A Copper Alliance Member

Seawater System Design: Guidelines

Piping
Cu-Ni is used for piping systems in a wide range of sizes. To obtain the high performance achievable from Cu-Ni, particular attention
should be given to using alloy compositions which comply to international standards, maintaining ow velocities within accepted limits,
avoiding areas of local turbulence and extended exposure to polluted water and ensuring good commissioning/start up practices.

Guidelines For Good Surface Film Formation:

Clean dirt, lubricants and debris from the system.

Avoid introduction of solid matter by installation of strainers.

Use clean, unpolluted seawater or fresh water for hydrotesting. If polluted water has been used, it should be disposed of quickly
and the pipework rinsed properly with clean sea water or fresh water. If subsequent long stagnant conditions are expected, blow
dry the systems.

The commissioning of a system with intermittent ow, such as a re ghting system should be conducted in sea water with low
levels of suspended matter e.g water from the open sea. However, the seawater has to be replaced by oxygenated water within 4-5
days to avoid putrefaction.

Ferrous ions from additions of ferrous sulfate or by installation of simulated iron anodes can improve lm formation and help
protect against sul des in waters.

Mature lm formation depends on seawater temperature but can take up to 3 months to achieve. Particular care to avoid extended
exposure to sea water polluted with su des is required during that time.

A system with continuous pumping activity, such as a cooling system, can be operated under normal design ow conditions. In sea
water and water containing high levels of suspended matter, the minimum ow rate should be above 0.5-1m/s (as it depends on
pipe diameter as well) to prevent deposits forming. In sea water containing entrained sand the ow rate should be decreased by 1-
1.5m/s

Guidelines for Prevention of Erosion Corrosion:

Control Flow rate
The maximum ow rate should not exceed the maximum designed ow rate.

Applied ow rate depends upon alloy, pipe diameter and speci cation used, e.g BS MA 18, DIN 85004-2. Typically, these may be:

Alloy Typical maximum Flow Velocity, m/s

90-10 Cu-Ni 3.5

70-30 Cu-Ni 4.0

66-30-2-2 Cu-Ni-Fe-Mn 6.5

For short duration, ow velocities of 10-15 m/s are acceptable

Guidelines for Shutdown and Standby Conditions:

Conditions in the system

Duration Clean seawater or fresh water with-out deposits Polluted seawater or fresh water where deposits are present

Commissioned system:

Avoid high ow rates

If possible, drain the system and ll with clean seawater or fresh

water
4-6 days Keep the system lled

New system:

Clean the system and ll with clean seawater or fresh water.

Possibility I:

Clean the system and ll with clean seawater or fresh water

Replace the water by oxygenated clean water every 2-3 days.

> 4-6 Keep the system lled and replace the water by oxygenated water every 2- Clean the system and keep it dry.
days 3 days

Possibility II:

Clean the system and keep it dry.

Guidelines for Chlorination:

 Chlorine is added to sea water cooling systems to control fouling. Chlorine is usually generated electrolytically or added in the form of
sodium hypochlorite.

The general corrosion rate of copper alloys is not a ected much by moderate doses of chlorine at normal ow rates but under
turbulent conditions, the safe operating velocity can be reduced if the chlorine dosing is too high.

Recommended levels for residual chlorine content:

For continuous dosage, 0.3 ppm with a maximum of 1 ppm

For intermittent dosage, a level of 0.5 ppm

Simultaneous chlorination and ferrous sulfate treatments are not recommended

Notes:
The e ect of chlorine levels on erosion/corrosion has recently been reassessed for piping. Research work sponsored by KME
isavailable.

Also, in more recent times it has become appreciated that galvanic corrosion can be less pronounced for some metal combinations in
chlorinated rather than in non-chlorinated seawater systems. Cu-Ni is signi cantly more galvanically compatible with stainless steels
when the system is chlorinated.

Connection Guidelines:
The mismatch of pipe ends should not exceed the half of wall thickness, however it has to be less than 2 mm

The preferred maximum depth of excessive weld root penetration depending on pipe diameter ex DIN 85004 is:

Nominal pipe diameter [mm] The max. protrusion of the welding root [mm]

<40 1.5

50-150 2.0

175-250 2.5

>300 3.0

Guidelines for Correct Piping Design and Installation:

Streamlining minimises pressure drop, required pumping power and probability of erosion attack

Run piping as directly as possible

Consider the e ect of r/d-ratio for bends and the e ect of sudden enlargement and contractions on the pressure drop . Bend radii
r greater or equal to 1.5d or angled branches are preferable.

Choose square stub-end anges and cut the gasket ush with the inner surface of the pipe. If rolled-over type anges are used, the
design velocity should be reduced by 0.25-0.5 m/s.

Cut gaskets ush with the inner pipe diameter

Control the ow with least number of valves.

Ensure operators have means to control and measure ow rates.

Ask the valve manufacturer for data related to the e ect of weld geometry on the pressure drop in the system. In most instances
there are considerable variations for nominally similar valves.

Provide a downstream distance 5 x ID from pumps and valves to bends.

Useful References and Links:

Protection of Seawater System Pipework and Heat Exchanger Tubes in HM Surface Ships and Submarines in Sea water systems; UK
Ministry of Defence Standard 02-781 Issue 2- May 2009.

Living with the Threat of Microbiologically In uenced Corrosion in Submarine Sea Water Systems-the Royal Navy Perspective; by Lt.
G.J.E. Nicklin RN, MoD, UK.

British Crown Copyright 2008/MOD 9th International Naval Engineering Conference and Exhibition (INEC 2008) April 2008 Hamburg.

