MOTION ALONG

A STRAIGHT LINE

LEARNING GOALS
By sIIHIyIJtg rills cbGjllter, fO.trig IHnr.

How to describe straight-line

motion in terms of average velocity,
instantaneous velocity, average ? A typical sprinter
acceleration, and instantaneous speem up during the
acceleration. first third of a race and
How to interpret graphs of positioo slows gradually over
versus time, veJocityversus time, the rest of the course.
and acceleration versus time for Is it accurate to say
straight-line motion. that a sprinter is
accelerating as he
How to solve prcblems involving
slows durirt the final
straight-tine motion with constant
two-thirds of the race?
acceleration, induding free-fall
problems.
How to analyze straight-line
motion when the acceleration is
not constant.

hat distance must an airliner travel down a runway before reaching

W takeoff speed? When you throw a baseball straight up in the air, bow
high does it go? When a glass slips from your hand, how much time
do you have to catch it before it hits the floor? These are the kinds of questions
yoo will learn to answer in this chapter. We are beginning our study of physics
with mechanics, the study of the relatio:nshipsmnong force, matter, and motion.
In tnis chapter and the next we will study kinematics, the part of mechanics that
enables UR to describe motion. Later we will study dynamic.f, which relates
motion to its causes.
In this chapter we concentrate on the simplest kind of motion: a body moving
along a straight line. To describe this motion, we introduce the physical quantities
velocity and acceleration. These quanfities have simple definitions in physics;
however, those definitions are more precise and slightly different than the ones
used in everyday language. An important part of how R physicist defines velocity
8Ild acceleration is that these Quantitiesare vectors. As you learned in Chapter 1,
this means that they have both magnitude and direction. Our concern in this
chapter is with motion along a straight line only, 80 we won't need the full math-
ematics of vectors just yet But using vectors will be essential in Chapter 3 when
we consider motion in two or three dimensions.
We'll develop simple equations to describe straight-line motion in the impor-
tant special case when the acceleration is constant, An example is the motion of a
freely falling body. We'll also consider situations inwhich the acceleration varies
during the motion; in this case, it's necessary to use integration to describe the
motion. (If you haven't studied integration yet, Section 2.6 is optional.)

36
 2.1 Displacement, Time, and Average Velocity 37

2.1 Displacement, nme, and Average Velocity

Suppose a drag racer drives her AA-fuel dragster along a straight track (Fig. 2.1).
To study the dragster's motion, we need a coordinate system. We choose the
z-axis to lie along the dragster's straight-line path, with the origin 0 at the start-
ing line. We also choose a point on the dragster, such as its front end, and repre-
sent the entire dragster by that point. Hence we treat the dragster as a particle.
A useful way to describe the motion of the particle-that is, the point that
represents the dragster-is in terms of the change in the particle's coordinate x
over a time interval Suppose that 1.0 s after the start the front of the dragster is
at point PI' 19 m from the origin, and 4.0 s after the start it is at point P2>
277 m from the origin. The displacement of the particle iii a vector that points
from PI to P'}. (see Section 1.1). Figure 2.1 shows that this vector points along
the z-axis, The x-component of the displacement is just the change in the value
of x, (277 m - 19 m) = 258 rn, that took place during the time interval of
(4.0 8 - 1.0 s] = 3.0 a. We define the dragster's ..-erage -veJocity during this
time interval as a vector quantity whose z-component is the change in x divided
by the time interval: (258 m)/(3.0 s) = 86 m/s.
In general, the average velocity depends on the particular time interval cho-
sen. For a 3.0-8 time interval before the start of the race, the average velocity
would be zero because the dragster would be at rest at the starting line and would
have zero displacement
Let's generalize the concept of average velocity. At time tl the dragster iR at
point PI. withcoordinate x., and at timet'}.itis at pointP'}.,with coonlinBteX2. The
displacement of the dragster during the time interval from II 10 t2, is the vector
from PI to P2 The .x--componentof the displacement, denoted ax, is just the
change in the coordinate.r.

(2.1)

The dragster moves along the x-axis only, so the y- and z-coroponents of the dis-
placement are equal to zero,

CAUTION TIle meanlna of ~ Note that ll.x is 1IOt the product of ll. and x; it is a sin-
gle symbol that means "the change in the quantity s:" We always use the Greek capital let-
fer t:.. (delta) to represenr a change ill a quantity. equal to the final value of the quantity
minus the initial value-s-never the reverse. Likewise, the time interval from 11 to 12 is t:..t.
the change in the quantity t: ll.t = t2 - 11 (final time minus initial time). -

The x-compcnent of average velocity, or average x-velocity, is the

x-component of displacement, t:..x, divided by the time interval tJ.t during which
the displacement occurs. We use the symbol vav.., for average x-velocity (the

1.1 Positions of a dragster at two tlmes dnring its run.

-"~,,,,,---------"'----""--~!,,,--_...oj........r-
POSiiiODat II = 1.0 s Positionat ~ = 4..0 s
S'1ARl' I _ I FJNl8H
.L IPI 0 Q-... IP2
I
I
'\
Displacement from
I~1
It to t2, I
I.
o ix-axis
Joxl=19m .12=
ml
m
I-- x
nJ ~:'11--------.6.x = (~- XI)

1\..
= 258 m ~

I .. ~~drl:~s ~&~l.oa:
-", ~
x-cooniina1e uf
dragster at 4.0 s
X is positive to the right uf the When the dragster moves in the +x direction, the rtisplaceanlt
origin (0). negative to the left A1x is positive and 110is the average z-vIl1ocity:
uf;t. u... x = !;= ~: = B6m/s
38 CHAPTER 2 Motion Along a StraightLine

subscript "av" signifies average value and the subscript x indicates that this i!i
the x-compoeent):

