13

LIGHTNING SURGE ANALYSIS

13.1 INTRODUCTION

The power system performance is evaluated for the steady state, temporary
overvoltages, switching overvoltages and fast front transients. Switching, faults and
lightning surges cause the overvoltages in a power system. In this Chapter,
overvoltages due to lightning surges are evaluated in the power system from the line
protection and safety points of view. Specifically, overvoltages due to lightning
strike are important in the insulation coordination and insulator flashover.
Therefore, this type of study is used to specify the surge arrester specifications for
system protection and optimum location of the arrester. Also, based on this study
sometimes the surge capacitors are installed to reduce the rate of rise of the surge
voltages. In this Chapter, the type of lightning surges, the effect of these surges on
the power system, the system modeling and example studies without and with
lightning arrester are presented.

Evaluation criteria - The transmission lines or substations are protected by

lightning arresters against lightning surges. The surge energy discharged through the
arrester must be compared to the impulse energy rating of the lightning arrester.
This can be achieved by selecting an arrester, which can discharge the surge energy
satisfactorily followed by a lightning strike. Also, the bus voltage at the lightning
arrester location has to be within the acceptable levels of the protected equipment.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 13.2 TYPES OF LIGHTNING SURGES

The lightning surges interacting with the power system can be identified as direct
lightning stroke or back flashover.

Direct lightning strokes - Lightning strokes of low magnitudes (a few tens of

kA) can bypass the overhead shield wire and can strike directly on the phase
conductor. From the geometry of the tower, the maximum lightning current that
can strike the phase conductors of an overhead transmission line can be
estimated. The magnitude of the current is dependent on the maximum strike
distance in Figure 13.1, Ds which is a function of the tower parameters and can
be calculated as:

y) + 2Cx
Ds (13.1)
2(h-y)

Where C = V* 2 + ( h ~ y ) 2 (13.2)

h = Average height of the ground conductor

y = Average height of critical conductor
x = Horizontal distance between phase conductor and ground wire

G1 G2<? Cloud
Position

R (max)

T y

1
A, B, C = Phase Conductors, Gl, G2 = Ground Conductors

Figure 13.1 Example for the Calculation of Maximum Lightning Current in the
Case of a Direct Stroke on a Phase Conductor

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 The surge current magnitude in kA can be calculated using the following
empirical equation:

Is - (13.3)

The current source representing the lightning surge is dependent on the geometry
of the tower configuration. The field data shows that the lightning on the phase
conductor is responsible for overvoltages in about 90% of the cases.

Example 13.1 - Calculate the lightning strike current for a 345 kV system, with h
= 49.4 m, y = 42 m and x = 2.05 m. Is this a significant current to do any damage
to the tower, insulator or conductor?

Solution - Using equations 13.1 through 13.3, the equivalent current can be
estimated.

C = V 2 -05 2 + (49.4-42)2 = 7.679m

7.6792 (49.4 + 42) + (2) (7.679) (2.05) J(49.4)(42)

--- = 62.3
2(49.4-42) 2

Is=
l.l
This is a significant current on a 345 kV system. This type of current flow on a 345
kV system can cause considerable damage if the system is not protected
accordingly.

Back flashover - Lightning strokes are of very high potential with the capacity
to discharge hundreds of kilo- Ampere with low-rise time. The surges can strike
overhead neutral wires, towers or phase conductors and may produce
overvoltages sufficient to cause sparkover across the insulators. Since most of the
stroke current flows into the ground during the back flashover, the tower footing
resistance has a major impact on the overvoltages generated. The back flashover
causes a line to ground fault that will be cleared by a circuit breaker. A line
outage will result until the circuit breaker is reclosed. Typical range of lightning
surge characteristics causing the back flashover is:

Peak current = (5 to 10) kA

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Rate of rise (5 to 30) kA/microsecond
Rise time (0.5 to 30) microsecond
Tail time (20 to 200) microsecond

The surge current from the tower or the neutral conductor to the phase conductor
is characterized by a sharp rise time and much smaller magnitude of the order of
10 to 20 kA.

As a conservative approach, both the direct strokes and flashover caused by a

stroke to the tower (back flashover) are modeled with a standard 1.2/50
microsecond current wave, with a peak magnitude calculated using equation
(13.3). A lightning current for a direct strike can be modeled as shown in Figure
13.2.