Copper Nickel Piping for O shore Platforms, CDA Inc Application Data Sheet 708/5.

Materials Selection for High Reliability Sea water systems; B.Todd; CDA Inc Seminar Technical Report 7044-1919. The Application of
Copper Nickel Alloys in Marine Systems.

W.Schleich. Typical Failures of CuNi 90/10 Seawater Tubing Systems and How to Avoid Them. Eurocorr 2004 Paper 124.

British Standard BS MA 18. Salt Water Piping Systems in Ships.

DIN 85004-2: 1996 Copper Nickel Piping Systems, Part 2: General Guidelines for Construction, Fabrication, Testing.

Fabrication.

Heat Exchangers and Piping Systems from Copper Alloys Commissioning, Operating and Shutdown. KME Publication.

Cu-Ni Seawater Piping Systems. G. Wildsmith. Proceedings of Marine Engineering with Copper Nickel. London April 1988.

The Design and Installation of 90-10 Sea water Piping Systems. Nickel Development Institute Publication 1107.

Reference Section/Seawater Piping.

Application of Copper-Nickel Alloy UNS C70600 for Seawater Service; by W.Schleich; Paper 5222 Corrosion 2005. (NACE).

Valves and Pumps in Copper Alloy Systems

General
Many corrosion problems in seawater systems occur in valves. Often such problems are due to the use of steel or cast iron valves with
non-ferrous piping. Although the life of such valves in a steel or cast iron pipe system is short (i.e., two to three years) when tted in an
alloy system, it may be less than a year due to the galvanic e ects from the piping.

The three main components of a valve are the body, valve seats and the shafts or stems; these will be considered separately. It should
be noted, however, in a system with a nominal seawater velocity of a few metres-per-second ow through the valve, that the valve,
depending on its design, may give rise to turbulence and much higher local velocities, particularly when the valves are used for
throttling.

Valve Bodies
The basic low cost valve used in ferrous pipe systems has a cast iron body with 60-40 brass internals. Depending on design, corrosion
rates of several millimetres per year can occur on the body. The body cathodically protects the internals (until a layer of graphitic
corrosion product forms) and the valve will function for two to three years.

Coatings on valve bodies are often used but their success depends mainly on the valve design (see later). In all cases, the life of the
coating depends on its integrity, as manufactured, after installation and in service. Any break in a coating can result in intense
corrosion and perforation or the valve body.

Upgrading of valve body materials to give higher reliability requires the use of alloys with good corrosion resistance. Such materials are
copper base alloys such as nickel aluminum bronzes, Admiralty and leaded gunmetals and cast Cu-Ni alloys. All these alloys are
characterized by good resistance to static seawater (necessary for shut-down conditions) and to owing seawater. Table 1 gives some
data under static and owing conditions.

Table 1. E ect of velocity of some cast copper base alloys

Moderate
Quiet seawater velocity High velocity tests
0.06 m/s 8.25 m/s 35-42 m/s

Corrosion rate
General corrosion Maximum pitting Corrosion mm/year Remarks on
Alloy mm/year mm mm/year 30 day test low velocity data

88/10/2 Cu /Sn/ Zn Admiralty Gunmetal 0.025 0.025 0.4 - 1.0 0.75 - 1.1 42 months at Freeport, Texas

85/5/5/5 Cu/Sn/Zn/Pb 0.018 0.030 1.0 1.3 ""

10/5/5 Al/Ni/Fe remainder copper 0.055 1.2 0.42 0.7 - 1.0 442 days at LCCT

70-30 Cu Ni + 1.6% Cr 0.0010 0.28 0.22* 0.5 181 days at LCCT

* At 15.3 m/s

In relation to Table 1, it is interesting to note that in some cases, the corrosion at about 35-42 m/s is similar to that at 8.25 m/s. This
indicates that erosion corrosion which typically might occur at areas of local turbulence such as tight angled bends or downstream of
pumps and valves, is occurring at the lower velocity and, under these circumstances, increase in velocity produces little increase in
corrosion. The aim should be to use the alloy at a velocity lower than that causing erosion corrosion. Unfortunately, this cannot always
be calculated so that where erosion corrosion is a possibility, alloys with high resistance such as nickel aluminum bronze or cast Cu-Ni
(plus chromium) should be used.

Ni-Resist iron valves are often used in ferrous systems to improve the valve reliability. They are also used in non-ferrous systems but
copper-alloy valves are more common in such systems. Nickel aluminum bronze has high strength and this makes it attractive,
particularly for large valves. Also, it has high resistance to impingement attack and this may be of importance in globe valves used
under throttling conditions.

Valve Seats and Stems - Non-Ferrous Systems

Valve seats, particularly those in throttling service, experience high water velocities, and materials with high resistance to fast owing
seawater such as stainless steels, nickel-base alloys and Ni-Cu alloy 400 are required. Experience shows that when manufacturers
upgrade the body material they often use the same materials for seats and stem as in a cast iron valve, i.e., 60-40 brass. Under these
conditions the life of the valve internals is extremely short because, having lost the cathodic protection of the ferrous body, they fail by
dezinci cation in a few months. Figure 1 shows dezinci cation of a 60-40 brass stem from a bronze valve. This is probably the most
common cause of failure in non-ferrous valves. Although this type of corrosion is well-known, the rate of attack is often surprisingly
high. The sample in Figure 1 failed in less than one year the original diameter was 25 mm.

Although stainless steel (AISI Type 316) will give good life in a non-
ferrous valve, it is liable to pit (particularly in crevices) when the
system is not in use and on a life cycle cost basis, the nickel-copper
alloys are a better choice.

