AEIJST - February 2017 - Vol 5 - Issue 02 ISSN - 2348 - 6732

An Assessment of Ground Water Potential for state of Kerala, India: A Case Study
*Mrs. Parvathi Jayasankar
**Dr M N Sridar Babu

*PhD Student, TERI University, TERI , Southern Regional Centre, 4 th Main, 2nd Cross, Domlur
II Stage, Post Box no 7117, Bangalore -560071
**Faculty, TERI University, TERI , Southern Regional Centre, 4 th Main, 2nd Cross, Domlur II
Stage, Post Box no 7117, Bangalore -560071

Abstract
The southern state of Kerala in India, known as Gods Own Country, is blessed with plenty of
water resources that include chains of backwater bodies, rivers, reservoirs, lakes, ponds,
springs and wells. Although, the state receives abundant rainfall throughout the year, the
regions topography and soil characteristics, combined with rapid urbanization are causing
significant stress to its ground water level. Therefore, it has become imperative for
researchers, scientists, administrators, and policy-makers to analyze the present ground
water situation of the state. Among the various globally used techniques for Ground Water
(GW) research methods viz: traditional method of monitoring ground water level (GWL) of
observatory wells, remote-sensing techniques using satellites, correlation techniques, this
paper primarily uses GIS (Geographic Information System) technique& bivariate analysis to
identify the ground water potential and risks in different districts of Kerala. The work entails
an analysis of the Ground Water (GW) potential assessed through dependent outcome
variables Ground Water Resource Quantity (MCM) and Percentage Development. Factors
affecting the above variables for the state are rainfall, population, soil characteristics, and
progression of wetlands. The analysis of Water Resource Quantity (MCM) for two decades
(1989, 1999 and 2009) reveals the identification of three critical districtsKannur, Idukki,
and Wayanad. The percentage development mapped for the same period (1989, 1999 and
2009) identifies Kasaragod district as the region that faces intense ground water issues. This
paper undertakes a detailed assessment of the ground water scenario in Kerala using bivariate
analysis in order to arrive at the factors affecting the outcome variables. A list of possible
interventions has been discussed to effectively mitigate the risks.
Key words: Geographic information system; Ground Water potential; Percentage development;
Ground water resource Quantity; Kerala
1 Introduction
Ground water is an important source of portable water available for human consumption in
the world. Ground water is a renewable resource that can sustain various anthropogenic
activities of a population, if judiciously used. Ground water is used for various purposes like
drinking, agriculture, Industry, and recreational activities in Kerala (1).
1.1 Kerala Ground Water Scenario
Kerala is physiologically divided into four regions from East to West viz: The Western Ghats,
the foothills, the midland, and the coastal lowland [2].The state traditionally had a large
amount of surface water and high precipitation/rainfall. For this reason, Kerala was not
greatly dependent on ground water usage in the past, which is clear from the fact that the
percentage of ground water used by the state is one of the lowest in the country (47 %) [3].
However, in the last few years, the following changes have been observed in Kerala that create
the need for a detailed analysis of the GW potential of the state:
a) Kerala is receiving less than normal monsoon rains for the past 4 decades, compared to
earlier years. The relative reduction in rainfall is significant in the monsoon season [4].

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 AEIJST - February 2017 - Vol 5 - Issue 02 ISSN - 2348 - 6732

b) The natural topography, drainage system, and terrain of Kerala allow a rapid runoff of the
rainwater to the sea. The situation of less-than-normal rainfall will further deplete the water
resources.
c) Due to high population density and reduced availability of free land in the state, the
watersheds and reservoirs are under constant threat due to pressure from anthropogenic
activities. [5]
Thus, there is a need for an effective study to map and monitor the GW potential of the state.
Further, it is essential to identify the critical zones that need careful management of water
withdrawal and conservation. In this paper, an attempt has been made to assess factors
affecting the GW availability applicable to the state and the best methods suited to map the
GW potential of the state.
2 Aim and Objective
The main aim of the study is to assess the ground water potential of the region of Kerala and
to address the existing gap between demand and availability of ground water. This entails a
district-wise analysis of the ground water scenario in the state. Recently, problems of decline
in water table, contamination of groundwater, seawater intrusion, etc. are being reported in
many places. The steady decline in rainfall over the years in Kerala combined with increased
water consumption is a major cause for concern among policy-makers, planners, and ordinary
citizens. (6). The study uses GIS mapping to understand the critical areas of GW potential,
and then discuss the mitigation techniques.
The Objective of the study is to
a) Assess the factors contributing to the overall ground water situation in Kerala. This
includes an objective evaluation of the contributing factors and their relevance to the region.
b) Finalize the variables used for assessment of the ground water potential (district-wise) and
collect the secondary data from different Government agencies.
c) Using GIS mapping to identify the critical areas for these contributing factors.
d) Study the relation of the variables with the data collected from district-wise secondary
sources for two decades (1989 to 2009) for the identified contributing factors.
3 Study Area
The state of Kerala is in the southern part of India,
situated between north latitudes 80 18 and 120 48 and east
longitudes 740 52 and 770 22. The district-wise analysis is
done for the chosen years to arrive at the objectives of the
study.

