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LOGO Material in Manufacturing

By: Dr. Ir. Tri Prakosa, M. Eng.

FAKULTAS TEKNIK MESIN DAN DIRGANTARA

INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI BANDUNG
 Material in Automotive

Umumnya suatu produk akan terdiri dari beberapa jenis material

Compiled By Agung Wibowo

 Engineering Material

Metals
Ceramics

Composite
Polymers
 Behavior and Manufacturing Properties

An outline of the behavior and the manufacturing properties of materials

 Structure of Metal

Common crystal structures for metals

The properties and behavior of metal depend greatly on

its crystal structure.

Body-centered cubic (BCC)

alpha iron, chromium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten, and
vanadium.

Face-centered cubic (FCC)

gamma iron, aluminum, copper, nickel, lead, silver, gold and
platinum.

Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)

beryllium, cadmium, cobalt, magnesium, alpha titanium, zinc and
zirconium.
 Structure of Metal

Body-centered Cubic Crystal Structure

The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c)
single crystal with many unit cells
 Structure of Metal

Face-centered Cubic Crystal Structure

The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c)
single crystal with many unit cells
 Structure of Metal

Hexagonal Close-packed Crystal Structure

The hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure: (a) unit cell; and (b) single crystal with
many unit cells.
The different cells leads
to different physical
properties of bulk
metals.
 Face Centered Cubic

FCC metals, Cu, Au, Ag, are usually soft

and 'ductile', which means they can be
bent and shaped easily.
 Body Centered Cubic

BCC metals are less ductile but stronger,

eg iron.
 Hexagonal Close-Packed

HCP metals are usually brittle. Zinc is

HCP and is difficult to bend without
breaking, unlike copper.
Many other features depend upon the
crystal structure of metals, such as:
density,
deformation processes,
alloying behavior,
and much more.
Thus, it is important to understand metal
structures.
 Structure of Metal

The reason that metals form different crystal

structure is to minimize the energy required to fit
together in a regular patern.

At different temperature, the same metal may form

different structures allotropism or
polymorphisme.

Because of the properties and behavior of metal depend

greatly on its crystal structure, allotropism is an
important factor in the heat treatment of metals as
well as in metalworking and welding operations.
 Allotropes of iron

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron
 Deformation and Strength of Single
Crystals

When a single crystal is subjected to an external force :

Elastic deformation,
Plastic deformation (permanent deformation)

Permanent deformation
(also called plastic
deformation) of a single
crystal subjected to a shear
stress: (a) structure
before deformation; and (b)
permanent deformation by
slip. The b/a ratio
influences the magnitude
of the shear stress required
to cause slip.
 Deformation and Strength of Single Crystals

Permanent Deformation
and Twinning in Crystal

(a) Permanent deformation of a

single crystal under a tensile
load. Note that the slip
planes tend to align
themselves in the direction
of the pulling force. This
behavior can be simulated
using a deck of cards with a
rubber band around them.
(b) Twinning in a single crystal
in tension
 Crystal Slip and Twinning

Atomic-Scale Deformation Twinning

http://www.buzzle.com/images/diagra
ms/plastic-deformation-types.jpg

http://www.me.gatech.edu/featured_twinning
 Slip Lines and Slip Bands in Crystal

Schematic illustration of
slip lines and slip bands
in a single crystal (grain)
subjected to a shear
stress. A slip band
consists of a number of
slip planes. The crystal
at the center of the upper
illustration is an
individual grain
surrounded by several
other grains
 Defects in a Single-Crystal Lattice

Schematic illustration of types of defects in a single-crystal lattice: self-interstitial,

vacancy, interstitial, and substitutional
 Dislocations in Crystals

Types of dislocations in a single crystal: (a) edge dislocation; and (b)

screw dislocation
 Edge Dislocation Movement

Movement of an edge dislocation across the crystal lattice under a shear stress.
Dislocations help explain why the actual strength of metals is much lower than
that predicted by theory
 Solidification of Molten Metal

Schematic illustration of the stages during solidification of molten metal; each

small square represents a unit cell. (a) Nucleation of crystals at random sites in
the molten metal; note that the crystallographic orientation of each site is different.
(b) and (c) Growth of crystals as solidification continues. (d) Solidified metal,
showing individual grains and grain boundaries; note the different angles at which
neighboring grains meet each other
 Grain Sizes

ASTM Grain Size:

N = 2n-1
where
N = Grains per square
inch at 100x
magnification
n = ASTM grain size
number
 Plastic Deformation of Idealized Grains

Plastic deformation of
idealized (equiaxed)
grains in a specimen
subjected to
compression (such as
occurs in the forging
or rolling of metals):
(a) before
deformation; and (b)
after deformation.
Note the alignment of
grain boundaries
along a horizontal
direction; this effect is
known as preferred
orientation
 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth Effects