In ball and butter y valves, one of the seats may be non-metallic,

e.g., an elastomer.

Ni-Cr-Mo-Nb alloy 625 which has high resistance to both static and
owing seawater has been used as a weld overlay to produce highly
resistant surfaces in critical areas of valves. This alloy has excellent
weld deposition characteristics and can be used as a general
purpose overlay for avoidance of, or repair to, areas of corrosion Figure 1. Dezinci cation of a 60-40 brass stem from a bronze valve
damage in carbon, low alloy and stainless steel components.

E ect of Valve Design on Materials Selection

Valves are a relatively expensive part of a seawater system but the cost of a valve depends on the design used. Figure 2 shows some
commonly used valve designs and gives an indication of their weight and pressure loss. Apart from any manufacturing di culties, it is
evident that a globe valve will be much more expensive than a butter y valve because of its much greater weight. It will usually be
 more satisfactory to select reliable materials for valves, such as a butter y valve, rather than to use an expensive design of valve, for
example, a globe valve and try to economize on materials. Where the use of a globe valve is desirable, for example, for its good ow
control characteristics, then the extra cost of corrosion resistant materials appropriate to the design must be accepted.

Some designers attempt to avoid corrosion problems by lining the valve. This is also
related to the valve design; for example, butter y valves are a simple shape and the body
can be provided with a thick rubber lining which can be clamped rmly between the
anges joining the valve to the pipes and is not dependent on perfect adhesion between
the rubber and the body. A gate or globe valve, however, is of complex shape and a lining,
to be successful, must adhere perfectly to the metal surface. Experience shows that such
adhesion is di cult to achieve and linings in valves of this type often have a short life.

A rubber-lined butter y valve has certain features which must be considered in order to
avoid corrosion problems. For example, the shafts, on which the butter y turns, penetrate Figure 2. Valve design
the lining and it is necessary to provide a positive seal between the lining and the stem to
prevent access of seawater to the cast iron body. Failure to do this has resulted in valves
failing due to corrosion products building up behind the lining causing seizure of the
butter y and stem.

Another commonly used seawater system valve is the membrane valve. This consists of a exible membrane usually of rubber which
separates the valve internals form contact with seawater. When operated, the membrane is extended into the stream restricting or
shutting o ow. The shape is again simple and rubber linings on the body are e ective. Cavitation damage to the rubber membrane
can occur with severe throttling.

It is interesting to note the complex ow path within a globe valve. Several sharp changes of direction occur inside the valve and this
gives rise to severe turbulence which can cause impingement corrosion on the valve body. Materials of high impingement resistance,
such as nickel aluminum bronze or cast 70-30 Cu-Ni, are recommended when this type of valve is chosen.

Table 2 provides a summary of materials suitable for seawater valves in non-ferrous systems.

Table 2. Materials for seawater valves in non-ferrous pipe systems

Type of valve Body material Ball, disc, or seat material Stem material

Gunmetals 5% nickel aluminium

5% nickel aluminium bronze bronze Ni-Cu alloys 400 or K500 Stainless steel (type
Butter y valves Rubber-lined cast iron (provided a seal is tted at the Cast 70/30 Cu-Ni 316)
stem) Cast Monel alloy 5% nickel aluminium bronze
Cast 70-30 Cu-Ni Stainless steel (Type 316)

Globe, gate, or ball As above, except that rubber lined valves should be
As above As above
valves avoided

Membrane valves Rubber lined cast iron Rubber (membrane) Not critical as there is no seawater content

Galvanic Considerations in Valves

Copper-base alloys have similar potentials and can be used together without fear of serious galvanic e ects. Where carbon steel or
cast iron bodies have been tted with brass trim, these will have received considerable galvanic protection from the large area of
ferrous material and may give a useful life. Upgrading the body material to copper-base alloys will, by removing the cathodic
protection e ect, give rise to corrosion of the trim. It is good practice to arrange for the trim material to be cathodic to the body, hence
the use of alloys such as Ni-Cu alloys 400 and K-500 and stainless steels. The use of copper-alloy valves is desirable in copper-alloy pipe
systems so as to retain galvanic compatibility. The use of unprotected ferrous valves in non-ferrous systems should be avoided.

(The section on valves has been adapted from Materials Selection for High Reliability Sea water systems; B.Todd; CDA Inc Seminar
Technical Report 7044-1919. The Application of Copper Nickel Alloys in Marine Systems).

Seawater Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are normally used in seawater systems and are often driven by constant speed electric motors. At the normal speed
of rotation, the tip speed of the pump impeller can reach 20 m/s and at this velocity, most copper alloys corrode rapidly in seawater.
Fortunately, however, only certain components of the pump are exposed to these high velocities, and apart from these components,
copper-base alloys can usually be used successfully in copper alloy systems.

Pump Casings
In copper alloy pumps, there is normally su cient clearance left between the impeller and the casing so that the water owing from
the impeller does not impinge directly on the casing but is absorbed into the slower moving stream of water owing over the metal
surface towards the pump delivery pipe. Provided direct impingement is avoided, materials such as gunmetals, aluminum bronze and
cast 70-30 Cu-Ni alloy perform satisfactorily. However, there have been cases of premature pump casing failures in recent years
showing that direct impingement can occur. This may be due to increase in pump speed or the tendency to uprate the output from
standard pump designs. Where such failures have been experienced, the life of the casing has been very short, for example, about 18
months. To avoid failures of this type, either the design must be amended so as to reduce seawater velocity at the metal surface, or
materials of higher resistance must be used. Experience shows that cast 70-30 Cu-Ni and 5% nickel aluminum bronze have higher
resistance than gun metal or tin bronzes. Recent research, however, has shown chromium-containing 70-30 Cu-Ni to have higher
resistance than other copper-base alloys to fast owing seawater.