Fig.1 Study Area- KERALA

Geologically, the region of Kerala is a part of the South Indian Precambrian terrain. Rock
types, degree of weathering, and their composition influence topographic development of the
land. Rugged terrains, mostly on hard rocks, and radial drainages are characteristics of the
granite intrusion areas. (2).Lithology of Kerala reveals Gneiss as a major component of soil
(7).

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Table.1Soil structure Of Kerala (2)

Soil Location Water Holding Additional
Capacity characteristics
Red Soil Thiruvananthapuram Medium Presence of Fe2O3
Laterite Soil Major parts of Kerala Low Low in Nitrogen &
Phosphorous
Coastal Coastal Belt Low Low organic content /
Alluvial Soil High Permeability
Greyish Onattukara region Deficient in Plant
Onattukara nutrient
Soil
Hydromorphic Coastal regions of Water-logged soil
Saline Soil Ernakulam, Kannur,
Thrissur
Acidic Saline Kuttanad Water-logged soil Saline, Acidic
Soil
Black Soil Chittur , Palakkad Water-logged Soil Low in Organic
Content, High in Clay
content
Forest Loam Forest Area, High High Carbon-rich Soil
lands

A major part of Kerala has laterite soil, which has a low water-holding capacity that results in
reduced infiltration and increased run-off. The coastal region of Kerala has soil that is water-
logged by nature.
With regard to the soil, Keralas network of rivers and the associated soil-river in alluvium,
contribute to the GW resources and GW potential in majority of the areas in the state (Fig 2).
Taking adequate measures to preserve the rivers and the flow of water through them is
essential in maintaining the states GW availability. Also soil type Gneiss is known to have a
negative impact on the GW level.

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Rainfall pattern in Kerala

Soil type classification in Kerala (http://cess.res.in)
(http://cess.res.in)
Fig 2: Soil type and Rainfall pattern in Kerala (8)
Kerala has two monsoon season southwest monsoon (June to September) and northeast
monsoon (October to November which give high rainfall to the state. About 85 per cent of the
annual rainfall is received during the monsoon period between June and November (70 per
cent during southwest and 15 per cent during the northeast monsoon) and the remaining
15per cent only during the non-monsoon period between December and May as summer
showers.
For the state, there are some favorable and unfavorable factors contributing to the GW
scenario, which are the following:
Table 2: Contributing factors to Ground water potential
Head Characteristics Type of Comments
contribution
Geological Lineaments and Neutral River capture, presence of beheaded
directions of streams and elbow shaped right angle
lineaments turning along river course and unpaired
terraces (8)
Topology (slope/ Negative Rapid Slope from East to West drains rain
gradient) water
Soils Laterite Negative Low Water-Holding capacity
Riverine Positive Water Availability and river-fed GW
Alluvium potential
Climate Rainfall Positive Year-round availability of rainfall is a major
contributor for GW

