO2 Nitric (III) acid Nitrous acid
HNO3 Nitric (V) acid Nitric acid
H2SO3 Sulphuric (IV) acid Sulphurous acid
H2SO4 Sulphuric (VI) acid Sulphuric acid
NaOCl Sodium chlorate (I) Sodium hypochlorite
NaClO3 Sodium chlorate (V) Sodium chlorate
6. The systematic names shown in table (5), (6) were originally introduced by the Stock system. The
traditional names, are adopted in the IUPAC nomenclature as they already existed for a long time
and they are much easier to use.
Reaction Explanation
The oxidation number of zinc increases from 0 to
+2. So, zinc is oxidised to zinc ion.
Since oxygen oxidises zinc, oxygen acts as the
oxidising agent.
The oxidation number of oxygen decreases from 0
to -2. So, oxygen is reduced to oxide ion.
Since zinc reduces oxygen, zinc acts as the
reducing agent.
Magnesium is oxidised to magnesium ion whereby
its oxidation number increases from 0 to +2.
Since carbon dioxide oxidises magnesium, carbon
dioxide acts as the oxidising agent.
Carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon whereby the
oxidation number of carbon in carbon dioxide
decreases from +4 to 0.
Magnesium acts as the reducing agent.
Hydroiodic acid is oxidised to iodine as the
oxidation number of iodine in Hydroiodic acid
increases from -1 to 0.
Bromine acts as the oxidising agent.
Bromine is reduced to hydrobromic acid as its
oxidation number decreases from 0 to -1
Hydroiodic acid acts as the reducing agent.
3. In non-redox reactions, the oxidation numbers of all elements remain unchanged.
4. Determining whether a reaction is a redox reaction or a non-redox reaction:
a) If one of the elements shows a change in oxidation number, it is sufficient to conclude
that the reaction is a redox reaction. You need not work out the oxidation numbers of the
other elements. This is because an increase in oxidation number is always accompanied
by a decrease in oxidation number.
b) The oxidation numbers of elements in polyatomic ions such as NH4+, SO42- and NO3-
need not be determined if the ions appear both in the reactants and in the products.
Summary:
Oxidation Reduction
Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen
Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen
Loss of electrons Gain of electrons
Increases in oxidation number Decreases in oxidation number
Changing of iron (II) ions to iron (III) ions and vice versa
1. Iron exhibits two oxidation numbers: a) +2 as iron (II) ion, Fe2+
b) +3 as iron (III) ion, Fe3+
2. An aqueous solution containing iron (II) ions, Fe2+ is pale green in colour, whereas that
containing iron (III) ions, Fe3+ is yellow or yellowish-brown or brown in colour.
3. Changing iron (II) ions to iron (III) ions is an oxidation and therefore requires an oxidising
agent. Fe2+(aq) Fe3+(aq) +
Oxidation number:
4. Changing iron (III) ions to iron (II) ions is a reduction and therefore requires a reducing
agent. Fe3+(aq) + Fe2+(aq)
Oxidation number:
Reagent Iron ions Observation
Fe2+ Green precipitate, insoluble in excess alkali
Sodium hydroxide solution or ammonia solution
Fe3+ Brown precipitate, insoluble in excess alkali
Fe2+ Light blue precipitation
Potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) solution
Fe3+ Dark blue precipitation
Fe2+ Dark blue precipitation
Potassium hexacyanoferrate (III) solution
Fe3+ Greenish-brown precipitation
Fe2+ Pale red colouration
Potassium or ammonium thiocyanate solution
Fe3+ Blood-red colouration
5. The following are other oxidising agents that can replace bromine water in changing iron (II) ions
to iron (III) ions.
Oxidising agent Overall ionic equation
Chlorine water 2 Fe (aq) + Cl2 (aq) 2 Fe3+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)
2+
Acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution MnO-4 (aq) + 8 H+(aq) + 5 Fe2+(aq) Mn2+(aq) + 5 Fe3+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)
Acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution Cr2O72-(aq) + 14 H+(aq) + 6 Fe2+(aq) 2 Cr3+ (aq) + 6 Fe3+(aq) +7 H2O(l)
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 (aq) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 Fe2+(aq) 2 Fe3+(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
Concentrated nitric acid 2 NO3-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 6 Fe2+(aq) 2 NO (g) + 6 Fe3+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)
6. Other reducing agents that can replace zinc powder in changing iron (III) ions to iron (II) ions are
as follows.