Where pump parts are fabricated by welding from nickel aluminum bronze plate, there is a serious risk of selective phase corrosion
(dealumini cation) in the heat a ected zone of the weld unless remedied by heat treatment. This non-heat treated heat a ected zone
may crack if stressed, e.g., by water hammer e ects.

Pump Impellers
The pump impeller is in contact with fast owing, highly turbulent seawater and, for circulating pumps which are in use for most of the
time, they should be made from a material with high resistance to these conditions. Table 3 provides corrosion data in high velocity
seawater for several pump materials.
 It is clear from Table 3 that the use of cast iron or mild steel can only be contemplated in pumps operated occasionally. From data in
Table 3, Ni-Cu alloys 400 and K-500 and stainless steel Type 316 have very high resistance to owing seawater, and cast versions of
these alloys are preferred for pump impellers.

Table 3. Corrosion data on materials in high

velocity test
Corrosion rate Seawater Velocity

Alloy mm/yr m/s

Grey cast Iron 13 38

Carbon steel 9.5 40

Ni-Cu Alloy 400 0.010 43

Ni-Cu alloy K-500 0.010 43

Stainless steel 316 0.005 43

Gun metal (85/5/5/5) 1.30 40

Nickel Aluminium Bronze 0.80 38-42

These alloys do not su er from impingement attack but may pit when the pump is stationary and full of seawater. It should be noted,
however, that the pitting likely to be experienced is often less severe than the general impingement corrosion which may occur at the
tip of a copper-base alloy impeller and hence stainless steel or cast Ni-Cu Alloy 400 are preferred for this application.

(Adapted from Materials Selection for High Reliability Sea water systems; B.Todd; CDA Inc Seminar Technical Report 7044-1919. The
Application of Copper Nickel Alloys in Marine Systems).

Fittings
The increasing use of 90-10 copper-nickel in shipbuilding during the 1960s, and particularly in the eld of naval ship construction, was
accompanied by increasing demand for a multiplicity of ttings and joining methods. A selection of these methods and ttings is
presented here.

Contents
Fittings-Bends
T-Piece
Pressed

Pulled

Manufactured with saddle

Reducers

Joining Methods
Welded Joints

Brazed Joints

Flanges

Threaded Unions
Metallic Sealing

Soft Sealing

Press Joints

Pipe Couplings

Standards

Typical Properties

References

Fittings
Fittings di er from one another particularly with regard to their shape and purpose. The main shapes are:
Bend: change in direction of the owing medium
T-piece: distribution or union of the medium into/from several directions
Reducer: regulation of the ow speed of the medium

Bends
Bends are di erentiated by their individual bending radius. Bending radius is measured as a function of the outside pipe diameter, D.
Standardised bending radii refer to the inside bend radii and are 1.0xD, 1.5xD, 2.5xD, 5.0xD and 10.0xD. It is to be observed that the
bending radius is not equal to the calculated value from, e.g., 1.5 x pipe outer diameter, but is merely an approximate value. The
individual exact bending radii are speci ed in the relevant dimension standards.

Bending radii to a minimum 2.5xD can be formed on conventional bending machines as a pipe bend. Smaller bending radii must be
pressed into pipe bends on specially designed presses to accommodate the bulk metal ow. The ow behaviour and the pressing
properties depend decisively on the bending radii and the bending angles. The following table shows the various resistance
coe cients for pipe bends.
Table 4. Resistance coe cient for
a waveless pipe bend
Bend Angle

Bend Radius 15 30 45 60 90

1.0xD 0.03 0.045 0.14 0.19 0.21

1.5xD 0.03 0.045 0.11 0.14 0.17

2.5xD 0.03 0.045 0.09 0.11 0.14

5.0xD 0.03 0.045 0.08 0.09 0.10

10.0xD 0.03 0.045 0.07 0.07 0.11

T-Pieces
T-pieces are di erentiated by their radius in the branch-o . There are 3 types of T-pieces.

1. Pressed T-piece

2. Pulled T-piece

3. T-piece made with a pipe and a saddle.

Pressed T-Piece
Pressed T-pieces (Figure 3) have a radius in the branch-o whose ratio (R) to the outer pipe diameter (D) of the branch-o is >0.2.
There is no weld seam in the T-piece and the radius is large. For this reason, the ow conditions in these T-pieces are very good.
Normally, pressed T-pieces are manufactured up to a pipe outer diameter of 219 mm.

Figure 3. Pressed T-Piece

Pulled T-Piece
Pulled T-pieces have a radius in the branch-o whose ratio (R) to the outer pipe diameter (D) of the branch-o is <0.2. Normally, pulled
T-piece ttings are manufactured from pipe outer diameters of greater than 267mm. They produce unfavourable ow conditions as a
result of the narrow bending radius. Fortunately, the ow conditions only play a minor role where these large dimensions are
concerned. Nevertheless, this should be taken into consideration where critical ow conditions are involved. In contrast to the saddle
type, pulled T-pieces are substantially cheaper.

Figure 4. Pulled T piece

T-piece manufactured with saddle

T-pieces made with a saddle have a radius(R) in the branch-o that has a ratio to the pipe outside diameter (D) of the branch-o which
is <0.3. T-pieces with a saddle are normally manufactured from pipe with outside diameters of 267mm or more and involve a welding
process. Based on the large radius in the branch-o , these T-pieces have very good ow conditions. However, their manufacture is also
substantially more expensive than the necked ttings.