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Thus the positive factors are network of rivers and the associated riverine alluvium and
adequate rainfall. However, topology, the soil characteristics, and rapid urbanization are
putting stress on the GW scenario. Consequently there is a chance of higher dependence on
ground water in the future. Sound management techniques are the need of the hour to
manage the GW resources in the state in an effective manner.
4 Factors affecting Ground Water
Ground water variation can be broadly classified into two categories:
Factors affecting the recharge potential: These are the factors affecting the infiltration of
water from precipitation and surface water flow.
Factor affecting discharge potential: They are the factors determining the amount of water
drawn from GW in the region.
4.1 Recharge Potential
Recharge potential is the degree of addition of GW levels for any given region. The following
table gives the factors affecting the recharge potential and its degree of importance for the
state of Kerala
Table.3: Factors affecting recharge potential of Ground Water in Kerala
Factors Sub factors Degree of Remarks
importance
Rainfall Annual Rainfall High This is an important factor, which
or Percentage variation from affects ground water in the state.
precipitat normal Kerala has a high gradient slope
ion Percentage of normal rainy and large drainage intensity that
days / Percentage of deficit makes GW seepage difficult. So, it
days is of paramount importance to
Rainfall in a season, have constant and good rainfall in
compared to previous seasons every season
vis a vis the average rainfall in
the last decade
Natural Slope (gradient) High Slope: Generally in the East West
Water Soil characteristics Direction with major variations
seepage Drainage intensity across the state
Soil characteristics: Kerala has 8
different type of soils with different
permeability characteristics that
havea bearing on the GW potential
of the state
Drainage intensity: High, resulting
in lesser water infiltration
Land-Use Degree of Green cover Medium Loss of water sheds and the rapid
Characte Water sheds urbanization is having a negative
ristics Built up area impact on the Recharge potential
of the state
Artificial Rainwater harvesting Medium No major rainwater harvesting,
water Dams and check-dams but the Eastern sector has a
seepage Crop pattern in paddy fields network of dams and reservoirs.
Also, the wetlands have paddy
cultivation, which is only annual,
thereby helping water storage and
seepage

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4.2 Extraction potential

This factor helps in understanding the extent of exploitation of GW to determine whether the
GW inflow is balancing the extraction amount. In an ideal case, both should match over a
period, thus ensuring that this natural resource is sustainably managed.
Table 4. Factors affecting ground water extraction in Kerala
Factors Sub factors Degree of Remarks
importanc
e
Anthropog Population density High This is an important factor in
enic Kerala. Cities and
Percentage increase in
activities municipalities as well as some
population over the years
villages in the sensitive zones
Income / water usage are having extraction higher
pattern of the population than infiltration adversely
affecting the water balance of
the area.

Aquifers Mapped, confined and High Since credible data not

unconfined aquifers available, this factor is not
available considered in this analysis
Water Mapped Water table Medium Since credible data not
table movements for recharge available at present, this
movement of GW factor is not considered

Thus, for Kerala the main factor, which determines the GW extraction potential are
anthropogenic activities like domestic usage, irrigation needs, industrial usage etc. However
agriculture is not a major drain on GW potential as compared to other states in India as
agriculture is surface water fed in the state.
5 Methodology
Ground water resource quantity (MCM) and percentage development are treated as the
dependent outcome variables for GW potential. The data for these and the independent
variables were collected for 14 districts of Kerala. The methodology used here is a bivariant
analysis to arrive at a relationship of the dependent outcome variables to the independent
variables. Further, GIS mapping has been used to visualize the regional GW criticality.

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A schematic diagram of the process steps is given below

Collect secondary data from approved data sources and do a sanity check
Data Collection Identify patterns and trends
/Empirical phase Identify the contributing factors for the state of Kerala

Overlay the GIS maps of the independent variables to contributing parameters

Data Analysis Identify the correlation of the contributing factors to the independent variables
Identify the critical zones in Kerala for each of the independent variables

Identify the key factors contributing to criticality of the independent variables

Interpretation & Arrive at the reasons for the behaviour & trends
Insights Identify the mitigation actions based on hydrogeology and usage patterns of the
/////////interpretiv regions

e
Fig 3: Methodology
5.1 Data Collection
Data regarding ground water resource quantity and percentage of development for the past 16
years has been collected from CGWB (Table.5). The major sources of ground water in Kerala
are dug wells (1). The percentage of utilization of GW in Kerala is deteriorating at a slow pace
as evident in Table 5. Rainfall data is acquired from Indian meteorological department (IMD),
CGWB, and published research papers (9). Population of each district in Kerala has been
taken from the census data for corresponding years. The data set includes district-wise
ground water resource quantity in million cubic meter (MCM) for a period from 1989 to 2009,
percentage of development of groundwater in all the districts in Kerala range from year 1989
to 2009.The independent variables in the assessment of ground water potential of Kerala
include rainfall received in the corresponding years and overall population for each district in
Kerala for the years 1989 to 2009.