Reducing agent Overall ionic equation
Magnesium Mg(s) + 2 Fe3+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2 Fe2+(aq)
Sulphur dioxide SO2 (g) + 2 H2O(l) + 2 Fe3+(aq) 2 Fe2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 4 H+ (aq)
Hydrogen sulphide H2S(g) + 2 Fe3+(aq) 2 Fe2+(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + S(s)
Sodium sulphite solution SO32-(aq) + 2 Fe3+(aq) + H2O (l) SO42-(aq) + 2 Fe2+(aq) + 2 H+(aq)
Tin (II) chloride solution Sn2+(aq) + 2 Fe2+(aq) Sn4+ (aq) + 2 Fe2+(aq)
4. The higher the position of a metal in the electrochemical series, the more electropositive the metal
is, the easier it is for it to lose its electrons. Thus, the better reducing agent the metal is.
5. On the other hand, the ability of a metal ion to accept electrons increases down the series. Hence,
the strength of a metal ions as an oxidising agent increases down the electrochemical series.
6. In a displacement of metal, a more electropositive metal will displace a less electropositive
metal from its salt solution.
a) The more electropositive metal acts as the reducing agent. It loses electrons and
undergoes oxidation to form positive ions.
b) The ions of the less electropositive metal act as an oxidising agent by accepting the
electrons. While doing so, the ions are reduced to metallic atoms.
c) There is an electron transfer from the more electropositive metal to the ions of the less
electropositive metal.
Transfer of electrons
More electropositive metal Ions of less electropositive metal
b) The electrons are accepted by copper (II) ions in the solution. Thus, copper (II) ions act as
the oxidising agent and are reduced to metallic copper. The brown solid deposited in test
tube X is copper metal.
Reduction half-reactions: Cu2+ (aq) + 2 Cu (s)
c) The decreasing amount of copper (II) ions in the solution causes the solution to slowly
change colour from blue to colourless.
d) The redox reaction that occurs can be represented by the following equations.
Overall ionic equations: Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu (s)
2. In test tube Y, copper displaces silver from its salt solution.
a) Copper is more electropositive than silver. So, copper acts as the reducing agent, losing
electrons to form copper (II) ions. In other words, copper is oxidised. This explains why the
copper strip dissolves.
Oxidation half-reactions: Cu (s) + 2 Cu2+ (aq)
b) The increasing amount of copper (II) ions in the solution causes the solution to slowly
change colour from colourless to blue.
c) The electrons are accepted by silver ions in the solutions. Thus, silver ions act as the
oxidising agent and are reduced to silver grey silver.
Reduction half-reactions: Ag+ (aq) + Ag(s)
d) The redox reaction that occurs can be represented by the following equation.
Overall ionic equations: Cu (s) + 2 Ag+ (aq) Cu2+ (aq) + 2 Ag(s)
Conclusion A more electropositive metal can displace a less electropositive metal from its salt solution
whereby the more electropositive acts as the reducing agent and the ions of the less
electropositive metal act as the oxidising agent.
Bromine is more electronegative than iodine. Therefore, bromine displaces iodine from
potassium iodide solution. Bromine acts as the oxidising agent, whereas iodide ions act as the
reducing agent.
Oxidation: 2 I-(aq) I2 (aq) + 2
Reduction: Br2 (aq) + 2 2 Br- (aq)
Overall ionic equation: 2 I-(aq) + Br2 (aq) I2 (aq) + 2 Br- (aq)
4. Iodine is less electronegative than chlorine and bromine. Therefore,
a) Iodine cannot displace chlorine from potassium chloride solution.
b) Iodine cannot displace bromine from potassium bromide solution.
Conclusion A more electronegative halogen can displace a less electronegative halogen from its halide solution
whereby the more electronegative halogen acts as the oxidising agent and the halide ions of the less
electronegative halogen act as the reducing agent.
2. Dilute sulphuric acid is poured into the U-tube until its levels are 6 cm away from the mouths of
the U-tube.
3. Using a dropper, 0.5 mol dm-3 iron (II) sulphate solution is carefully added to one of the arms of
the U-tube until the layer of iron (III) sulphate solution reaches the height of 3 cm.