Al = Maximum Amplitude, A2 = 50% of the Maximum Amplitude

Tr = Rise time, TD = Duration of the Wave

Figure 13.2 Current Source Representation of the Lightning Surge

13.3 SYSTEM MODEL

The models are identified for each of the power system components used in the
transient simulation.

Source - The source can be represented as three-phase voltage or current. It is to be

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 noted in some studies that when the surge voltage magnitudes are significantly
higher than the source voltages, it may not produce any appreciable difference in
the results. However, to illustrate the effect of surge arresters, it is necessary to
represent the source voltages suitably.

Circuit breaker - Depending on the nature of the study, the circuit breakers can be
represented as time-dependent or voltage-dependent switch.

Transformer - The model for multi-phase systems can be the typical two winding
transformer described in Chapter 10. For other transformers a capacitance
representation is adequate. Sometimes a damping resistor is used across the
capacitor.

Transmission lines or cables - If the surge impedance and the travel time is
available for the phase conductor and the ground conductor, such a model is
suitable for lightning surge analysis. Phase conductors and shield wires between
towers are represented individually in order to include the effects of tower
resistance and associated grounding effects. The insulators are represented with the
flashover characteristics. Figure 13.3 shows the model for line conductors, shield
conductor, insulators, the tower and the tower footing resistance [1]. The required
line parameters can be determined by using a line constants program utilizing the
tower configuration and conductor geometry. The surge impedance is defined by:

T
Zs = - (13.4)

where L and C are the inductance and capacitance of the line per unit length. The
corresponding wave speed is given by:

1
(13.5)
'LC

Then the travel time is given by:

line length
Travel time = (13.6)

where the line length is known. Typical surge impedance of the line conductors
varies from (250 to 500) Ohms, while the ground mode surge impedance is around
700 Ohms. The surge impedance of the cables is much lower.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 The effect of line termination - In the transmission line design studies, at least
three towers are to be represented in detail along with the remaining line and
cable circuits using:

Distance between the towers.

Surge impedance of the line or cable between the nodes.
Velocity of the travelling wave between the nodes.
Tower footing resistance.
Neutral

X X
Insulator
Capacitance
~=

Surge Impedance
of the Tower

Resistance of
the Tower

Figure 13.3 Model for Line, Insulators, Tower and Tower Footing Resistance

A typical transmission line model suitable with the lightning surge propagation is
shown in Figure 13.3 [1].

Towers and tower footing resistance - The steel towers are usually represented by
a surge impedance and the velocity of propagation. The tower footing resistance
varies from 10 Ohms to 100 Ohms. The surge impedance of the tower depends on
the geometry of the structure. The travel time is obtained by dividing the height of
the tower by the speed of light. In the case of wooden towers, a parallel combination
of resistance and capacitor can be used. This leakage impedance can vary
significantly depending on the temperature and moisture content in the air.

Insulators - The insulators are represented by voltage dependent switches in

parallel with capacitors connected between the phase conductor to the tower. The
capacitors simulate the coupling effects of conductors to the tower structure.
Typical capacitance values of suspension insulators are of the order of 80 pF/unit,
while for pin insulators it is around 100 pF/unit.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Effect of corona - When the electric field intensity of the conductor exceeds the
breakdown value of the air, then the corona discharge occurs. The effect of the
corona model in the study is to reduce the overvoltage magnitudes by 5% to 20%.
In certain studies the effect of corona is neglected in order to be on the pessimistic
side. There are several corona models available in the Electro Magnetic Transients
program. However, these models require validation.

Substation buses and cables - Though the buses and the cables in the substation
are of very short length, sometimes they are represented in the transient analysis.
Such modeling plays an important role when comparing the performance of the air
insulated bus versus the gas insulated substation (GIS) arrangement. The other
substation equipment such as circuit breakers, instrument transformers and the step
down transformers are represented by the stray capacitance to ground. Typical
capacitance values of substation equipment [1] are presented in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1 The Capacitance to Ground on Various Substation Equipment

Capacitance to Ground, pF
Equipment 115kV 400 kV 765 kV
Disconnect switch 100 200 160
Circuit breaker (dead tank) 100 150 600
Bus support insulator 50 120 150
Capacitive PT 5,000 5,000 4,000
Magnetic PT 500 550 600
Current transformer 250 680 800
Auto-transformer 3,500 2,700 5,000

Surge arresters - The surge arrester is a device with nonlinear volt-ampere

characteristics used to clamp the bus voltage to the specified limit. An example
nonlinear characteristic of a 230 kV surge arrester is shown in Figure 13.4. This
type of device can be modeled using a point-by-point approach or by using an
equation.