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Table 5: Ground water resources and stages of development in Kerala (10)

Ground Water Resource
Quantity (MCM) Percentage Development (%)
Districts 1989 1999 2009 1989 1999 2009
Thiruvananthapuram 304.29 308.51 328.71 9.31 64.31 53
Quilon 445.19 495.61 422.21 11.02 45.24 38
Alleppey 510.4 466.08 452.9 6.67 30.64 29
Pattananthitta 423.4 347 253.02 4.67 28.96 37
Kottayam 526.03 521.06 445.7 3.33 27.68 29
Idukki 660.9 269.04 196.55 1.6 33.86 43
Ernakulam 684.13 618.43 583.27 18.52 50.02 42
Thrissur 856.3 744.99 681.53 16.78 46.9 53
Palghat 736.62 823.92 783.83 9.43 40.02 62
Malappuram 690.06 557.29 495.55 11.87 55.29 57
Wayanad 477.33 324.39 276.06 1.99 21.6 18
Calicut 528.04 366.41 344.62 5.99 55.58 56
Kannur 847.2 591.89 480.13 5.22 34 46
Kasargod 427.16 376.18 328.89 22.94 71.22 71

5.2 Data Analysis

5.2.1 Period of Analysis
The data collected from CGWB, Kerala, for two decades is analyzed for the variations in trends
and patterns of ground water over a period. The years for the analysis chosen are 1989, 1999,
and 2009 considering the following factors:
The decadal pattern to be analysed.
Availability of the other contributing factors data, such as census data, which are
available for the above periods.
Availability of district-wise data for the state.
5.2.2 Choice of dependent outcome variables
The following outcome variables are chosen for the analysis:
a) GW Resource Quantity in MCM (Million Cubic Meters): This variable is a good indicator
of the GW resource availability in a region and the data is collected from CGWB, Kerala. The
above parameter is an indication of the total GW resource available in the selected area,
resultant of the recharge & extraction potential of the region.
b) Percentage of Development of GW: The Percentage of development is an indicator of the
degree of exploitation for the GW in a region. This percentage gives an idea of the extent of GW
extracted. This parameter also gives an indication of the potential of extra development/
exploitation of ground water possible in the region.

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5.2.3 Choice of the independent Variables

Contributing factors for the extent of GW potential change with respect to the characteristics
of the region. Considering the physical, geological, and other factors of the state of Kerala,
initial hypothesis is made on the contributing independent factors (Please refer section 4 for
the logic behind this selection. The factors relevant for the state are:
Geomorphology & Soil conditions
Population
Climate / Rainfall
Wetland
5.2.4 Mapping using Geographical Information System (GIS)
Geographical Information System (GIS) is a computer-based information system, which has
the potential to perform digital representation and analyze the geographic features related to
the earths surface through gathering, analysis, processing, storing, and presenting the spatial
data and images available through different sources. It helps to visually analyze the
geographical features for better planning and decision-making, thereby improving
organizational integration (11).
In the present exercise, GIS mapping techniques have been used to chart the ground water
potential attributes to various factors/attribute data into a geo-spatial map. The author used
Arc GIS mapping software to do the analysis, using data sourced from various government
and semi-government agencies. The work utilizes the GIS technique to identify and mitigate
the supply-demand gap of ground water in Kerala. It involves the following steps:
In the first step, the Ground Water Quantity (MCM) data was spatially plotted on the base
map of Kerala with all district boundaries using geographic information system (GIS),for the
years 1989,1999 and 2009. The goal is to arrive at the decadal variation in the ground water
availability in different districts.
Mapping of percentage ground water development (for 1989, 1999 and 2009) was also
performed on the base map of Kerala using Arc GIS. Thus, the author attempts to identify the
degree of exploitation pattern of different districts of Kerala (using the categories safe, not
safe and critical).
Some of the independent variables, such as rainfall, are also spatially plotted over the base
map of Kerala to identify the district-wise trend.
Once the overlaid maps are available, the dependency on the ground water independent
variables can be inferred.
Thus, with the help of GIS maps, spatial distribution of the critical zones of ground water can
be assessed in Kerala.
5.2.5 Bivariate Analysis
The trends and bivariate analysis of the contributing independent variables to the GW
potential variables are analyzed through graphs. The output of this analysis will identify the
broad degree of association of the independent variables to dependent variables
Analysis of the rainfall pattern and the relation with GW potential. The mean rainfall, the
deviation and the Seasonality Index of rainfall district-wise are mapped to GW potential
The population trends are also a major factor on extraction potential, and hence the GW
variability
The agriculture patterns, land use/land cover (wet land area)are also analysed for any effect
on the GW potential
Thus, bivariate analysis helps to verify the hypothesis on the contributing factors for
determining the ground water potential for Kerala.