4. In a similar manner as in step 3, 0.2 mol dm-3 acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution is
added to the other arm of the U-tube.
5. A carbon electrode is placed in each arm of the U-tube.
Caution: the electrodes should not touch the sulphuric acid layer.
6. The electrodes are connected to a galvanometer as shown in Figure 5. Based on the deflection of
the galvanometer, the electrodes that act as the positive terminal and negative terminal are
determined.
7. The set-up is left aside for 30 minutes. Any change is observed.
8. Using a clean dropper, 1 cm3 of iron (II) sulphate solution is drawn out and placed in a test tube.
Then, a few drops of 0.2 mol dm-3 potassium thiocyanate solution are added to the test tube.
Any change is observed.
9. Steps 1 to 7 are repeated using 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium iodide solution and 0.2 mol dm-3
acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution to replace the iron (II) sulphate solution and
acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution. Step 8 is repeated to test the potassium iodide
solution with 1 % starch solution.
Results Solution used: Iron (II) sulphate solution and acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution
Observation Inference
a) The electrode in the iron (II) sulphate solution acts Electrons flow from iron (II) sulphate
as the negative terminal while the electrode in the solution to acidified potassium manganate
acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution acts (VII) solution.
as the positive terminal.
b) Iron (II) sulphate solution changes from pale At the end of the reaction, iron (III) ions are
green to yellow. It gives blood-red colouration present. Iron (II) ions have changed to iron
with potassium thiocyanate solution. (III) ions.
c) The purple acidified potassium manganate (VII) Manganate (VII) ions that give the solution
solution decolourises. its purple colour are used up in the reaction.
Solution used: Potassium iodide solution and acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution
Observation Inference
a) The electrode in the potassium iodide solution acts as the Electrons flow from potassium
negative terminal, whereas the electrode in the acidified iodide solution to acidified
potassium dichromate (VI) solution acts as the positive potassium dichromate (VI) solution.
terminal.
b) The colourless potassium iodide solution turns brown. It At the end of the reaction, iodine is
gives a dark blue colouration with starch solution. present. Iodide ions have changed
to iodine.
c) Potassium dichromate (VI) solution changes colour from Dichromate (VI) ions have changed
orange to green. to chromium (III) ions.
Discussion 1. Iron (II) sulphate solution and acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution
a) Iron (II) ions act as the reducing agent, releasing electrons to become iron (III) ions. Thus, iron
(II) sulphate solution changes colour from pale green to yellow.
Oxidation half-equations: Fe2+(aq) Fe3+(aq) +
(Pale green) (yellow)
b) The electrons accumulate at the carbon electrode in the iron (II) sulphate solution and flow out
to the connecting wires. This carbon electrode acts as the negative terminal.
c) The electrons then flow to the positive terminal, which is the carbon electrode in the acidified
potassium manganate (VII) solution.
d) Manganate (VII) ions act as the oxidising agent, accepting the electrons and therefore,
undergoing reduction to become colourless manganese (II) ions.
Reduction half-equations: MnO-4 (aq) + 8 H+(aq) + 5 Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)
(Purple) (Colourless)
e) Overall ionic equation: MnO-4 (aq) + 8 H+(aq) + 5 Fe2+(aq) Mn2+(aq) + 5 Fe3+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)
2. Potassium iodide solution and acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution
a) Iodide ions act as the reducing agent, releasing electrons to become iodine molecules. Thus, the
colourless potassium iodide solution turns brown. Oxidation: 2 I-(aq) I2 (aq) + 2
(Colourless) (Brown)
b) The electrons accumulate at the carbon electrode in the potassium iodide solution and flow out
to the connecting wires. This carbon electrode acts as the negative terminal.
c) The electrons then flow to the positive terminal, which is the carbon electrode in the acidified
potassium dichromate (VI) solution.
d) Dichromate (VI) ions act as the oxidising agent, accepting the electrons and therefore,
undergoing reduction to become chromium (III) ions.
Reduction half-equation: Cr2O72-(aq) + 14 H+(aq) + 6 (aq) 2 Cr3+ (aq) +7 H2O(l)
e) Overall ionic equation: Cr2O72-(aq) + 14 H+(aq) + 6 Fe2+(aq) 2 Cr3+ (aq) + 6 Fe3+(aq) +7 H2O(l)
3. The continuous flow of electros from the reducing agent at the negative terminal to the oxidising
agent at the positive terminal produces an electric current that causes the indicator of the
galvanometer to deflect.