(average x-velocity, straight-line motion) (2.2)

As an example. for the dragster Xl = 19 m, X2 = Zl7 m, tl = 1.0 s, and

~ = 4.0 s, so Eq. (2.2) gives
277m - 19m 258m
" = -4.0-s _ 1.0;
v..... = 3.0 ~- = 86 m/s
The average x-velocity of the dragster is positive. This means that during the time
interval, the coordinate x increased and the dragster moved in the positive
z-daection (to the right in Fig. 2.1).
If a particle moves in the negative z-direction during a time interval, its aver-
age velocity for that time interval is negative. For example, suppose an official's
truck moves to the left along the track (Fig. 2.2). The truck is at Xl = 277 m at
tl = 16.0 s and is at x2 = 19 m at t2 = 25.0 s. Then Ax = (19 m - 277 m) =
-258 m and At = (25.0 s - 16.0 s) = 9.0 s, The x-componenr of average
velocity is VIIV_% = t:u/tJ.t = (-258 m) /( 9_0s) = -29 m/s_
Here are some simple rules for the average x-velocity. Whenever x is positive
and iDereasing or is negative and becoming less negative, the particle is mov
ing in the +x-dlrectlOll and vlIY-;x is positive (Fig. 2.1)_ Whenever x is positive
and decreasing or is negative and becoming more negative, the particle is
moving in the -x-diredion aDd vav_.r is negative (fig. 2.2).

CAUTION OIoice of tile positive x-direction You might be tempted to conclude

that positive average x-velocity must mean motion to the right, as in Fig. 2.1, and Ibat neg-
ative average ~velocil:y must mean motion tothe left. as inFig. 2.2. But that's correct only
ir the positive z-direction is 10 the right, as we chose it to be in Figs, 2.1 and 2.2_Had we
chosen the positive x-direction to be to the left, with the origin at the finish line, the drag-
ster would have negative average x-velocity HOdthe official's truck would bave positive
average x-velocity. In most problems the direction of the coordinate axis will be yours to
choose. Once you've made your choice, you must take it into account when interpreting
the signs of vav- .. and oCher quantities that describe motion I

With straight-line motion we sometimes call ax

simply the displacement
and Vav.,.. simply the average velocity. But be sure to remember that these are
really the z-components of vector quantities that, in this special case, have {)nly
x-components. In Chapter 3. displacement, velocity, and acceleration vectors will
bave two or three nonzero components.
Figure 2_3 is a graph of the dragster's position as a function of ti.me--that is,
an :%-1 graph. The curve in the figure does not represent the dragster's path in
space; as Fig. 2.1 shows, the path is a straight line. Rather, the graph is a pictorial
way to represent how the dragster's position changes with time. The points Pi

2..2 Positions of an official's lnlCk at two Positionat ':2 = 25.0s Positionat ti = 16.0s
times during its motion. The points Pl and
Pznow indicate the positions of the truclc,
and so are the reverse of Fig. 2.1.
'I:' ,! p,l :;r:-
: Di~fromll to ~ : J
~--~I--------------------------------------------~I-4~X
~ = 19m x, = 277m
( IE--------------.Ax = (l2 - XI) = -258 m ----------------1 ~
__
, I
This position is now -'2. _ This position is DOW XI'
Whenihe'kJc moves inthe -x-direction,.Axis
negative and 51) is the average x-velocity:
v =.Ax = -258m = -29-'s
...." .At 9.0 s lJJf;
 2.2 InstantaneousVelocity 39

x (m) For a displacemcoltalong the .r-uis, an o~'s averagex-vc)ocI.ty ::z.3 The posslon of a dragster as a func-

Dragster track.
I 400
vav-~equal' the slope of aline connecting the con:e8)lOndingpoints
on IIgrapIl of position (x)
lion of time.

(oot to scale) venus time (.I).

I --300.t2
Pz .t.

200

I 100

PJ _- _ ~~-""""'--'---"__---'----'---'--I (5)
o 1 2 3 s
~

and P2 on the graph correspond to the points PI and P2. along the dragster's path.
Line P1P2 iR the hypotenuse of a right triangle with vertical side Ax = X2 - Xl Table 2.1 Typical Velocity MagnibJdes
and horizontal side At = tz - t1, The average x-velocity Vrw-x = Ax/At of the
dragster equals the slope of the line PlP2-that is, the ratio of the triangle's verti- Asnai'spilCt' w-3mfs
cal side Ax to its horizontal side At. AbriBkwalk 2m/s
The average x-velocity depends only on the total displacement Ax = X2 - Xl Fastest human l1m/s
that occurs during the time interval Ai =
t2 - flo not on the details of what hap-
~cbeetah 3Smjs
pens during the time interval. At time tl a motorcycle might have raced past the
dragster at point PI in Fig. 2.1. then blown its engine and slowed down to pass Fastest car 341 mIg
through POintP2at the same timetz as the dragster, Both vehicles have the same dis- Random motion ()f aIrmolecules 500 mIg
placement dming the same time interval and so have the same average x-velocity, Fastest aiIplane lOOOmJIi
If distance is given in meters and time in seconds, average velocity is measured
Orbiting comnumicatlons satellite 3000m!s
in meters per second (m/s) _Other common units of velocity are lc:ilometers per
hour (km/h),feet per second (ft/s), miles per hour (mi/h) , and knots ( 1 knot = EleclJ'On orbit:iog in a
hydrogen atom 2 X lcfim}s
1 nautical mile/h = 6080 ft/h). Table 2.1 lists some typical velocity magnitudes.
Light trllvelin,g in 11VIlCUum 3 X lO~m}5