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5.3 Interpretation & Insights

In this section, the critical areas in Kerala and their correlation are analyzed and verified
against the actual data. The critical areas and factors contributing to the criticality derived
from the previous phases are verified with subject matter experts. Each critical area is
discussed in detail and some suggestions have been given to reduce the effect of problems in
those critical areas and control the dependent factors for that region.
6 Results and Discussions
6.1 Ground Water Resource Trends
Ground Water Resource is an indication of the quantum of GW available for extraction and
usage. The district wise progression of GW resource quantity (MCM) is mapped for 2 decades
(1989, 1999 and 2009).
Table 6: Trends in GW resource Quantity (MCM) and the Percentage variation for the period
1989-2009:
Districts 1989 1999 2009 Variation (Decrease in
2009 from 1989)
Thiruvananthapuram 304.29 308.51 328.71 -8%
Quilon 445.19 495.61 422.21 5%
Alappuzha 510.4 466.08 452.9 11%
Pathanamthitta 423.4 347 253.02 40%
Kottayam 526.03 521.06 445.7 15%
Idukki 660.9 269.04 196.55 70% (Critical)
Ernakulam 684.13 618.43 583.27 15%
Thrissur 856.3 744.99 681.53 20%
Palakkad 736.62 823.92 783.83 -6%
Malappuram 690.06 557.29 495.55 28%
Wayanad 477.33 324.39 276.06 42% (Critical)
Calicut 528.04 366.41 344.62 35%
Kannur 847.2 591.89 480.13 43% (Critical)
Kasargod 427.16 376.18 328.89 23%

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Water Resources Qty (MCM)

Trivandrum
1000
Kasargod Quilon
800
Kannur 600 Alleppey

400
Calicut 200 Pattananthitta

Wayanad Kottayam

Malappuram Idukki

Palaghat Ernakulam
Thrissur

1989 1992 1999 2004

Fig.4: District-wise Ground Water Resources Quantity progression over years in Kerala

Variability of Water resource Quantity per year

12%
10%
10%

8% 6.9%
5.9%
6%
4.2% 4%
4% 4%
4% 3% 3.4%
2.6% 2.5% 2.7% 2.8%
1.5% 1.6%
2% 1.0% 1% 1.0%
1% 1% 0%
0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
0%
-0.4% 0.0%
-2% -0.9% -0.8%
-1% -1.4%
-4% -3%
-4%
-6%

-8% -7%

Variability per year Variability per year Variability per year

Fig 5:District-wise percentage variation in resource quantity

GIS mapping is done using ArcGIS, where the district-wise resource quantity(MCM) is
determinedfor the years 1989,1999 and 2009. Water resource quantity (MCM ) graph shows
significant variance over years in the districts of Kannur, Idukki. and Wayanad,when
compared to other states.

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1989 1999 2009

Water resource Quantity (MCM) progression 1989 to 2009 district wise

using GIS
Fig.6Districtwise ground water resource quantity(MCM) in Kerala(1989,1999,2009)
6.1.1 Kannur
Kannur is a region in Northern Kerala, flanked by the Western ghats in the East and the
Arabian sea in the West . Analysing the major contributing factors for GW resource movement,
we find that conditions in Kannur are completely different from the other districts, with
respect to GW resource movement .
Geomorphology: This is the main contributor for the reduction in GW potential for the
district of Kannur . The following features contribute to this effect:
o The Western coastal region of the district has alluvium soil, which is sandy and sterile, and
characterised by poor waterholding capacity
o The topography of Kannur is characterized by less midland and a steep decline from
mountains in the east to the sea level. This results in rapid movement of rainwater to sea
without being withheld in the midland region. Thus, Kannur needs progressive and strict
water conservation and wetland conversation in midlands to hold and retain water(12).
Rainfall remains constant in the two decades (Mean Rainfall indicates a high of 3419 mm).
However, the co-efficient of variation is 212.5,which is the second largest co efficient of
variation after Kasargod for the period from 1900 to 2000 which denotes high variability.(Fig
7)
Population Density: Population density figures show that there is a variation of 12 per cent
increase over 30 years ( Medium Category contribution).