Point by point model - The model for the transient's program is selected by using
a type 92 nonlinear device with the following characteristics:

A fixed series resistance in the branch.

A flashover voltage.
A set of V-I points describing the characteristics.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Vbreakdown

Current, kA 10

Figure 13.4 Example Nonlinear Characteristics of a 230 kV Surge Arrester

The device goes into the conduction mode when V > Vbreakdown and stops
conduction when the current reaches zero. The point-by-point data for the surge
arresters are available from the manufacturer's data sheet. Sample point-by-point
data for a 230 kV metal oxide surge arrester are given below.

Current, kA Voltage, kV
1.5 379
3.0 401
5.0 414
10.0 440
20.0 488
40.0 546

This type of data can be readily used for the simulation in a suitable format.

Model based on equation - The surge arrester characteristics may be represented

by an empirical equation:

Where q = 26 for zinc oxide arrester. For gapped silicon type of arrester q = 6. In
order to use this model the following parameters are required.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 1500

1000

Time, Microsecond

Figure 13.5 Nonlinear Characteristics of a 230 kV Insulator

The nominal reference voltage.

The exponent q.
The coefficient p, equal to 2,500.

Example data using the equation parameters are shown below.

92 BUS6A 5555. { 1st card of 1st of 3 ZnO arresters

C VREF VFLASH VZERO COL
360000. -1.0 0.0 4.0
C COEF EXPON VMIN
625. 26. 0.5
9999.

In the above example, the reference voltage is 360,000 V, the coefficient p (4 x

625) is 2,500, the exponent is 26 and the minimum voltage is 0.5 kV. In this
context, the importance of the nonlinear characteristics of the insulator has to be
considered. A typical characteristic of a 230 kV insulator is shown in Figure
13.5. Further, the contamination on the insulator is a variable that is to be
considered in the flashover and failure behavior.

Time step and simulation duration - The accuracy of the digital simulation can
be affected by the time step that is too large or too small. The time step depends
on the type of the surge, the minimum length of the travelling modes and other

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 related factors. The range of the time step is 1 to 20 microseconds and the
duration of the simulation length is 20 to 50 microseconds.

Calculation of the tower top voltages - Due to lightning strike on the tower,
shield conductor or directly to phase conductors there will be a current flow
through the tower to the ground. The tower is a metallic structure with a definite
resistance and hence there will be a voltage at the tower top with respect to the
ground. It is estimated that 40% of the lightning strokes hit the conductor in the
span and 60% of the strokes hit the tower. If the tower top voltage exceeds a
critical limit then there will be a flashover across the insulator to the phase
conductor. Therefore, the tower top voltage is an important factor in the tower
design and the selection of the insulators. An approximate estimation of the tower
top voltage (Vt) can be performed with reference to Figure 13.6 as described
below:
I A/
(13.7)

Where
Z
SZT
(13.8)
Zg + 2Zy

Zj = Intrinsic impedance at the tower top, Ohm

Zs - Surge impedance of the line, Ohm
ZT Surge impedance of the tower, Ohm
Zw = Wave impedance of the tower, Ohm
R = Tower footing resistance, Ohm
i = Damping constant for all the travelling waves
Tt = Wave travel time in the tower, microsecond
R
T
z
w (13.9)
Z +2
V S V

= (13.10)
2
T z s; Z T +R
2T
(13.11)

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Using the equations (13.8) through (13.11), the voltage drop can be calculated for
the given current from equation (13.7).

Example 13.2 - Calculate the tower top voltage of a 230 kV tower using the
following parameters. Zs - 350 Ohm, ZT = 200 Ohm, R - 10 Ohm, Tt = 0.3
microsecond, TO = 2 microsecond. The current through tower is 10 kA.