Test Your Uoderstancti118 of 5ec~o 2.1 Each of the following automo- ~

bile trips takes one hour. The positive x-direction is to the east. (i) Automobile A -"..:;,/
travels 50 km due east. (ii) .AntotnobileB travels SO km due west. (iii)Automo-
bile C travels 60 kmdue east, then turns around and travels 10 km due west. (iv) Autc>-
mobile D travels 70 km due.east, (v) Automobile E travels 20 km due west, then turns
around and travels 20 kmdue east. (a) Rank the five trips in order of average x-velocity
from most positive to most negative. (b) Which trips, jf any, have the same average
x-velocity? (c) For whicb trip, if any, is the average ~ve1ocity eqnal to ____
zero? .1.

2.2 Instantaneous Velocity 2.4 The winner of a 50-m lIwimmlngrace

is the swimmer whose average velocity has
the greatest magnitude-that is, the swim-
Sometimes the average velocity is all you need to know about a particle's motion.
mer who traverses a di.spl.acerneot I!uof
For example, a race wong a straight line is really a competition to see whose 50 m in the shortest elapsed time llt.
average velocity. vo.v-x. has the greatest magnitude. The prize goes to the competi-
tor who can travel the displacement Ax from the start to the finish line in the
shortest time interval. l':.t (Fig. 2.4).
But the average velocity of a particle during a time interval can't tell us how
fast, or in what direction. the particle was moving at any given time during the
interval To do this we need to know the velocity at any specific instant of time or
specific point along the path, This is called instantaneous velocity, and it needs
to be defined carefully.

CAUTION How 10111is an instant? Note that the word "inStant" has 8 somewhat dif-
ferent definition in pbYliicsthan in everyday language. You mi.ght use Ibe phrase "It lasted
just an instant" to refer to something Wal lasted for a very shon time interval. But in
physics an instant has DO duration at all; itrefers In a single value of time,
40 CHAPTER 2 Motion Along a StraightLine

2.5 Even when be's moving forward, this
cyclist's instantaneoUII.x-Veloc:i.tycan be
negativo-if he's traveling inthe negative
x-direction. Inany problem. the choice of
which direction is positive and which is
negative is entirely up to you.
To find the instantaneous velocity of the dragster in Fig. 2.1 at the point Pl' we
move the second point Pz closer and closer to the first point PI and compute the
average velocity lJav." = tu/flt over the ever-shorter displacement and time
interval. Both Ax and At become very small, but their ratio does not necessarily
become small. In the language of calculus. the limit of ax/At
as At i!ppIQiU;hes
zero is called the derivative of x with respect to t and is written dx/dt. The
instantaneous velocity is the limit of the average velocity as the time interval
approaches zero; it equals the instantaneous rate of change of position with time.
We use the symbol VX' with no "av" subscript, for the instantaneous velocity
along the z-axis, or the instantaneous x-velocity:

Ax dx
v=lim
x .b.t--oO At
= d, (instantaneous x-velocity. straight-line motion) (2.3)

The time interval At is always positive, so v1( has the same algebraic sign as
flx. A positive value of v" means that x is increasing and the motion is in the
positive x-direction; a negative value of v" means that x is decreasing and the
motion is in the negative x-direction, A body can have positive x and negative v",
or the reverse; x tells us where the body is. while Vz tells us how it's moving
(Fig. 2.5).
Instantaneous velocity. like average velocity, iF! a vector quantity. Eq. (2.3)
defines its x-componenL In straight-line motion. all other components of instan-
taneous velocity are zero. In this case we often call Vz simply the instantaneous
velocity. (In Chapter 3 we'll deal with the general case in which the instanta-
neOURvelocity can have nonzero z-, Y-, and z-components.) When we use the
term "velocity." we will always mean instantaneous rather than average velocity.
The terms "velocity" and "speed" are used interchangeably in everyday lan-
guage, but they have distinct definitions in phYNics. We use the term speed to
denote distance traveled divided by time, OD either an average or an instanta-
neous basis. We use the symbol v with no subscripts to denote instantaneous
speed. Instantaneous speed measures how fast a particle is moving; instanta-
neous velocity measures how fast and in what direction it's moving. For exam-
ple. a particle with instantaneous velocity Vx = 25 mls and a second particle with
v" = -25 m/s are moving inopposite directions at the same instantaneous speed
25 mfs. Instantaneous speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity, and so
instantaneous speed can never benegative.

CAUTION AverBle speed and a1leralt velocity Average speed is not the magni-
lIJde of average velocity. When Alexander Popov set a wodd record in 1994 by swimmiJlg
too.Om in 46.74 s, his average speed was (lOO.Om)/(46.74s) = 2.139m}s. But
because be swam two lengths in a SO-mpool. be started and eoded at the same point and
so had zero rota! displacement and zero average velocity! Both avet"38e speed and instanta-
neous speed are scalars. not vectors, because these quantities contain no informationabout
direction, l