4. Sulphuric acid has two functions:
- To separate the reducing agent from the oxidising agent
- To complete the circuit by allowing the transfer of ions to occur
5. Other electrolyte such as potassium nitrate solution and sodium chloride solution can be used in
place of sulphuric acid. The electrolyte should not react with wither the reducing agent or the
oxidising agent used.
6. There are few other pairs of reducing agent and oxidising agent that can be used in this activity.
Here are some examples:
Reducing Oxidising Equations involved
agent agent
Iron (II) Acidifies Fe2+(aq) Fe3+(aq) +
sulphate potassium Cr2O7 (aq) + 14 H+(aq) + 6 (aq) 2 Cr3+ (aq) +7 H2O(l)
2-
solution dichromate Cr2O7 (aq) + 14 H+(aq) + 6 Fe2+(aq) 2 Cr3+ (aq) + 6 Fe3+(aq) +7 H2O(l)
2-
(VI) solution
Potassium Bromine water 2 I-(aq) I2 (aq) + 2
iodide Br2 (aq) + 2 2 Br- (aq)
solution 2 I (aq) + Br2 (aq) I2 (aq) + 2 Br- (aq)
-
Conclusion The transfer of electrons occurs from the reducing agent to the oxidising agent through the
connecting wires.
8. When polyatomic ions such as manganate (VII) ion and dichromate (VI) ion are involved in
redox reactions, the half-equations are more complex. The following tables illustrate how the
half-equations are constructed.
Constructing reduction half-equation involving manganate (VII) ions
Step Half-equation
1. Identify the main change. MnO4- (aq) Mn2+(aq)
- Manganate (VII) ions are changed to
manganese (II) ions.
2. Identify other reacting substances MnO4- (aq) + H+ (aq) Mn2+(aq) + H2O(l)
- In an acidified solution, hydrogen ions also
take part in the reaction, forming water.
3. Balance the number of atoms of each
element
4. Balance the equation with respect to
charge. 5 should be added to the left-hand side of the equation,
producing the following final half-equation.
MnO-4 (aq) + 8 H+(aq) + 5 Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)
Exercise:
1. Based on loss or gain of oxygen or hydrogen, identify the oxidised substance, reduced substance,
oxidising agent and reducing agent in each of the following redox reactions.
a) CuO (s) + H2 (g) H2O (l) + Cu (s)
b) 2 HI (aq) + Cl2 (g) I2 (s) + 2 HCl (aq)
c) ZnO (s) + C (s) Zn (s) + CO (g)
d) 4 NH3 (g) + 5 O2 (g) 4 NO (g) + 6 H2O (l)
2. Sodium burns in oxygen to form sodium oxide as shown in the following equation.
4 Na (s) + O2 (g) 2 Na2O (s)
a) Write the half-equations. _____________________________________________
b) Based on loss or gain of electrons, explain why it is said that
i) Sodium is oxidised.
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ii) Oxygen is reduced.
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c) Identify the oxidising agent and reducing agent respectively.
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3. Determine the oxidation number of the underlined element in each of the following substances.
a) KCN b) CO c) NO2-
4. Based on changes in oxidation number, determine which of the following reactions are redox
reaction. For each redox reaction, determine the oxidised substance, reduced substance, oxidising
agent and reducing agent.
4. The surface of iron at the middle of the water droplet serves as the anode, the electrode at which
oxidation occurs. The iron atoms here lose electrons to form iron (II) ions.
Oxidation half-equations: Fe(s) Fe2+ (aq) + 2
5. The electrons flow to the edge of the water droplet, where there is plenty of dissolved oxygen.
The iron surface there serves as the cathode, the electrode at which reduction occurs. Oxygen
gains the electrons and is reduced to hydroxide ions.