Solution - Using the given parameters in equations (13.8) through (13.11):

(350) (200)
Z = = 93.3 ohm
1
350 + 2(200)

(3502)(200) 200 -10^

^- - - = 275.90hm

(2) (200)
" _
~ "

Substituting the above values in equation (13.7), Vt = 1,065 V.

Conductor

Vt

Figure 13.6 Tower Top Voltage Calculation

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 13.4 COMPUTER MODEL AND EXAMPLES

The lightning surge analysis is performed using the Electro Magnetic Transients
program [8]. The following assumptions are made in this analysis in order to
simplify the overall complexity.

The overhead lines, bus and the cables are modeled using the surge
impedance and the travel time.
The system resistance is ignored.
The effect of corona is neglected.
The effect of mutuals are neglected.
A single phase model is used.

In order to demonstrate the effect of lightning surge on the transmission system,

an example simulation is presented. The effect of surge arrester in controlling the
overvoltages is also shown through the simulation results.

Example 13.3 - The one-line diagram of the 230 kV system for the surge analysis is
shown in Figure 13.7. The various transmission line sections, bus and cable are
modeled using surge impedance and wave travel time. The appropriate surge
impedance and travel time involved in various sections are listed in Table 13.2.

Table 13.2 Model Parameters for Lightning Surge Analysis

Section Line Length, Zs, Ohm Travel Time, microsecond

mile
1-2 50 476.0 294.0
2-3 0.2 476.0 1.20
3^ 0.2 476.0 1.20
4-5 Bus Section - -
6-7, cable bus 53 feet 66.0 0.60

The bus capacitance is represented at bus 5 with 0.005 microfarads/phase. The

transformer is modeled using a damping resistance, which is an approximately
equivalent surge impedance of 5,000 Ohm/phase and shunt capacitor of 0.002
microfarad/phase. The grounding resistance value is taken to be 10 Ohm. The
lightning surge current is modeled as shown in Figure 13.2 with a peak current
amplitude of 15 kA, 50% current amplitude of 7.5 kA, rise time of 1.2
microsecond and pulse duration of 50 microsecond. The lightning arrester is

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 located at bus 6 at the terminal of the cable. Using a transient analysis, examine if
the transformer is adequately protected from lightning surges by the surge arrester
located at bus 6.

Solution - The standard lightning wave is switched on to the line at bus 3 location
using a time-dependent switch. The lightning surge is assumed to hit the phase A
conductor directly. The following two cases are considered.

Case 1: No surge arrester present at bus 6 location (Figure 13.7, ignore SA).
Case 2: Lightning arrester is present at bus 6 location. A 192 kV/phase surge
arrester with MCOV of 152 kV is used in this example.

The time domain waveforms are studied at various locations. Figure 13.8 shows the
waveform at bus 6 for case 1. The peak voltage magnitudes due to the lightning
currents are of the order of 2,000 kV (10.7 P.U.). Such overvoltage magnitude can
cause flashover across the insulator and failure. Figures 13.9 and 13.10 respectively
show the voltage waveforms at bus 6 and bus 7 when a surge arrester is present at
bus 6. At bus 6, the voltages are clamped to 400 kV which is higher than the
breakdown voltage of the 230 kV surge arrester. But as can be seen at bus 7
(transformer location) the voltage magnitudes are higher than the surge arrrester
breakdown voltage because of the travelling wave reflections. The summary of
results for the cases 1 and 2 are presented in Table 13.3.

> f f \ I I I r,,, rent Source

50 0.2
4
mile mile
j f 'i
Transformer

=- - ict ^Rt

SA = Surge Arrester, Rg = Grounding Resistance

Rt = Transformer Damping Resistance, Ct = Transformer Capacitance

Figure 13.7 One-Line Diagram of the System for Example 13.3

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Table 13.3 Summary of Results for Cases 1 and 2

Location Magnitude, kV Magnitude, P.U.