A cheetah is crouched 20 m to the east of an observers vehicle
(Fig.2.6a). At time t = 0 the cheetah cbarg~ an antelope and
begins to run along a stralght nne. During the first 2.0 s of the
attack. the cheetah's coordinate x varies with time according to the
equation x = 20 m + (5.0 mbl-)t2_ ea) Fwd the displacement of
the cheetah between r. = 1.0 sand 12 = 2.0 s, (b) Find the average
velocity dnring the same time inte.rval (c) Find the instantaneous
velocity at time 11 = 1.0 s by taking I1t = 0.1 s, then l!.t = 0.01 s,
then l!.t = 0.001 s. (d) Derive a general expression for1he instanta-
neous velocity as a function of time. and from it find v..atl = 1.0 G
andt = 2.0s.
 2.2 InstantaneousVelocity 41

The average x-velocity during this interval is

IDENTIFY: We use the defiDiJions of dispiaoem.en1, average veloc- 26.05 m- 25m

ity, and Instantaneous velocity_ Using the first two of these
V!IY'% = s_
1.1 1..0 s
= 1O.S m/s
involves algebra; the last one requires using calculus to lake a
You should follow this same pattern to work out the average
derivative.
x-velocities for the 0.01-8 and 0.001-8 Intervals, The results are
SET UP: Figure 2.6b shows our sketch of the cheetah's motion. To 10.05 m/s and 10.005 m/s.
As At gets smaller, the average
analyze this problem we use Eq. (2.1) for displareJ:rem, Eq. (2.2) x-velocity gets closer to 10.0 m/s. so we conclude that the.instanta-
for average velocity, and Eq. (23) fur instantaneous velocity. neous x-velocity at time t = LO sis 10.0 m/s.
(If) To find the instantaneous x-veloci1;y as a function of lime,
EIiCUTE: (a)At time tl = 1.0 s the cheetah's position Xl is take the derivative of the expression for x with respect to t. The
Xl = 20 m + (.5.0 m/s2)(1.0 ,,)2 = 25 rn derivative of a constant is zero, and for any n the derivative of tn is
nr"-I, so the derivative of t2 is 2t. Therefore
At lime t2 = 2.0 sits position ~2 is

The displacement during this interval is At time t = 1.0 s, v...= 10 m/s as we found in part (c). At time
t = 2.0 6, Vx = 20 m/s.
!:1X = X:A - ~1 = 40m - 25m = 15 m
EVAWAU: Our results show that the cheetah picked up speed
(b) The averagex-vc1oeity during this time intervalis from t = 0 (when it. was at rest) to t = LOs (v% = 10m/s) to
t = 2.0 s (e, = 20 m/s). This makes sense; the. cheetah covered
m/
VaY-%= ~-t:
X2- Xl
=
40m - 25m
W;- 1.0;=
15m
LO~ =].5 s only 5 m during the interval t = 0 to t = 1.0 S, but covered 15 m
during the interval. t = 1.0 s to t = 2..() 8..
(c) Wllh ll.t = 0.1 a, the time interval is from 11 = 1.0 s to f2 =
1.1 8. At time 12. the position is

X:! = 20 m + (5.0 m/s2)(l.1s)2 = 26.05 m

2.6 A cheetah attacking an antelope from ambush, The animals are IIDt drawn to the same scale as the axis.

(b) Our sketch. 50.0m

<D We draw an. axis. Wechoose We mark the initial @We'reintM!sted in the @)Weadd.symboJgfor
We po.inJ. it inthe toplacelhe positions of the cheetah cheetah'" motion known and unknown
direction the origin at the and the amelope. (We between 1 s and 2 s after quantities. "We use
(c) Ourthinlcing
cheetah runs, so vehicle, won't use the antelope's it begins running; We subscripts 1 and 2 for
that cur values position--but we don't place dots to represent =
the points at t 18
and, = 2s.

-
will be positive. know that yet.) those points.
42 CHAPTER 2 Motion Along a StraightLine

Finding Velocity on an x-t Graph

Adv The z-velocity of a particle can also be found from the graph of its position as
~~UNf a function of time. Suppose we want to find the x-velocity of the dragster in
P SICS
II.1
Fig. 2.1 at point Pl. As point Pz in Fig. 2.1 approaches paint Pl. point Pz in the
1.1 Analyzing Motion Using Diagroms
x-t graphs of Figs. 2.7a and 2.7b approaches point 1'1 and the average x-velocity
is calculated over shorter time intervals At. In the lim that At -? 0, shown in
Fig. 2_7c, the slope of the line P1P2 equals the slope of the line tangent to the
curve at point PI' Thus. on a graph ojposition as a function of time for straight-
line motion, the instantaneous x-velocity at any point is equal to the slope of the
tangent to the curve at tlult point.
If the tangent to the x-t curve slopes upward to the right, as in Fig. 2.Tc, then
its slope is positive, the z-velocity is positive. and the motion is in the positive
z-direction, If the tangent slopes downward to the right, the slope of the x-t graph
and the x-velocity ere negative, and the medon is in the negative x-direction,
When the tangent is horizontal, the slope and the x-velocity are zero. Figure 2.8
illustrates these three possibilities.
Figure 2.8 actually depicts the motion of a particle in two ways: as (a) an
x-t graph and (b) a motion diagram. Amotion diagram shows the particle's posi-

2.1 Using an x-t graph to go from (a). (b) avemge:c-velocity to (c.) instantaneousx-velocity v... In (c;) we find the slope of the tangent to
thex-r curve by dividing any vertical interval (with distance units) along the tangent by the corresponding horizontal interval (with time
units).

(a) (b) (c)

x(m) x(m) x(m)

400 400 400
At- 2.os A.~= to s
300 Ax= 150m 300 300
fu= SSm
vav_x= 75 m/s v.v-% = SS m/s
200 200 200

100 \ P2

100 100

t(s)
0 4 5
All the average x-velocity V4v-x is ea1culated
over shorter and shorter time intervals _
._ its value vav-,. = l!uJl1t approaches the The instantaneous x-velocity V.x at any
.instantan~ x-velochy, given point equals the slope of the tangent
to the x-I curve at that point.