Reduction half-equations: O2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) + 4 4 OH- (aq)
6. The iron (II) ions produced combine with the hydroxide ions to form iron (II) hydroxide.
Fe2+ (aq) + 2 OH- (aq) Fe (OH)2 (aq)
Overall redox reaction:
At the anode : 2 Fe(s) 2 Fe2+ (aq) + 4
At the cathode : O2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) + 4 4 OH- (aq)
Overall equation : 2 Fe(s) + O2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) 2 Fe2+ (aq) + 4 OH- (aq)
2 Fe(s) + O2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) 2 Fe (OH)2 (aq)
7. The iron (II) hydroxide is then further oxidised by oxygen to form hydrated iron (III) oxide,
Fe2O3 xH2O whereby x varies. The hydrates come in various shades of brown and orange and
together make up what is commonly known as rust.
8. In the presence of acids and salts, rusting occurs faster. These substances increase the electrical
conductivity of water, making water a better electrolyte. For example,
a) Iron structures such as bridges, fences and car at coastal areas rust faster due to presence
of salts in the coastal breeze.
b) Iron structures in industrial areas rust quickly as these areas have air polluted with acidic
gases such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
Other metals and rusting of iron
1. When two metals are in contact with each other, the more electropositive metal will corrode first.
This is simply because more electropositive metal can lose its electrons more readily than the less
electropositive metal.
2. So, when iron is in contact with a more electropositive metal, rusting of iron is prevented or
inhibited. For example,
Magnesium is more electropositive than iron. So, when iron is in contact with magnesium,
magnesium corrodes or is oxidised instead of iron.
Mg (s) Mg2+ (aq) + 2
3. When iron is in contact with a less electropositive metal, rusting of iron is speeded up. For
example,
Copper is less electropositive than iron. Therefore, when iron is in contact with copper, iron rust
faster. Fe (s) Fe2+ (aq) + 2
4. The further apart the metals are in the electrochemical series, the faster the more electropositive
metal corrodes. For example, Iron rusts faster when in contact with copper than when it is in
contact with tin.
Controlling rusting
Generally, there are three main ways to control rusting.
Using protective coating Alloying Sacrificial protection
- Prevent water and air from reaching the surface of iron. Stainless steel is a corrosion resisting Iron is attached to a more
- Various materials can be sued as the protective coating, depending on the alloy of iron. electropositive metal which acts
costing and usage of iron items. - It contains carbon and a varying as the sacrificial metal.
(A) Oil and grease - used for moving parts of engine amount of chromium and nickel. - It is used for objects that are
(B) Paints The typical stainless steel contains exposed to conditions that speed
- Used for items that are not easily scratched such as cars, ships, bridges, about 18% chromium and 8 % up rusting such as water and sea
railings and gates. nickel. water.
- Example: - Thus, stainless steel is expensive - For example, bridge pillars and
1. Most modern cars have a few layers of anti-rust coating and paints on and is mainly used for small objects hulls of ship are usually attached
them. such as cutlery and decorative to zinc blocks while
2. Some pots and plates have enamel-paint coated on them items. underground pipelines are tied
I Plastics - Used for light items such as clothes hanger and wire fences. - The chromium and nickel provide a to bags of magnesium.
(D) Galvanising (zinc plating) protective oxide coating which is - Being more electropositive, the
- Involves coating an iron or steel sheet with a thin layer of zinc. firmly bonded to the iron and is not sacrificial metal would act as the
- This is done by dipping the iron into molten zinc. easily removed. Furthermore, the anode whereby it is oxidised,
1. Galvanising is used on objects that are exposed to the atmosphere, such as oxide coating is shiny, hence giving protecting iron from rusting.
iron roofing, water tanks and iron rubbish bins. stainless steel and attractive, mirror- Thus, the sacrificial metal is also
2. Galvanised iron is prevented from rusting in two ways. Firstly, the zinc like finish. known as the sacrificial anode.
layer provides a protective oxide coating. - The sacrificial metal has to be
3. When the galvanised iron is scratched, zinc corrodes first instead of iron renewed from time to time.
because zinc is more electropositive than iron.
I Tin plating
- An iron or steel sheet is coated with a very thin coating of tin.
- This is done by dipping the iron into molten tin or by electroplating an iron
sheet using tin (IV) chloride as the electrolyte.
1. Tin plating usually used for making tin cans as tin is very expensive. After
tin plating, the inside of the can is coated with a thin layer of plastic.
2. The tin provides a protective oxide coating to the cans. The cans do not
rust as long as the tin coating remains unbroken.