Case 1 : No Surge Arrester
At Bus 6 2,000 10.7
At Bus 7, transformer terminal 2,000 10.7
Case 2: With Surge Arrester
At Bus 6 400 2.13
At Bus 7, transformer terminal 800 4.26

System Peak Voltage = 187.8kV

Magnitude, P.U. = Magnitude, kV/System Peak Voltage

It can be seen from the results of case 2, that the overvoltage magnitudes are
controlled by the surge arrester at bus 6 to 2.13 P.U. But the overvoltage
magnitudes at the transformer bus 7 is 4.26 P.U. The allowed fast front transient
for a 230 kV surge arrester is 2.6 P.U. Therefore, in order to protect the
transformer adequately, another set of surge arresters are needed at the
transformer location, namely at bus 7.

o c;nn nnn

9 oon ooo -

>
of
1,500,000
^X^v^x
o> NV/AV
2 f \
>
o 1 000 000

cnn nnn /
n _
0.00000 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.00010
Time, Second

Figure 13.8 Voltage Waveform at Bus 6; Case 1 with No Surge Arrester

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 ,000

0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001

Time, Second

Figure 13.9 Voltage Waveform at Bus 6; Case 2 with Surge Arrester

1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
-200,000
^00,000
-600,000
-800,000
-1,000,000
0.00000 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.00010
Time, Second

Figure 13.10 Voltage Waveform at Bus 7; Case 2 with Surge Arrester

Discussions - This is a very simplified approach for the lightning surge analysis.
However, the results are useful in understanding the behavior of the power
system during lightning strike without and with surge arresters. The accuracy of
the results is limited due to the following reasons:

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 A lightning strike hitting one phase directly or indirectly through back
flashover produces travelling waves of many modes.

At fast front transient level (10 kHz to 30 MHz) the line resistance becomes
fairly high, due to the skin effect in the conductors.

The overvoltages due to lightning can be attenuated by corona discharges.

Therefore, the corona models are important in the lightning surge analysis,
but the validations of the results are difficult.

When the flashover across the insulator occurs, the travelling waves will take
the path of the tower. This simulation involves the tower and the tower
footing resistance.

The conduction characteristics of the lightning arrester depends on the

waveshape and the rate of rise of the voltage.

Based on the above discussions, a multi-phase model is presented below.

Example 13.4 - Using the single phase model discussed above, prepare a muti-
phase model for the lightning surge analysis. Include a ground conductor with a
surge impedance of 755 Ohm. The lightning surge hits phase A. Perform the
analysis without and with surge arresters at bus 6.

Solution - A three-phase four wire system model for the lightning surge analysis
is presented in Figure 13.11. A 10 Ohm resistance is used to represent the tower
and the tower footing resistance. The mutuals are neglected. The following two
cases are simulated using the Electromagnetic Transients Program [8].

Case 3: No surge arrester present at bus 6 location (Figure 13.11, ignore SA).
Case 4: Lightning arrester is present at bus 6 location. A 192 kV/phase surge
arrester with MCOV of 152 kV is used in this example.

The time domain waveforms are studied at various locations. Figure 13.12 shows
the waveform at bus 6 for case 3. The peak voltage magnitudes due to the lightning
currents are of the order of 2,000 kV (10.7 P.U.). Figures 13.13 and 13.14
respectively show the voltage waveforms at bus 6 and bus 7 when a surge arrester is
present at bus 6 for case 4. At bus 6, the voltages are clamped to 400 kV, which is
higher than the breakdown voltage of the 230 kV surge arrester. But it can be seen
at bus 7 (transformer location) that the voltage magnitudes are of the order of 3.73
P.U. These results are similar to the results from the single-phase model.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Current Source
1 2 4 5 6 7 R t Rt
Va

-o
Vb SA tq
Vc
Cb bt
ti Ct

Rg

Va, Vb, Vc = System Phase Voltages

Figure 13.11 Multi-Phase Transient Model for Lightning Surge Analysis

o c;nn nnn

o nnn nnn i\
r~S \_~,

1 Rnn nnn /^ ^-Xo .

>
-
0)
1 nnn nnn /s ~^H A
g
flj
** Rnn nnn / /v-,_ _
/ /^r~-^jf ^/v % C
> f ,S ^^-^r^^.
n Lr^ \ W<nr
V
^ ' ' '/v^VX/
cnn nnn v^^s/V^ -/\J~^J
\/v

1 nnn nnn
0.00000 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.00010
Time, Second

Figure 13.12 Voltage Waveform at Bus 6; Case 3 without Surge Arrester

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
-100,000
-200,000
-300,000 --
-400,000
-500,000
0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001
Time, Second