Figure 5. T-piece manufactured with a saddle

Reducers
The di erence between using a reducer for reducing or expanding the ow medium is only a question of function direction and not of
design. Investigations have shown that the ow as the diameter reduces is more likely to cause turbulence than the ow when the
diameter expands. Figure 6 shows the ow in a reducing situation on the left side and ow in expansion towards the right. The
maximum taper angle a for non turbulent ow is calculated as follows1:

&alpha; = 2<40
&alpha; - Taper angle
- reduction / expansion angle
 Figure 6. Flow in reduction (top) and in expansion (bottom)1

The gures below show the ow conditions during expansion. According to the references, turbulence occurs for expansion angles of
<2,5 to <6 depending on the temperature, diameter and ow velocity.

Figure 7. Laminar ow = 6,52

Figure 8. Turbulent ow = 142

In practice, turbulence seldom induces damage. That is why reducers in accordance with DIN, EEMUA or ANSI are applied with an
expansion angle up to 19.

Joining methods
A requirement for a multiplicity of joining methods is due to the wide range of conditions on ships, in chemical plants and on o shore
platforms. The most commonly adopted methods, with their advantages and disadvantages, are listed here.

The joining methods of 90-10 copper-nickel include the following:

Welded joints

Brazed joints

Flange connections

Threaded unions

Press joints

Connections with pipe couplings

Welded joints are applied to join two components in a permanent manner by means of melting the material or adding a molten weld
consumable. The joining method most frequently used for piping systems is a butt weld joint.

Figure 9. Welded Joint

Advantages:
 Strength and stability of the union is similar to that of the basic material

No additional space requirement

No procurement costs necessary for connecting auxiliary components such as anges

Disadvantages:

Cannot be disconnected

Long assembly times

Joining of di erent materials can be problematic

Possibility of galvanic insulation is poor

Assembly in re-hazardous areas not possible without work-intensive and sophisticated re protection measures

For more detailed information on welding, see Welding and Fabrication Section.

Brazed joints
Brazed joints are applied in order to join two components in a permanent manner. However, the materials are not joined by means of
a weld metal process but are adhesively joined together by capillary action of an additional material and heat.

Advantages:

Low assembly times for small diameters up to RA 38

Little space requirement

High pressure stress capacity

More versatile in joining di erent types of material

Disadvantages:

High procurement costs

Cannot be disconnected

Possible problems with obtaining sealed joints from outside diameters greater than 76mm

Sizes of pipe greater than 76mm outside diameter are expensive to process

No possibility for X-raying the joint for inspection purposes

Only overlapped joints possible

Possibility of galvanic insulation is poor

Auxiliary ttings (sockets) are necessary for joining

Assembly in re-hazardous areas not possible without work-intensive and sophisticated re protection measures

Figure 10. Brazed capillary joint

For more information on brazing copper-nickels, see Welding and Fabrication Section.

Flange connections
Flange connections are applied in order to join two pipes together in a manner whereby they can be subsequently disconnected. Types
of anges are:

Solid anges

Weld-neck collars with loose anges

Advantages:

Can be disconnected

Can also be used for large diameters

Possibility for connecting various types of materials is good

Possibility of galvanic insulation is good

Assembly in re-hazardous areas is possible without work-intensive and sophisticated re protection measures

Disadvantages:

Flanges and/or weld neck collars must be welded to the pipe

Large space requirement

High procurement costs and assembly times

Connecting auxiliary ange ttings are necessary

Solid anges
Solid anges are manufactured completely from 90-10 copper-nickel. They are used mainly in tanks and vessels where there is an
aggressive medium outside the pipes, and in moist atmospheres.

Advantages:

Corrosive medium can also be on the outside.

Disadvantages:

Expensive

Flange must be in a xed-position with the bolt-hole circles exactly lined up.

No subsequent turning of the ange is possible.

Weld-neck stub ends with a loose ange

Weld-neck stub ends with a loose ange consist of a weld-neck stub end made from 90-10 copper-nickel and a loose ange made from
steel. They are used mainly in areas where only the medium within the pipe line is corrosive and the outer atmosphere is dry.

Advantages:

Cheap

Flange can be turned

Disadvantage:

Susceptible to corrosion in a moist outer atmosphere

Figure 11. Flange connection made from Weld-neck stub ends and a loose ange

Threaded unions
Threaded unions are applied in order to join two components together in a manner such that they can be disconnected again.
Threaded unions can be joined into a pipe line by means of welding, brazing/soldering, pressing or clamping.

Advantages:

Short assembly times

Joint can be disconnected

Assembly in re-hazardous areas is possible without work-intensive and sophisticated re protection measures

No inspection such as X-ray or ultrasonic testing necessary

Possibility for joining di erent types of materials is good

Disadvantages:

High procurement costs

Major space requirement

Application only up to 76mm outer pipe diameter possible

Possibility for galvanic insulation is poor

Joining auxiliary ttings threaded unions ttings necessary

Threaded unions are subdivided according to the sealing mode into the following categories:

Metallic sealing e ect

Soft sealing e ect

Metallic sealing e ect

Metallic seals are applied preferably for high temperatures and aggressive media. The metallically sealing threaded unions are
di erentiated as follows:

24/25 sealing taper

Cone-shaped sealing

Sealing with a wedge ring

 Sealing with a cutting ring

Sealing by means of collar

Figure 12. 24/25 sealing taper

Figure 13. Cone-shaped sealing

Figure 14. Sealing with a wedge ring

Figure 15. Sealing with a cutting ring

Figure 16. Sealing by means of collar

Soft sealing e ect

Soft sealing threaded unions are easy to process. In contrast to metallically sealed threaded unions, no high demands are made on the
sealing surfaces. The sealing e ect is obtained with an O-ring:

Figure 17. O-ring seal

Press joints
Press joints are applied in order to permanently join two pipe sections together. The joint is made by mechanically crimping a special
tting containing an o-ring onto the pipes.
 Figure 18. A Press Joint

Advantages:

Short assembly times

Assembly in re-hazardous areas is possible without work-intensive and sophisticated re protection measures

No inspection such as X-ray or ultrasonic testing necessary

Disadvantages:

Additional procurement costs for the special ttings

Require specialised tool for pressing the metal to form the seal

Low pressure stress capacity

Cannot be disconnected

Application possible only up to 108mm outer pipe diameter

Possibility for galvanic insulation is poor

Joining possibility for various types of materials is poor

Joining with pipe coupling

Joints with the use of a pipe coupling are applied in order to join two pipe sections together in a manner that can be disconnected. The
joint is made by clamping the pipe with a joining device. The couplings are normally in stainless steel with an inner rubber seal which
completely galvanically insulates the coupling from the copper-nickel pipe.

Advantages:

Short assembly times

Little space requirement

Assembly in re-hazardous areas is possible without work-intensive and sophisticated re protection measures

No inspection such as X-ray or ultrasonic testing necessary

Possibility for galvanic insulation is good

Possibility for joining di erent types of materials is good

Disadvantages:

High procurement costs

Low pressure stress capacity

Joining sockets are necessary

Figure 19. Pipe coupling

Figure 20. Section through a pipe coupling

Standards
O shore
 EEMUA 145 90/10 Copper Nickel Alloy Piping for O shore Applications Speci cation: Flanges Composite,PN designed and Solid
EEMUA 146 90/10 Copper Nickel Alloy Piping for O shore Applications Speci cation: Fittings

Shipbuilding
DIN 86037 Loose anges and welding necks for pipes of copper-nickel-alloys
DIN 86087 Fittings for butt welding into copper-nickel-alloy pipelines - Saddle type connections
DIN 86088 Fittings for butt welding into copper-nickel-alloy pipelines - Tees
DIN 86089 Fittings for butt welding into copper-nickel-alloy pipelines - Concentric reducers
DIN 86090 Fittings for butt welding into copper-nickel-alloy pipelines - Elbows

Other Applications
EN1092-3 Flanges and their joints-Circular anges for pipes, valves, ttings and accessories
Part 3: Copper alloy and composite anges, PN designed

Typical Mechanical Properties of Fittings

Rm min. Rp 0.2% min. A5 min. Hardness

Elbows, T-Pieces, Saddles, Reducers in acc. to DIN 86086 300N/mm2 - 15% -

Elbows, T-Pieces, Saddles, Reducers in acc. to EEMUA 146 280N/mm2 105N/mm2 30% max. 120 HV5

Weld Neck Stub Ends to DIN 86028 280N/mm2 100N/mm2 15% min. 70 HB 2.5/62.5

Weld Neck Stub Ends to EEMUA 145 280N/mm2 105N/mm2 30% max. 120 HV5

References
1. Oertel, Herbert. Prandtl-Fhrer durch die Strmungslehre 11.Au . Vieweg-Verlag: Wesbaden 2002.

2. Eck, Bruno: Technische Strmungslehre. Band 2: Anwendungen. 8. Au age. Springer Verlag: Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 1981.

Water Hammer
"Water Hammer" is a phenomenon1 resulting from the generation of a pressure shock wave in a uid caused by a sudden change in
ow velocity (e.g. by sudden valve closure or pump shut down) in a piping system. The pressure in the piping suddenly increases, and a
pressure wave travels back and forth in the closed-o portion of the system, producing a noise as well as impact loading on the pipe
walls and connecting equipment. The velocity of the traveling wave is determined by the compressibility of the uid and the elasticity
of the pipe.

The most violent type of water hammer is due to water column separation1. This can be explained using the example of a pump which
is installed up stream of a long lift riser with a horizontal piping portion connected at the top. If the pump is suddenly turned o during
pumping up, the internal pressure in the pipes will begin to fall producing a sudden pressure reduction in the horizontal piping.
Should, at this time, the minimum pressure be less than the evaporation pressure at the water temperature, the water column
separates by a zone of vapour for a short time. As a result, the water concentrates toward the low-pressure section, and the impact
causes erce water hammer.

Premature failures of valves, joints, loosening of supports or even bursting of the pipe are the possible consequences. 90-10 Cu-Ni is
frequently applied in re ghting systems and works considerably well under conditions promoting water hammer. However,
examples of good practice1 to prevent water hammer and water column separation follow:

Install a ywheel on the pump so that, in the event of power outage, it keeps turning by inertia and does not suddenly stop.

Couple a dashpot to the check valve to give the valve resistance and lengthen its closure time if water ows in the reverse direction
in the pipes.

Install an air chamber to absorb the impact pressure.

Install an automatic pressure control valve or surge tank to prevent an increase in pressure in the pipe line.

Keep the water speed in the pipes to a minimum.

If the horizontal section of a lift riser is long, avoid water column separation by placing its horizontal section at as low an elevation
as possible.

In an underwater pump or a pump in a closed circuit pipeline network, make all the water ow backwards by omitting any check
valves.

1
Note: Descriptions of water hammer and good practices have been summarised from Piping Manual for Stainless Steel Pipes for
Buildings, Nickel Institute Publication Nr. 12008.