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Table 7 : Trends in Population Density growth & category for two decades ( 1991 to 2011)
Density Density
District 1991 Density 2001 2011
Kasaragod 538 604 656.313
Kannur 759 812 850.642
Wayanad 315 366 385.585
Kozhikode 1118 1228 1316.68
Malappuram 872 1021 1158.57
Palakkad 532 584 627.217
Thrissur 903 981 1029.42
Ernakulam 1170 1290 1363.68
ldukki 215 225 220.955
Kottayam 830 887 896.301
Alappuzha 1415 1492 1504.8
Pathanamthitta 450 467 453.222
Kollam 967 1038 1057.96
Thiruvananthapuram 1344 1476 1506.13

Wetland : Kannur has 10,870 hectares of wetland, mostly in the category of water
logged lagoons, river/streams or riverine wetlands. Around 85 per cent and 83per cent of
wetland are under open-water category in post-monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons
respectively. The percentage composition of Wetlands fall in theHigh Category for the district
of Kannur. This stresses the importance of looking at wetland conservation and analyzing the
trends of wetland progression closely in this region. This study is significant in the future of
ground water potential in Kannur.

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Table 8 : Districtwise Wetland composition for Kerala (Kerala Wetland Atlas)(13)

% of % of district
Wetland Wetland geographic
Districts (ha) area area Category
Based on % of
geographic area
Kasargod 7561 4.71 3.86 High(3% to 10%)
Kannur 10870 6.77 3.63 High(3% to 10%)
Wayanad 3866 2.41 1.81 Medium( 1% to 3%)
Kozhikode 7690 4.79 3.28 High(3% to 10%)
Malappuram 9511 5.92 2.68 Medium( 1% to 3%)
Palakkad 11892 7.41 2.65 Medium( 1% to 3%)
Thrissur 13285 8.27 4.38 High(3% to 10%)
Very High (Greater
Ernakulam 25065 15.61 10.41 than 10%)
Idukki 10655 6.63 2.13 Medium( 1% to 3%)
Kottayam 9523 5.93 4.32 High(3% to 10%)
Very High (Greater
Alapuzha 26079 16.24 20.76 than 10%)
Pattananthitta 4948 3.08 1.81 Medium( 1% to 3%)
Kollam 13703 8.53 5.31 High(3% to 10%)
Thiruvananthapuram 5942 3.7 2.71 Medium( 1% to 3%)
6.1.2 Idukki
Predominantly a mountain district, starting from the Westernghats,Idukkiis bordered by
Kottayam and Ernakulam in West. The biggest river in Kerala, Periyar, starts from the
southern part of Idukki and flows in the north-western direction, before reaching the midlands
of Ernakulam and Kottayam. This district is also characterized by a battery of dams and
reservoirs, starting from the border of Tamil Nadu.
Geo-morphology and soil type: Major part of the district falls under the hill ranges of the
Western ghats. The following factors have a huge effect on the water resource condition of the
district:
o Non-existent perrenial phreatic aquifers due to steep slopes, high ranges. and very thin or
non-existent weathered mantles contribute to the low ground water potential of the district.
o The midland regions comprise of soil type laterite, which has low water potential. Also, the
valleys and riverbanks have alluvium soil, which does not consistute important aquifers.
Rainfall pattern: The mean rainfall for the years 1900 to 2000 is around 2938 mm, which is
one of the medium ones in Kerala. This is due to the fact that the North-East part of district is
under rainshadow region of the Western ghats (Kattappana and Nedumkandam
areas)(14).However, the co-efficient of variation is low, indicating that the rainfall prediction is
more accurate in this district.

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Variation in mean rainfall (1901 to Variation in co-efficient of variation

2000) (1901 to 2000)
Fig 7:District-wise variation in mean rainfallfor years 1901 to 2000 & Co-efficient of
variation

Population: Refering to Table 7, Idukki has a very low percent of increase in population
density. Hence, population is not a factor in the reduction in ground water resources in
Idukki. Two decades change in population density in the district is only 3per cent. However,
this district has 50per cent area under forest cover,forcing the existing population to subsist
on only 50per cent of the district area. So, the resultant population density is double as
compared to other districts. This feature of the district makes Idukki it a very sensitive zone
for population growth as anthropogenic activity will onlyincrease in the future. (Fig 7)
Wet lands: Idukki has approximately 10655 hectares of wetlands which consistutes only
2.13 per cent of the total district area. Hence, wetland is not an important factorthat
contributes to the deterioration of the districtswater resources. (Table 8)
6.1.3 Wayanad
Wayanad is yet again another sensitive and critical district on GW resource quantity
deterioration. This district has similar characteristics of Idukki in topography and geology. The
terrain is mountaneous with steep slopes, andis rugged in nature.