3. However, as soon as the can is scratched, rusting will occur quickly. This
is because iron is more electropositive than tin. Hence, food is dented or
scratched tin cans should not be consumed.
Exercise:
1. Explain each of the following statement.
a) When a metal corrodes, it undergoes oxidation.
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b) Platinum is very resistant to corrosion.
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c) Aluminium is more electropositive than iron but it is more resistant to corrosion than
iron.
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2. a) Write the oxidation and reduction half-equations to represent the rusting of iron.
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b) State one example whereby a more electropositive metal is used to prevent rusting.
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c) State one example whereby a less electropositive metal is used to prevent rusting.
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3. Three clean iron nails are placed in three separate petri dishes containing hot jelly, potassium
hexacyanoferrate (III) solution and phenolphthalein as shown below.
Petri dishes A B C
Observation Large blue and pink Pink colouration around the A few blue and pink spots
colourations around the iron nail around the iron nail
nail
ii) Phenolphthalein
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b) Which iron nail does not rust? Give reasons for your answer.
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c) i) Name the ion that causes the blue colouration in petri dishes A and C.
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ii) Write the half-equation to represent the formation of the ion mentioned in I (i).
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Lead Lead glows brightly. The residue is Lead has a low reactivity with oxygen.
brown when hot and yellow when cold. Lead (II) oxide is formed.
Copper Copper glows faintly. The residue is Copper has a lower reactivity with
black when hot and cold. oxygen than lead. Copper (II) oxide is
formed.
Discussion 1. When solid potassium manganate (VII) is heated, it decomposes to give out oxygen gas.
2 KmnO4 (s) K2MnO4 (s) + MnO2 (s) + O2 (g)
2. Other than solid potassium manganate (VII), oxygen gas can also be provided by:
a) Heating a mixture of potassium chlorate (V) with manganese (IV) oxide as a catalyst
2 KclO3 (s) 2 KCl (s) + 3 O2 (g)
b) Heating potassium nitrate 2 KNO3 (s) 2 KNO2 (s) + O2 (g)
3. The glass wool separates the metal powder from the solid potassium manganate (VII). If the
substances are mixed, they will explode when heated.
4. Based on the reactions, the metals can be arranged according to their reactivity with oxygen.
Mg, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu
Decrease in reactivity with oxygen
5. The following equations represent the reactions between the metals and oxygen.
Magnesium: 2 Mg(s) + O2 (g) 2 MgO(s)
Zinc : 2 Zn(s) + O2 (g) 2 ZnO(s)
Iron : 4 Fe(s) + 3 O2 (g) 2 Fe2O3 (s)
Lead: 2 Pb(s) + O2 (g) 2 PbO(s)
Copper : 2 Cu(s) + O2 (g) 2 CuO(s)
Conclusion The descending order of reactivity of metals with oxygen is Mg, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu.
5. The reactivity series of metals is a list of metals according to their reactivity with oxygen. This
series is quite similar to the electrochemical series as the reactivity of a metal with oxygen is
closely linked to its ability to lose electrons.
d) Example:
When a piece of magnesium ribbon is heated and placed in a gas jar filled with carbon dioxide,
the magnesium ribbon burns brightly, producing a white residue of magnesium oxide. A lot of
black powder of carbon is also formed on the wall of the gas jar. The redox reaction can be
represented as follows. 2 Mg(s) + CO2 (g) 2 MgO(s) + C(s)
A magnesium is more reactive than carbon, it is able to remove oxygen from carbon dioxide.
Magnesium reduces carbon dioxide. To carbon while it itself is oxidised to magnesium oxide.
8. The excess hydrogen gas that comes out of the end of the combustion tube is lighted.
9. Solid copper (II) oxide is strongly heated. Any change is observed. The flow of hydrogen gas
should be continuous throughout this activity.
10. Steps 1 to 9 are repeated using solid zinc oxide, solid lead (II) oxide and solid iron (III)
oxide, one at the time, in placed of solid copper (II) oxide.
Results Mixture Observation Inference
Hydrogen + Copper (II) oxide burns Metallic copper is formed. Hydrogen has
copper (II) oxide brightly. The black powder reduced copper (II) oxide to copper. Thus,
turns brown. hydrogen is more reactive than copper.
Hydrogen + zinc Zinc oxide does not glow at Carbon is unable to reduce zinc oxide.
oxide all. It turns yellow when hot Thus, hydrogen is less reactive than zinc.
and white when cold.