Galvanic Considerations
Corrosion is a complex area to understand and mechanisms can interact to alter local or even general material degradation rates. It is
often necessary to use a number of di erent alloys to construct a sea water system and in order to ensure anticipated lives of the
components are achieved, the galvanic compatibility of the materials used must be considered. Galvanic corrosion is the enhanced
corrosion which occurs to the least noble metal within a mixed metal system, in electrical contact with the other metals and exposed to
an electrolyte. To predict which of the metals in contact is the least noble and whether higher corrosion rates may occur than might
otherwise be expected, a Galvanic Series for sea water can be used.

Galvanic Series
 NB Alloys are listed in order of the potential they exhibit in owing sea water. Certain alloys
as indicated may become active and less noble exhibiting a potential near 0.5volts in low
velocity or poorly aerated water, and at shielded areas (Courtesy of Nickel Institute)

Alloys nearer the top of the Galvanic Series as shown in this chart are less noble than those towards the bottom. It is seen that copper
base alloys are in the middle of the Series whereas steel, zinc or aluminium are appreciably less noble and would be expected to
corrode preferentially when coupled to them in a system. Passive stainless steels, highly alloyed nickel alloys, titanium and graphite are
all more noble than copper alloys and the copper alloys would therefore risk galvanic corrosion. The further apart the metals are in the
Series, the greater the risk of corrosion.

The relative surface areas of the galvanically coupled metals exposed to the sea water have an important in uence on the extent of
corrosion. The surface area of the more noble alloy normally limits the galvanic current. Therefore, a small area of the more noble
alloy in contact with a large area of a less noble alloy can have little e ect on the overall corrosion rate of the less noble material.
Alternatively, if the relative area of the more noble area is high, then excessively high corrosion rates of the less noble alloy might be
experienced.

In general, the copper base alloys have similar nobility and are all galvanically compatible with each other in seawater unless the
surface area of the more noble alloy is signi cantly greater than the less noble alloy. The Cu-Ni alloys are slightly more noble than the
nickel-free copper base alloys, but the di erences in corrosion potential rarely lead to serious galvanic e ects. 90-10 Cu-Ni is slightly
less noble than 70-30 Cu-Ni and both are less noble than nickel aluminium bronze but more noble than manganese bronze. Nickel
aluminium bronze is therefore preferred as a propeller material for a Cu-Ni hulled boat as the unfavourable area ratio would lead to
accelerated corrosion of manganese bronze.

In more recent times it has become appreciated that galvanic corrosion can be less pronounced for some metal combinations in
chlorinated rather than in non-chlorinated seawater systems. Cu-Ni is signi cantly more galvanically compatible with stainless steels
when the system is chlorinated.

Problems with galvanic corrosion can usually be avoided by following the rules below:

use materials situated close together in the galvanic series

where this is not possible make the key component of a more noble material

ensure that the less noble material is present in a much larger area than the more noble material

paint the more noble material. This can be bene cial as it reduces the exposed area of the more noble material even when the
paint lm is incomplete. An imperfect coating, if the less noble alloy alone was painted, would lead to intensi ed attack at breaks in
the paint lm.

insulate to prevent metal-to-metal contact and thus break the galvanic current e.g. using non-conducting sleeves and gaskets.

Of additional importance to the behaviour of Cu-Ni alloys is that galvanic coupling to less noble alloys, or the use of cathodic
protection, can inhibit their biofouling resistance. This is thought to be due to the resultant restricted copper ion release from the
surface lm.

Pressure Systems
Copper-nickel is widely used in high pressure systems operating at over 105 bar (~1500 psi) and especially where there is an additional
need for corrosion resistance or low temperature capability. The ease of forming of the alloys into complex ttings and coils have
ensured their continued selection.

Cryogenic systems are a particular type of pressure system and operate at very low temperatures (below about 150 C, 238 F or 123
K). Historically, these conditions have applied to research and medical applications but with the development in industrial processes
and gas welding techniques, these have become more important to a wider market. Recent investments in large Lique ed Natural Gas
(LNG) infrastructures and their associated cryogenic and gas transport systems have further exploited these alloys in critical
applications.

The following is provided as general guidance only. International Standards and professional advice should be sought for
speci c designs.

For safe pressurized systems, it is important to assure structural integrity, regulate pressure and ow and provide pressure relief.

In general the design of pressure systems is based on Maximum Allowable Working Pressure [MAWP] which for a manned, ductile
system has a design safety factor typically of 4 or higher. This means that the theoretical burst pressure should be at least 4x MAWP.
To be e ective, pressure relief devices must not be higher than the Maximum Allowable Working Pressure for the system.

The Maximum Operating Pressure (MOP) is the highest pressure any system may be operated at and typically should be 10-20% below
the MAWP to allow for any deviation in actuation of pressure relief devices.
 Testing pressures used to assure system integrity for high pressure systems are normally 125-200% of the MAWP. The value used
depends on environmental factors such as corrosion, fatigue and temperature, etc. Thus, for pressure systems involving inert, low
hazard substances, hydrostatic testing using an inert uid to at least 1.5 x MAWP or pneumatically [ pneumatic test is usually under
water at low pressures - 5 psi - to locate leaks and is mainly used on heat exchanger tube as it is very searching] to at least 1.25 x
MAWP are typical. However, for pressure systems involving reactive, high hazard substances, hydrostatic testing using an inert uid or
gas would more normally be to at least 2 x MAWP.