2.e (a) The x-t graph of the motion of a particular particle. The slope of the tangent lit any point equals the velocity at that point,
(b) Amotion diagram Ilhowing the position and velocity of the pll11icl.eat each of the times labeled on the ;c-t graph,
(iI) x-l grapb (b) Particle's motion
..-.'...'-.." ..-...."-'"
~'-.'
x V .,...... The particle is atx < 0 and moving
fA =0
o x in the +x-dlrectioo.
dlope negative:
D (V,,<o ~~From tAtolB it speeds up, _.
iE
r.: I V = 0- -. andfromtBtotcitslowsdown,
t.:-------!:O-----x then holtsmomentarily at tc-

I~ V .~ From.'e t~'Dit speeds up in the

o +x-dlrcction, ...
_ .._ Slope pooitive:
v.r>O \( \ i
~~ ... and from 'Dto 'Bit stows down
in the +x-dlrcction,

1be steeper the slope (positive or fiCgative) of an object's X-l graph. the
greater is the cbja;t's speed in the positive or neglf1ive x-direction,
 2.3 AverageandInstantaneousAcceleration 43

tion at various times (like frames from a video of the particle's motion) as well
as arrows to represent the particle's velocity at each instant. We will use both
x-t graphs and motion diagrams in this chapter to help you understand motion.
You wi116nd it worth your while to draw both an x-I graph and a motion diagram
as pan of solving any problem involving motion.

Test Your Understandbtg of Section 2..2 FIgllre 2.9 is an x-t graph of the ~) 2.9 An x-t graph far a particle.
motion of a particle. (a) Rank the values of the particle's x-velocity v" ai the points ;,;;,;/
Q
P, Q,R, and S from most positive: to most negative.. (b)At which points is Vz posi-

____ _~
tive? (c) At which points is v..negative? (d) At which points is vx zero? (e) Rank.the val-
Uf:S of the particle's N[Jt!ed atthe points P, Q,R, and S from fa'tteSlto slowest,

2.3 Average and Instantaneou5 Acceleration

Just 88 velocity describes the rate of change of position with time, acceleration
describes the rate of change of velocity with time. Like velocity. acceleration is a
vector quantity. When the motion is along a straight line, its only nonzero compo-
nent is along that line. As we'll see, acceleration in straight-line motion can refer
to either speeding up or slowing down.

Average Acceleration
Let's consider again a particle moving along the x-axis. Suppose that at time tl
the particle is at point PI and bas x-componenr of (instantaneous) velocity VI""
and at a later time t2 it is at point Pz and has x-component of velocity Vzr So the
x-component of velocity changes by an amoent dvx = V2x - VI.< during the time
interval dt = t;. - 'I
We define the average acceleration of the particle as it moves from PI to P.z to
be a vector quantity whosex-componen1aav_x (called the avera,gex-accelel:a"tion)
equals dIJ the.change inthe z-cemponent of velocity. divided by the time inter-
valllt:

V21: - VI.< Ilv... (average x-acceleration,

(2.4)
Gav-x = '2- tl at straight-line motion)

For straight-line motion along the x-axls we will often call allYx simply the aver-
age acceleration, (We'll encounter the other components of the average accelera-
tion vector inChapter 3.)
If we express velocity inmeters per second and time in seconds. then average
acceleration is in meters per second per second, or (mls) Is.
This is usually writ-
ten as m/s2 and is read "meters per second squared."

CAUTION Acceleration vs. velocity Be very careful not to confuse acceleration with
velocity! Velocity describes how a body's position changes wiChtime; it tells us how fast
and inwhat direction the body moves. Acceleration describes how the velocity changes
with time; it tells us how the speed and direction of motion are changing. It may help to
remember the phrase "acceleration is to velocity as velocity is to position." Ircan also help
to imagine yourself riding along with the moving body. If the body accelerates forward
and gains speed, you would feel pushed backw-dId in your seat; if ilaccelerates backward
and 10608 speed, you would feel pushed forward. Ifthe velocityis constant and there's no
acceleratioD,you would feel neither sensation. (We'll see the reason farthese sensations in
Chapter 4.)
44 CHAPTER 2 Motion Along a StraightLine

'binl.1Mi Average acceleration

An astronaut has left an orbiting spacecraft to test a new personal 2.10 Our graphs of x-velocity versus time (top) and average
maneuvering unit. & she moves along a straight line, her partner x--accelc:mti.oo versus time (bottom) for the astronaut.
on the spacecraft measures ber velocity every 2.0 S, starting at time
1).lC(m/s)
t=1.08:
t v" t V'" 15
1.0 ~ .6
Ul(
t-,
I
:
1.08 O.8m/s 9.0 s -O.4m/s
05 l'lt I I
3.08 L2m/s 11.os -LOm/s I
o 1---:'---!--~----'i-----:-':-------:-':15=-t(s)
5.05 1.6m/s
1.2m/s
13.05
15.0r;
-l.6m}s
-O.Sm/r; -05 iii)"
L1
7.09
-1.0 I! I! I
Find the average x-acoeleration, and describe whether the speed of -15 The 8Iope of the line connecting each
the astronaut iocreases or decreases, for eacb of these time inter- pair of points 00 the "xtgraph ... I
I
vals: (a) t1 = 1.0 s to tz = 3.0 s; (b) t1 = 5.0 s to ~ = 7.0 S; I
QI1-I.I<Cm! ~ ... equals the SVCIa,gcx-fICCClc.taIion I
(c) t1 = 9.0 stotz = 11.0s; (d) t1 = 13.0s 1.0 tz = 15.0s, I I
05 : between those points, ~\ L..........J
L..........i I I :; :
o 1~10 I 15 t(s)