Hydrogen + lead Lead (II) oxide burns brightly. Metallic lead is formed. Hydrogen has
(II) oxide The yellow powder turns reduced lead (II) oxide to lead. Thus,
shiny grey. hydrogen is more reactive than lead.
Hydrogen + iron Iron (III) oxide burns brightly. Metallic iron is formed. Hydrogen has
(III) oxide The reddish-brown powder reduced iron (II) oxide to iron. Thus,
turns shiny grey. hydrogen is more reactive than iron
Discussion 1. Hydrogen gas is produced when zinc granules react with sulphuric acid with the presence of
copper (II) sulphate solution as a catalyst.
Zn(s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
The hydrogen gas produced is dried by passing it through anhydrous calcium chloride.
Another drying agent that can be used is concentrated sulphuric acid.
2. The following precautions must be taken to prevent any explosion from happening.
a) All connections to delivery tubes and stoppers should be tight.
b) All the air in the combustion tube must be removed before lighting up the hydrogen gas that
comes out of the end of the combustion tube. Otherwise, a mixture of hydrogen gas and air
will explode when lighted.
c) The flow of hydrogen gas should be continuous throughout the activity.
3. Hydrogen is more reactive than copper, lead and iron. Therefore, hydrogen can reduce copper
(II) oxide, lead (II) oxide and iron (III) oxide to their respective metals.
H2 (g) + CuO(s) H2O (l) + Cu (s)
(black) (brown)
H2 (g) + PbO H2O (l) + Pb (s)
(yellow) (grey)
3 H2 (g) + Fe2O3 (s) 3 H2O (l) + 2 Fe (s)
(reddish-brown) (grey)
4. Hydrogen is less reactive than zinc. Therefore, hydrogen is unable to reduce zinc oxide.
Conclusion Hydrogen is positioned between zinc and iron in the reactivity series of metals.
K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, C, Zn, H, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au
3. Using the same way, we can predict the position of other metals in the reactivity series.
Example:
Manganese can reduce zinc oxide to zinc but is unable to reduce aluminium oxide. What is the position of
manganese relative to aluminium and zinc in the reactivity series of metals?
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4. The reactivity series of metals can assist us in predicting reactions involving metals.
a) Reaction of metal oxides with carbon or hydrogen.
Carbon + metal oxide metal + carbon dioxide
Hydrogen + metal oxide metal + water
A reaction will take place if carbon or hydrogen is more reactive than the metal. The
carbon or hydrogen will remove the oxygen from the metal oxide.
b) Reaction of metal oxides with other metals
Metal X + oxide of metal Y oxide of metal X + Metal Y
This reaction occurs if metal X is more reactive than metal Y.
c) Reaction of metals with water or steam.
Metal + Water/Steam metal oxide + hydrogen
This reaction occurs if the metal is more reactive than hydrogen.
d) Reaction of metals with carbon dioxide
Metal + carbon dioxide metal oxide + carbon
This reaction occurs if the metal is more reactive than carbon.
Example:
Predict the observations obtained when zinc powder is heated in the presence of steam.
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6. The molten iron is collected at the bottom of the furnace. It is drained off periodically into
moulds and is allowed to cool. The product is called pig iron or cast iron.
7. At the same time, the intense heat in the blast furnace causes the limestone to decompose.
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
a) The calcium oxide then reacts with the impurities in the ores, which consist mostly of
sand, SiO2, to form calcium silicate, CaSiO3 or slag.
CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) CaSiO3 (l)
b) As the molten slag is less dense than molten iron, it floats on the molten iron, protecting
the molten iron from oxidation by the hot air.
c) Like the molten iron, the slag is also drained off periodically. The slag can be used as a
building material and for the manufacture of cement.
Extraction of tin
1. The main ore of the tin is cassiterite which
contains tin (IV) oxide, SnO2. The following
summarises the steps in the extraction of tin.
2. The ore is first crushed, grounded and washed.
3. The ore is concentrated by mixing it with oil
and water. In this flotation method, the tin
minerals, which are less dense, are trapped in
the floating foam. The impurities such as soil and sand, which are denser, sink to the bottom.
4. The concentrated ore is then roasted in the air. This converts the sulphide of tin to oxide. At the
same time, impurities such as sulphur and oil are burnt off.