TP 1.25 to 2.0 x MAWP 1.1 to 1.2 x MOP

The British Standard, BS 2871: applicable to non-ferrous seamless tube products does not specify safe working pressures and this is
usually a protocol de ned by the system design engineer or the organization having design authority. It does however provide
calculations that can be used to ascertain the recommended test pressure for many alloy/size combinations. From this standard the
Barlow formula can be adapted:

TP=Kt/D

max TP in BS2871 Pt 2 & 3 is 4 kpsi; even if higher pressures are speci ed elsewhere

Where TP = hydrostatic test pressure(bar), t = actual wall thickness(mm), D =actual outside diameter(mm), K= a material constant:-

Alloy Condition K UTS [bar] Note

O 800 2200
CuDHP
H 1100 3850

O 1100 3100

CuZn30As TA 1100 - These gures are typical only and should

not be used without veri cation.
H - 4650
BS 2871 indicates a normal maximum
CuZn20Al2 TA 1250 3600 test pressure of 70 bar [1029 psi] and ASTM B111
advises 1000 psi unless otherwise agreed.
O 1250 3200
CuNi10Fe1Mn
H - 5400

O 1600 4000
CuNi30Mn1Fe
H - 6400

Example:

CuNi10Fe1Mn in typical annealed [O] condition,

Pipe size 38mmOD x 2mm TP = [1250 x 2]/38 TP = 65.8 bar
[1 bar= 14.5 psi TP = approx. 954 psi]
so, assuming MAWP = 1.5 x TP
MAWP = 1.5 x 66 bar [rounded up] MAWP = 99 bar = 1435 psi
and MOP = MAWP/1.2 = 82.5 bar

Approximate Burst Pressure can be calculated using Barlows Formula: BP [bar] = [2 x t x UTS]/D where t = actual wall thickness [in
mm], D = actual outside diameter [mm] and UTS is the alloy's tensile strength in bar.

1 MPa=10 bar
1 bar= 14.5 psi

1 in= 25.4mm
1N/mm2=1MPa

Useful References:
ASME
ASME Design codes covering Pressure Piping are ASME B31.1 2001: Power Piping and ASME B31.3-2002: Process Piping.

DIN
DIN 85004-2:1996 Copper Nickel Piping Systems, Part 2: General Guidelines for Construction, Fabrication, Testing

Enhanced Heat Transfer

Virtually every heat exchanger is a candidate for enhanced heat transfer. Tubes are the basic component of the heat exchanger,
providing the heat transfer surface between one uid owing inside the tube and other uid owing across the outside of the tubes.
Tubes are commonly made of copper or Cu-Ni. Depending on the application, the tubes may have extended or enhanced surface on
the outside or tubes could be doubly enhanced, that is, with enhancement both inside and outside. Extended surfaces, nned tubes,
provide two to ten times as much heat transfer area on the outside as the corresponding bare tube, and this area ratio helps to o set
a lower outside heat transfer coe cient.

There are at least two main reasons for using enhanced surface tubes:

1. Size reduction: By increasing tube heat transfer e ciency, the heat exchanger length will be reduced resulting in reduced cost.
2. Improved Heat Transfer: By taking advantage of increased heat transfer surface, heat exchanger capacity and e ciency will be
increased

Enhanced tubes are designed for variety of applications. Surfaces are optimized for evaporation, condensation, and liquid to liquid
heat exchanger application using di erent refrigerants and working uids.

Tubes have been designed for condensing applications with uids on the inside of the tube, like seawater, that tend to cause fouling.
Condensers with a fouling liquid on the inside will have a drop o in performance over time due to fouling. Some designs of tube have
been engineered to extend the performance of a unit when tube-side fouling is a problem. The inside tube enhancement increases the
internal surface area, improving heat transfer and also will cause turbulence of the tube-side uid and thus help reduce tube-side
fouling.

Useful links for Heat Transfer and Enhanced Surfaces:

Wolverine Engineering Data Book II

 Wolverine Engineering Data Book III

Links to Design Standards

British Standard BS MA 18. Salt Water Piping Systems in Ships

EEMUA
EEMUA Speci cations covering 90-10 Cu-Ni Piping for O shore Applications are :-
Tubes Seamless and Welded Publication 144
Flanges Composite and Solid Publication 145
Fittings Publication 146
(EEMUA is the Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association, UK)

ASTM

ASME

DIN
DIN Speci cations covering 90-10 Cu-Ni Piping for O shore Applications are:

DIN 85004-2: Pipelines of copper-nickel-alloys-Part 2: Basic principles for design and fabrication, test
DIN 85004-4: Pipelines made of copper-nickel-alloys-Part 4: Technical speci cations for tubes
DIN 85004-9: Pipelines of copper-nickel-alloys-Part 9: General principles for the radiographic examination
DIN 86003-1: Ships and marine technology-Design, production and test of pipeline systems for liquid media-Part 1: Design
DIN 86018: Welded tubes made of CuNi10Fe1,6Mn for pipelines-dimensions
DIN 86019: Seamless tubes made of CuNi10Fe1,6Mn for pipelines-dimensions
DIN 86028: Welding necks of CuNi10Fe1,6Mn-Technical speci cations
DIN 86037: Loose Flanges and welding necks for pipes of copper-nickel-alloys
DIN 86086: Fitting for butt welding into copper-nickel-alloy pipelines-Technical speci cations
DIN 86087: Fitting for butt welding into copper-nickel-alloy pipelines-Saddle type connections
DIN 86088: Fitting for butt welding into copper-nickel-alloy pipelines-Tees
DIN 86089: Fitting for butt welding into copper-nickel-alloy pipelines-Concentric reducers
DIN 86090: Fitting for butt welding into copper-nickel-alloy pipelines-Elbows

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