IDENTIFY: We'll need the definition of average ~0Il. a,.v-.." -0.5

To :findthe changes in speed, we'll use the idea that speed v is the
magnitude of the instantaneous velocity v
-0.3 mN. The speed increases from 0.4 m/s to 1.0 m/s.
Z

SET UP: Figure 2.10 shows our graphs..We use Eq, (2.4) to find (d)ll ..... = [-0.8 m./s- (-1_6m}s) ]/(15_0s - 13.0s) =
the value of a.v.x from the change invelodty for each time interval. OA m./r. The speed decreasesfrom 1.6 m/s to 0.8 m/s.
EXECUTE:In the upper part of M.g_ 2..10,we graph the x-velocity EVALUATE:Our results show !hat when the averagex-acceleration
as a function of time. On this v..-t graph, the slope of the line con- has the same direction (same algebraic sign) as the initial velocity.
nectin,g the points at the beginning and end of each interval equals as in intervals (a) and (c). the astronaut goes faster; when it has
the average x-acceleration tl.... = Av.IAt for that interval. In the the opposite direction (opposite algebraic s.Ign). as in intervals (b)
lower part of Fig. 2.10.we graph the values of a......We find: and (d). she slows down. Thus positive z-acceleration means
(a) a.v_.t = (1.2m./s - O.8m/s)/(3.Vs -1.0s) = 0.2m/52 speeding up if the x-velocity is positive [interval (a)] but slowing
The speed (magnitude of instantaneous x-veloeity) increases from down if the x-velocity is negauve [interval (d). Similarly, nega-
OJ! m/s to 1.2 m/s.. tive x-acceleration means speeding up if the x-velocity is negative
(b)a,.v.% = (1.2m/s - 1.6m/s)/(7.0s - 5.0s) = [interval (c)but slowing down if the x-velocity is positive Linter-
-0.2 m/S2. The speed decreases from 1.6 m/s to 1.2 m/s.. val (b)].
(c)aa.-x = [-I.Omls - (-0.4m/s))/(11.0s - 9.0s) =
---
Instantaneous Acceleration
We can now define instantaneous acceleration following the same procedure
that we used to define instantaneous velocity. As an example, suppose a lace car
driver is driving along a straightaway as shown inFig. 2.11. To define the instan-
taneous acceleration at point Ph we take the second point P2 in Fig. 2.11 to be
closer and closer to PI so that the average acceleration is computed over shorter
and shorter time intervals. The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the aver-
age acceleration as the time inservalapproaches zero. In the language of calculus.
instantaneous acceleration equals the instantaneous rate of change of velocity
with time. Thus

. dVz du, (instantaneous z-acceleration, (.2.5)

a =hm-- =-
" 4.1-+0 06.1 dl straight-line motion)

2.11 A Grand Prix car at two pcints on

the straightaway.
 2.3 Averageand InstantaneousAcceleratioo 45

Note that az in Eq, (2.5) is really the z-component of the acceleration vector,
or the instantaneous X~UOD; in straight-line motion, all other compo-
nents of this vector are zero. From now on, when we use the term "acceleration,"
we will always mean instantaneous acceleration, not average acceleration.

Example 2.3 Average and instantaneous ac:celerations

Suppose the x-velocity Vx of the car in Fig. 2.11 at any time tis (b) The average.x.-acceleratio during this rune interval is
given by the equation
aav..z = Vb - Vlx = 4.0 m/s = 2.0 m/s2
v" = 6IJ mls + (fl50mjgl)P t2 - 11 2.08
(a) Find the change in x-velocity of the car in the lime interval Dunngthe ttme lntervalfromq = 1.08to~ = 3.os .:thex-velocity
between t1 = 1.0 6 and t" = 3.0 s, (b) Find the average x-accelera- and average z.-accdend:ioo have the sa:IIW algebraic sign (in this
tioo in Ibis lime interval. (c) Fmd the tnstantaneous x-acceleration case, positive), and the car speeds up.
at time t1 = 1.0 s by taking ~t to be first 0.1 S, then 0.01 s, Ihen (c) When fl.t = 0.1 s, t2 = 1.1 s and we find
0.001 s. (d) Derive an e~oo for the instaotmeous x-accelera-
tion at any time, and use it to find the z-aeceleration at t = 1.0 s lhr = 60m/s + (0.SOm/tr)(1.lS)2 = 6O.60Sm/s
and t = 3.0s. avx = 0.105 m/s
~vx 0.105 m/s
a
ON
= --- = ._-
fl.t 0.1 s
= 105m/s
.
2