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Geomorphology and Soil type: The following factors contribute to criticality in GW

resources:
o Hill regions, including northern portion of Mananthavady and Kalpatta are unprdouctive
zones of GW, due to weathered charnockites, resulting in poor aquifers.
o Central portion has wethered Gneiss and migmatite resulting in moderately potential
aquifers, which cover major areas.
o The mountain areas are characterized by steep slopes with minimal water- holding
capacity.
o Wayanad is the only main district where the major river basins are fed by eastern-flowing
rivers, which are part of the river Kaveri, depriving the wetsern parts of the state of adequate
water drainage capacity(15).
Rainfall patterns: Wayand has been receiving healthy mean rainfall in the past century (
3456 mm). However, there is high co-efficient of variation (140.3), resulting in lower
predictability of the mean rainfall. Thus, rainfall cannot be attributed as a major reason for
the criticality of the GW situation of the district. Some areas bordering Karnataka fall under
rain-shadow region, resulting in overall reduction in rainfall.
Population: Wayanad experiences higher population growth compared to other districts in
the vicinity. The average percentage increase in density is around 22per cent in the past 30
years (1991 to 2011). This critical district is thus majorily strained by the increase in
anthropogenic activities resulting from population increase.
Wetlands: Wayanad has a low percentage of total area of the district covered by wetlands,
1.81per cent(Table 8). Thus, there is reduced potential of water infiltration & GW restoration
in the district. Also, there is a high tendency of land owners and peasants in the district to
moveaway from paddy cultivation to other crops. In 1980, there were 30,000 hectares of
paddyfields, which were reduced to 7,000 acres in 2013(15). Thus, conservation of wetlands
and restoration of paddy cultivation are major mitigation measures the district has to
undertake for GW conservation.
6.2 Percentage of Development
Percentage of Development is another indicator for assessing the GW exploitation of a region.
This is an indicator which helps us to gauge the GW resource potential compared to the
usage, and examine the future potential for development/exploitation of GW in the region. The
district- wise progression of GW Percentage development for the years 1989, 1999, and 2009
are given below:

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Table 9: GW Percentage Development for the years 1989 to 2009(Ground Water Year Book of
Kerala, 2014-2015) (6)
Districts 1989 1999 2011
Thiruvananthapuram 9.31 64.31 53
Kollam 11.02 45.24 38
Alappuzha 6.67 30.64 29
Pattananthitta 4.67 28.96 37
Kottayam 3.33 27.68 29
Idukki 1.6 33.86 43
Ernakulam 18.52 50.02 42
Thrissur 16.78 46.9 53
Palghat 9.43 40.02 62
Malappuram 11.87 55.29 57
Wayanad 1.99 21.6 18
Calicut 5.99 55.58 56
Kannur 5.22 34 46
Kasargod 22.94 71.22 71

The trends studied show a drastic reduction in Percentage Development in the period (1999 to
2009), compared to previous decades, which is very promising. Two reasons contribute to the
variation in the Percentage Development trend:
Change in quantity resources contributed by rainfall, geo-geomorphologic trends,
anthropogenic activities etc.
Change in usage of resources contributed by population growth, changes in usage patterns
and water losses due to evapotranspiration.
Using GIS mapping, the percentage Development is mapped district-wise for the years 1989,
1999, and 2009, which is shown below. District wise percentage development of groundwater
indicates that Kerala was in safe zone with respect to ground water development in the early
years (1989).
When carefully studied, there are two districts that stand out compared to other districts,
which are discussed in this section.Kerala, which was in the under-developed zone has
moved to the safe-zone, with some districts like Kasargod moving to the semi-critical zone.

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1989 1999 2009

Fig 8: District-wise percentage development trends (1989 to 2009)

6.2.1 Kasargod
The district shows high increase in development and moderate decrease in water resource
quantity. About 75 per cent of the area of the district is covered by laterite soil. Due to the
highly porous nature of the laterite, the dug wells tapping in laterite get recharged fast in the
initial stages of the monsoon. Delays in monsoon and deficit summer showers thus affect
recharge of GW. Moreover, farmers in the region are constructing bore wells and dug wells
without the requisite technical knowledge, thus affecting GW availability in the region. (16).
Kasargod district has two main contributors for this phenomenon:
Population Growth: Population Variation from 1991 to 2011 is the highest in the district of
Kasaragod(22per cent) (Table 5 ). With this increase in the population, the total water
requirement of Kasaragod is constantly on the rise, straining the GW resources available in
the district. Kasaragod is rapidly moving towards the critical zone in the context of
development.