Figure 13.13 Voltage Waveforms at Bus 6 Location; Case 4, with Surge

Arresters

800,000
600,000
400,000 -
200,000
0
-200,000
-400,000
-600,000
-800,000
0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001
Time, Second

Figure 13.14 Voltage Waveforms at Bus 7 Location; Case 4, with Surge

Arresters

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 13.5 RISK ASSESSMENT AND CONCLUSIONS

The risk assessment due to lightning surges can be estimated based on the
historical data on the number of lightning days per year for a given location and
the critical current due to lightning on the phase or ground conductor. The
insulator withstand voltages are known. Based on the critical current magnitudes
on the system, the probability of exceeding the flashover voltage of the insulator
can be evaluated. Knowing the risk, the loss of load probability can be estimated.
The assessment approach is approximate since many of the variables involved are
not easily measurable.

The direct stroke and the back flashover lightning strokes on the power system
are discussed in this Chapter. An approach to estimate the current magnitudes
due to the lightning stroke on the power system is identified. The power system
model suitable for the lightning surge analysis is discussed and some examples
are presented to show the simulation approaches. The effect of surge arresters to
control the overvoltages within allowed levels is shown through simulation
results.

PROBLEMS

1. Consider a 100-mile long transmission line loaded with equivalent

impedance of 0.2 micro-Farad/phase in parallel with a 400 Ohm/phase. The
system voltage is 500 kV and the surge impedance of the line is 400 Ohm.
Assume a loss less line. A lightning surge with a voltage waveform shown in
Figure 13.15 strikes the line in the middle. Plot the waveform of the voltages
at the load end. Assume that there is no surge protection against lightning
surges. Next consider a line with protection by means of surge arresters and
circuit breakers. The system phase voltage is 408 kV. Use 110% of the phase
voltage as the sparkover voltage of the surge arrester. Assume a tower
resistance value of 10 Ohm. What are the observations from the simulation
results?

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 2000
kV

E
<

100 microsecond
Time

Figure 13.15 Surge Voltage Waveform

2. What are the sources of lightning surges on a transmission line or substation?

What type of surge is severe on the power system equipment from the failure
point of view?

3. In Example 1 if the surge current is 110 kA, calculate the tower top voltage. Is
this a voltage magnitude that can cause any severe damage to any component
or equipment?

4. In theory and calculations the discussion are on a single lightning strike and
the system protection related issues. Is there a possibility of multiple lightning
strikes at the same location? What are the expected consequences?

REFERENCES

1. A. F. Ali, D. W. Durbak, H. Elahi, S. Kolluri, A. Lux. D. Mader, T. E.

McDermott, A. Morched, A. M. Mousa, R. Natarajan, L. Rugeles and E.
Tarasiewicz, "Modeling Guidelines for Fast Front Transients," IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol.11, No.l, January 1996, pp. 493-506.

2. C. J. Trusex, J. D. Brown, and W. Neugebauer, "The Study of Reclosing

Transients on a 765 kV Shunt Compensated Transmission Line," IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-97, No. 4,
July/August 1978, pp. 1447-1457.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 3. Q. Bui-Van, G. Beaulieu, H. Huynh, and R. Rosenqvist, "Overvoltage Studies
for the St-Lawrence River 500 kV DC Cable Crossing," IEEE/PES 1991
Winter Meeting, Paper No:. 91 WM 121-4 PWRD, New York, February 3-7,
1991.

4. Brown., "Lightning Performance I; Shielding Failures Simplified," IEEE

Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 97, January/February
1978, pp. 33-38.

5. R. B. Anderson and A. J. Ericksson, "Lightning Parameters for Engineering

Application," Electra, No.69, pp. 65-102.

6. A. J Ericksson and K. H. Week, "Simplified Procedures for Determining

Representative Substation Impinging Lightning Overvoltages," International
Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems, Paris, August 28, 1988,
8 pages.

7. S. Okabe, M. Kan, and T. Kouno., "Analysis of Surges Measured at 550 kV

Substations," IEEE/PES Winter Meeting, Paper No. 91 WM 042-2 PWRD,
New York, February 3-7, 1991.

8. H. W. Dommel, Transient Program User's Manual, University of British

Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, April 1986.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.