IDENTIFY: This example is analogous to Kumple 2.1 in Sec-

tion 2.2. (Now is a good time to review that example.) There we You should do these calculations for at
= 0.01 s and tu =
found the average x-velocity over shorter and shorter time inter- 0.001 s; the results arc D ..x = 1.005 m/s? and Cl.VX = 1.0005 m/s2,
vals from the change in position, and we determined the instanta- respectively, As Ilt gets smaller, the average x-acceleraJ:iongets
neous x-velocity by differentiating the position as a function of closer to 1.0 m}g", so the instantaneous x-acceler.Jtion at t = 1.0 s
time. In this example, we find the average x-accelendion from the is1.0mN.
change in x-velocity over a time interval. Likewise, we find the (d) The inS1lmllUleOUS.HCCelemtion is ax = dv)dt. The deriva-
instantaneous x-accekration by difl'eremiating the x-velocity as a tive of a constant is zero and the derivative of tJ. is 2t., so
function of time,
SI:T UP: We'll use Eq. (2.4) for average x-acceleratioo and
ax = ~ ..= :t[60m/s + (O.:S0m/s3)ta]
Eq. (2.5) for instantanecus.e-acceleranon, = (o.50m/sl)(2t) = (I.Om/s3)t
EXECUTE:(a) We first find the x-velocity at each time by substitut-
When t = 1.0 s,
ing each value of t into the equation. At time tl = 1.0 So
a" = (LOm/s3){1.Os) = 1.0m/s2
Lib = 6IJm/s + (O.sOm}:?)(LOs)2 = 6IJ.5m/s
When t = 3.0 s,
At lime ~ = 3.0 So
a" = (LOm/S3)(3.0s) = 3.0m/S2
Vb = 6IJm/s + (0.sOrnjsl}(3_0 s)" = 64.5 m/s
EVAWATE:Note that neither of the values we fouod in part (d) is
The change in x-velocity livx is equal to the average x-acceleration found in part (b). That's
liv" = v2:<- Vb = 64.5 m/s - 60.5 mls = 4.0 m/s because the car's instantaneous x-acce1eration varies wilh Lime.
Tbe rate of change of acceleration with time is sometimes called
= 2.0 8.
The time interval is lit = 3.0 8 - 1.0 s the ''jak."

-
Finding Acceleration on a Vx-t Craph or an :x--t Graph
InSection 2.2 we interpreted average andinstantaneous x-velocity interms of the
slope of a graph of position versus time. In the same way, we can interpret aver-
age and instantaneous x-acceleration by using a graph with mstantaneoas veloc-
ity v'" on the vertical axis and time t on the horizontal axis--that is, a v",-l graph
(Fig. 2.12). The points on the graph labeled PI and P2correspond to points PI and
P2 in fig. 2.11. The average x-acceleration aMX = I1vxf 11, during this interval is
the slope of the line P1P2. As point Pz in Fig, 2.11 approaches point P1, point P2 in
the vx-t graph of Fig, 2.12 approaches point PI, and the slope of the line PlP2
approaches the slope of the line tangent to the curve at point Pl- Thus, on a graph
of x-velocity as a function of time, the instantaneous x-acceleration at any point
is equal to the slope of the tangent to the curve at that point. Tangents drawn at
46 CHAPTER 2 Motion Along a Straight Line

:1.1:1 A v..-t grapb of the motion in For a dispIaa:n:alt along the~s, an objeCl"saverage x-acceleration
Fig. 2.11. liz equals the slope of a line OOJ1lleCting the corresponding points on a
gtaph of x-velocUy (vx) versus time (0.
1'2
I
I
I
I
I
iAvx = v:h - vb
I
'...~.-. Slope of tangent to ".~-t
curve at a given point
i = instantaneous ~n at tIw poinl
"u ~-----&-~~~~---~
o

different points along the curve in Fig. 2.12 have different slopes, so the instanta-
neous x-acceleration varies with time.

CAUTION The signs Df x-acceleration and x-velDcity By itself, the algebraic ')
sign of the x-acceleration doer. not tell you whether a body is speeding up or slowing
down. You must compare the signs of the x-velocity and thex-acceleration, When Vz and ax
have the same sign. the body is speeding up. Ifboth arc positive. the body is moving in the
positive direction with increasing speed. If both are negative. the body is moving inthe
negative direction with an x-velocity that is becoming more and more negative, and again
the speed is increasing. When v...and a" have opposite signs, the body is slowing down. If
v..is positive and a, is negative, the body is moving in the positive direction w.ith decreas-
ing speed; if v" is negati ve and a" is positive. the body is moving in the negative direction
with an x-vclocity that isbecoming less negative. and again the body is slowing down. F1g-
ure 2.13 Illustrates some of these possibilities. 1

The term "deceleration" is sometimes used fur a decrease in speed. Because it

may mean positive or negative ax. depending on the sign ofv x t we avoid this term,
We can also learn about the acceleration of a body from a graph of its position
versus time. Because ax = dvJdt and v"" = ax/dt, we can write

dv,; d (dX) d'lx

ax=Tt= dt dt =d~ (2.6)

2.13 (a) A V,,-I graph of the motion of a different particle than lhat shown in Fig. 2.8. The slope of the tangera at. any point
equals tbex-aca:lcraI:ion at that point. (b) Amotion diagram showing the position, velocity, and acceleration of the particle at
each of the times labeled on the v ..-t graph. The positions are consi~tent wi1h the v,,-t graph; far instance, from tA to In the velocity
is negative, 80 at tB the particle is at a more negative vahle of x than at tA-
(a) v..-I graph for an object (b) Object's pomion. veloclty.1IDdacceleration OD the z-axis
maving on the .a:-a"tis
a ........
_ _ .....
Slope zero: a.x = 0 V __....... ~ "'~'" Object is at X < O. DIDving in the -X-dia:diUD (v.. < 0).

'C .s... ~"'-.- - -

o " and Rlowl.ngdown (vx and Gx have opposite signs).