Anthropogenic activities: Traditionally, the development of groundwater for irrigation and

drinking purposes were mostly through dug wells. Of late, farmers have started growing
bananas, vegetables etc. in paddy fields and slopes, which necessitates accelerated irrigation.
This has forced the farmers to deepen the existing dug wells and construct deeper bore wells
in an indiscriminate manner. In the crystalline formations, especially in valleys, the fracture
zone starts from shallow depths. In many places the pumping of bore wells badly affect the
water level of the phreatic zones.

Rainfall: Although mean rainfall for the last century in Kasaragod is around 3580 mm,
which is one of the highest among all the districts, Kasaragod has the largest co-efficient of
variation at 227 percent. So, rainfall prediction is a major factor of GW criticality in
Kasaragod.

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6.2.2 Thiruvananthapuram
The Thiruvananthapuram district is the only district which shows decreasing trend in
development although there are only moderate changes in quantity of resources. Thus
Thiruvananthapuram has reduced percentage variation in development.
The criticality of GW in this district can be majorly attributed to Rainfall reduction. The
rainfall mean for the last century (1900 to 2000) is the lowest in the state @ 1857 mm (Fig 7)
However, the percentage development is on the decline in Thiruvananthapuram due to
moderate increase in population at the rate of 12per cent. Also,Thiruvananthapuram is
majorly covered by Kerala Water Authority (KWA) surface water connections, either by UWSS
(Urban Water Supply Scheme),or RWSS (Rural Water Supply Scheme). Thus, dependence on
GW for domestic consumption is fast reducing in the district of Thiruvananthapuram. Another
factor that contributes to the reduced dependence of ground water is the awareness created
about the issue of water pollution due to solid waste dumped in municipal corporation
regions. Residents are worried about being supplied water contaminated with E. coli.
7 Mitigation methods
Kerala has safe GW resources and development standards compared to averages in other
Indian states. However, there are some regions in Kerala that are rapidly deteriorating and
require intervention. The natural techniques available for this can be summarized based on
physical regions of Kerala (a) Highland (b) Midland and (c) Coastal region as given in the figure
below:

Fig 9: Summary of natural mitigation techniques for GWpotential in Kerala

8 Conclusion
The estimated ground water balance for Kerala is 5590Mm(18).Ground water situation in
Kerala is not alarming but requires careful and immediate attention to ensure that the
development needs of the state are not compromised. The contributing factors for GW
potential analysis applicable for the state are chosen carefully and their degree of influence is
determined. Rainfall, geomorphological factors and population growth are high-influence
factors and wetlands and land use are taken as medium-influence factors. In this paper,
based on the variables selected for analysis, the following regions are critical with respect to
GW potential determined by the dependent outcome variables like Water resource quantity
and percentage development.

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Water Resource Quantity: Idukki, Kannur, and Wayanad districts are moving to critical zones
with respect to GW potential.
The reasons are mostly geo-morphology and soil conditions. Also rainfall variations and
adverse human intervention slikedeterioration of the wetlands accelerate the criticality.
Percentage Development: Kasargod district is moving to a semi-critical zone with respect
to the percentage of development as a result of adverse rainfall conditions (higher variability
and average mean rainfall) and increased anthropogenic activities due to growth in
population.
After identifying the critical areas, the primary mitigation techniques are fixed based upon
the topology of the state. These techniques are vital for preserving the current balance of GW
in the state which has peculiarities of physiography of the land and high rainfall favouring
rapid runoff and drainage. For sustainable development, especially in the critical districts,
stake holders should strike the right balance between development goals and maintenance of
the GW potential to ensure that critical resources are preserved for future generation.
The paper recommends further scientific research on determining the position of the
monitoring wells and attempts to deduce the correlation of the factors using statistical
methods to ensure the maintenance of GW potential.
GIS mapping of GW observatory wells, water levels and GW table movements to be done for
identifying more areas of criticality in a district. The present analysis falls short of this
subarea wise mapping in a district.
Multivariate statistical analysis can be used to derive a model of GW resource based on
contributing parameters. This statistical analysis will give a correlation between regional GW
potential and contributing factors like available wetland, rainfall and population.
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