5. Similar to iron, the reduction of tin (IV) oxide takes place in the blast furnace by carbon
monoxide and coke. SnO2 (s) + 2 CO (g) Sn(s) + 2 CO2 (g)
SnO2 (s) + 2 C (s) Sn(s) + 2 CO (g)
SnO2 (s) + C (g) Sn(s) + CO2 (g)
6. Calcium oxide from the limestone eliminates the remaining impurities to slag. The molten tin is
drained off into moulds to become tin blocks.
Contributions of the metal extraction industry
Malaysia has one of the largest reserves of tin ore in the world and was once the worlds largest producer
of tin. Tin played a predominant role in Malaysian economy in the 19th and 20th centuries until the
collapse of the tin market in the early 1980s.
1. Other than tin ore, significant amount of iron ore, copper ore, bauxites and gold are also mined in
our country.
2. Besides providing jobs to our people, the local metal extraction industry has contributed greatly
to our economy and has supported many local metal-related industries such as the food canning
industry, alloy manufacturing and the jewellery industry.
Conserving metals
1. Metals are non-renewable and the worlds reserves of metals are depleting. Thus, we need to
conserve metals. This can be done through the 3Rs (reduce, reuse and recycle).
2. We should reduce the use of metals in whatever way we can. For example, we can use pencil
cases made of cloth instead of metal.
3. Tin and aluminium cans can be reused as pencil holders. Broken metal furniture can be welded,
painted and reused again.
4. Two most common recycled metals are aluminium and iron.
5. Recycling of metals not only conserves metals, but it also conserves energy and the environment.
For example, recycling aluminium uses only 5% of the energy required to produce aluminium
from its ore and reduces air pollution by 95%.
Exercise:
1. Figure 15shows a set-up of the apparatus used to
investigate the reactivity of iron, copper and metal P
with oxygen. The following table shows the results
obtained.
Metal Observation
Iron Iron grows brightly, producing a reddish-brown residue. Figure 15:
Copper Copper glows faintly, producing a black residue.
Metal P Metal P burns brightly, producing a white residue.
a) What is the function of substance A?
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d) Predict whether iron can displace metal P from its oxide. Give reasons to your prediction.
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e) Predict what happens if metal P is heated with copper (II) oxide. Why?
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a) Can carbon be used to extract metal X from its oxide? Give your reasons.
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b) i) Y has an oxide with formula Y2O3. Write an equation to represent the extraction of metal
Y from its oxide by heating with carbon.
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ii) Besides carbon, which other metal can be used to extract metal Y from its oxide?
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c) Metal Z can be extracted easily from its oxide ore by direct heating. Why?
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b) Besides iron ores, name two other raw materials loaded into the blast furnace.
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d) Name two other metals that are extracted in the same manner as iron.
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1. Redox reaction occurs in both electrolytic and chemical cells. Both cells have been dealt with in
the chapter of electrochemistry, which chemistry related to electricity.
2. An electrolytic cell is a device that uses electricity from an external source to drive a redox
reaction.
3. A chemical cell is a device that uses redox reaction to produce electricity.
Electrolytic cell Chemical cell
It requires a source of electric current. It does not require a source of electric current.
The electrodes may be of the same or different The electrodes must be of two different materials.
materials.
The supplied electrical energy causes chemical The chemical reactions that occurs at the
reactions to occur at the electrodes. electrodes produce an electric current.
Electrical energy chemical energy Chemical energy electical energy
Electrons flow from the positive electrode to the Electrons flow from the more electropositive
negative electrode through the connecting wires. metal (negative terminal) to the less
electropositive metal (postive terminal)
4. For both electrolytic cell and chemical cell, the terms anode and cathode are assigned based
on the reaction that occurs at the electrodes.
a) Anode: Oxidation (releasing electrons)
b) Cathode: Reduction (accepting electrons)
Conclusion In an electrolytic cell, oxidation occurs at the anode (positive electrode) while reduction occurs at the
cathode (negative electrode).
6. In all electrolytic cells, electrons flow from the reducing agent at the anode to the oxidising
agent at the cathode.
7. The reducing agent loses electrons and undergoes oxidation at the anode.
8. On the other hand, the oxidising agent gains electrons and undergoes reduction at the cathode.