--.... Object is at oX < O. instantltlleously at rest (v.t = 0),. and

B~~'D IB V =0 0 r about to move in the +x-direction (ax> 0).
o

A
!\ Slope positive: f
/\ E
t

tc
r = 0 v~
0
Object is at x > 0, IIlCI\'ing in the +x-direction (v...> 0);
" its speed is instantaneously not changing (a" = 0).
..,....,.. .a.. >0 L,........--.
. \
I Slope negutive:
.a.. < 0 V I....
u
L.-

0 V -
a ..,--
Jl
....._
Objectis at X > O.instaDtaneoosly at rest (v.=
0 about to move in the -x-direC1ion (.a.. < 0).
~
0). and

The steeper the 'lope (positive or~)

object's V...-I graph, the gmm:c is tbe object's
of IIIl Iii 0.
I ... ~a1/ ~
Jl
Object is at x> 0, UlDving in the -~OD (v...< 0),
and speeding up (vr IIDda.. have the same sign).

aeceleradon in the positive or negative -dim;tion.

 2.4 Motion with ConstantAcceleration 41

1.14 (a) The same x-t graph 88 shown in Fig. 2.811.. The x-velocity is equal to the slope of the graph, and the acceleration is given
by the C(JIICavity or curvature of the graph. (b) A motion diagram showing the position, velocity, and acceleration of the particle at
each of the times labelcd on the x-t graph.
(a)~tgraph (b) Object's motion
Slope zero; VA" = 0
Curvature downward: oIlx < 0 a
->- .--------... Object is atx <0. moving in the +x-direcrion
\ ~Srope negative: t =0 v .x (v" > 0), and speeding up (vA" and a..: have the
-...,..C VA" < 0 A 0 sameslgn).
CurvamreupWlU'd: a = 0 ......~-
.........Objectillat.x = O,movingintbc +x-direcdoo
D ax> 0 'B ... v__ .... - .x (v,t> 0); speed is inBtantaneouslynot
o a cbaaging (a,. = 0).

Slope negative: fI.. < 0

Curvamre zero: a.. 0 =
tc -----0.1...1 ----4._- ~= :;---
x
Object is atx > O. instantaneously at rea
(v~= 0). andaboutto muve infile
-x-dire<.1ion(a.. < 0).
Slope positive: vA" > 0 a = 0 ~"""'" Object is at z > O.moving in the -x-directioo
Curvoture zero: a..: = 0 'D I.. V x (v..< 0); speed is insta:o:laIu!oWlly not
o cbanging (a..:
= 0).
Slope positive: v.. >() ..:... ....-... Object is at x 0. moving in 1lIe -x-direcrion
Curvature upward: a,. > 0 v~ .x (v" < 0), and slowing down (v" anda .. have
o opposite signs).
The greater the curvature (upward or downward) of
an object's rt graph, the greater is the object's
acceleration in the positive ()T nega.tiver-<fuecti.on.

That is, a..is the second derivative of x with respect to t.The second derivative of
any function is directly related to the concavity or curvature of the graph of that
function. At a point where the x-t graph is concave up (curved upward), the
z-aeceleration is positive and v% is increasing; at a point where the x-t graph is
concave down (curved downward). the z-accelerarion is negative and V~ is
decreasing. At a point where the x-t graph has no curvature. such as an inflection
point, the x-acceleration is zero and the velocity is not changing. Figure 2.14
shows all three of these possibilities.
Examining the curvature of an x-t graph is an easy way to decide what the sign
of acceleration is. This technique is less helpful for determining numerical values
of acceleration because the curvature of a graph is hard to measure accurately.

---------- 2.15 Amotion diagram for aparticle

Test Your Understanding of Sec.tion 2..3 Look again ar (he x-t graph in ~) moving in a straigh; line in Ihe positive
Fig. 2.9 at the end of Section 2.2. (a) At which of the points P, Q, R, and S is the ~ x-directlon with constant positive
x-acoelerntion a..positi.vc? (b) At which points is thex-acceleration negative? (c) At x-ecceleration o,t.100 position, velocity.
which points does the x-acceleration appear to be zero? (d) At each point I!Dte whether Md acceleration are shown at five equally
the speed is increasing. dcaeasing. or not changing. _____ .1 spaced times.
/"'" If a particle moves in a
.. straight line with constant
2.4 Motion with Constant Acceleration a
V
x-1I/X.CIcraOOn ax ...
t= 0 ]I;
0:I changes
The simplest kind of accelerated motion is straight-line motion with constant ._Ihcx-velocity

acceleration. In this case the velocity changes at the same rate throughout the : (l !Z.~ual aDlalOlllltsin equal
I .. .........,mterv s,
motion. This is a very special situation., yet one that occurs often in nature. A .~
t
IJ ~~
II _, .\....
~
..
falling body has a constant acceleration if the effects of the air are not important. t=w 01 I a ~ ]I;

I I ~: \ '\'"
The same is true for a body sliding on an incline or along a rough horizontal sur-
face. Straight-line motion with nearly constant acceleration also occurs in tech-
nology, such as an airplane being catapulted from the deck of an aircraft carrier.
Figure 2.15 is a motion diagram showing the position, velocity. and accelera-
':Ut:i i IV-,-. J :\
t - 3ru 01 I ... ~
x
x
tion for a particle moving with constant acceleration. Figures 2.16 and 2.17 depict
this same motion in the form of graphs. Since the x-acceleration is constant, the
"1.-1 graph (graph of x-acceleration versus time) in Fig. 2.16 is a horizontal line.
t = 4LU J,:: t t t ':"vl
i ~. :x
However. the position changes by tJljfrrenr
The graph of x-velocity versus time, or vA-t graph. has a constant slope because BIllOUIJt:i in equal time intervals because the
the acceleration is constant, so this graph is a straight line (Fig. 2.17). velocity is changing,