Schematic illustration
of the effects of
recovery,
recrystallization, and
grain growth on
mechanical properties
and on the shape and
size of grains. Note
the formation of small
new grains during
recrystallization.
 Relative Mechanical Properties of Materials

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Mechanical Properties
 Tension

(a)A standard
tensile-test
specimen before
and after pulling,
showing original
and final gage
lengths.
(b) A tensile-test
sequence
showing
different stages
in the elongation
of the specimen.
 Stress Strain Curve

A typical stress-strain
curve obtained from a
tension test, showing
various features

Schematic illustration of the loading and the unloading of a

tensile-test specimen. Note that, during unloading, the curve
follows a path parallel to the original elastic slope.
 Ductility

Elongation vs. Tensile-reduction

Approximate
relationship
between
elongation and
tensile reduction of
area for various
groups of metals
 Tensile Properties

There are two different types of stressstrain curves:

1. Engineering stressstrain
2. True stressstrain.

The first is more important in design, and the second is more

important in manufacturing.

Engineering StressStrain
The engineering stress and strain in a tensile test are defined relative to
the original area and length of the test specimen.

These values are of interest in design because the designer expects that
the strains experienced by any component of the product will not
significantly change its shape. The components are designed to
withstand the anticipated stresses encountered in service.
 Tensile Properties

The engineering stress at any point on the curve is defined as the force
divided by the original area:
=
0
where s = engineering stress, MPa (lb/in2), F = applied force in the test,
N (lb), and Ao = original area of the test specimen, mm2 (in2).

The engineering strain at any point in the test is given by

0
=
0
where e = engineering strain, mm/mm (in/in); L = length at any point
during the elongation, mm (in); and Lo = original gage length, mm (in).
 Tensile Properties

The stressstrain relationship has two regions, indicating two distinct

forms of behavior: (1) elastic and (2) plastic.

In the elastic region, the relationship between stress and strain is linear, and
the material exhibits elastic behavior by returning to its original length when the
load (stress) is released.

The relationship is defined by Hookes law:

where E = modulus of elasticity, MPa (lb/in2), a measure of the inherent stiffness

of a material.
Tensile Properties
Tensile Properties
Tensile Properties
 Tensile Properties

True StressStrain

It may be troubled by the use of the original area of the test specimen to
calculate engineering stress, rather than the actual (instantaneous) area that
becomes increasingly smaller as the test proceeds.

If the actual area were used, the calculated stress value would be higher. The
stress value obtained by dividing the instantaneous value of area into the
applied load is defined as the true stress:

where = true stress, MPa (lb/in2); F = force,N(lb); and A = actual

(instantaneous) area resisting the load, mm2 (in2).
 Tensile Properties

True strain provides a more realistic assessment of the instantaneous

elongation per unit length of the material.

The value of true strain in a tensile test can be estimated by dividing the total
elongation into small increments, calculating the engineering strain for each
increment on the basis of its starting length, and then adding up the strain
values. In the limit, true strain is defined as :

= = ln
0
0

where L = instantaneous length at any moment during elongation.

Tensile Properties
Engineering vs True Stress-Strain
 Engineering Strain Vs. True Strain - 1

For many engineering applications, the use

of 'engineering stress and strain' values for
material stress-strain curves will be sufficient
for obtaining correct answers in a plasticity
analysis.
Engineering stress and strain are commonly
represented in 2D by these equations:

= =
0 0
 Engineering Strain Vs. True Strain - 2

However, engineering strain is a small strain

measure which is invalid once the strain in
your model is no longer 'small'
(approximately 5%).
True strain, which is a nonlinear strain
measure that is dependent upon the final
length of the model, is used for large strain
simulations.
True stress and strain are commonly
represented in 2D by these equations:

= ln =
0
 True stress true strain.

True stress-strain
curves in tension at
room temperature
for various metals.
The curves start at a
finite level of stress:
The elastic regions
have too steep a
slope to be shown in
this figure, and thus
each curve starts at
the yield stress, Y, of
the material
Temperature Effect
 Hardness (1)

The hardness of a material is defined as

its resistance to permanent indentation.
Good hardness generally means that the
material is resistant to scratching and
wear.
For many engineering applications,
including most of the tooling used in
manufacturing, scratch and wear
resistance are important characteristics.
 Hardness (2)

Hardness tests are commonly used for

assessing material properties because
they are quick and convenient.

However, a variety of testing methods

are appropriate because of differences in
hardness among different materials. The
best-known hardness tests are Brinell
and Rockwell.
 Brinell Hard Test (1)

The Brinell hardness test is widely used

for testing metals and nonmetals of low
to medium hardness.

It is named after the Swedish engineer

who developed it around 1900.

In the test, a hardened steel (or

cemented carbide) ball of 10-mm
diameter is pressed into the surface of a
specimen using a load of 500, 1500, or
3000 kg.
 Brinell Hard Test (3)

The load is then divided into the

indentation area to obtain the Brinell
Hardness Number (BHN).
In equation form :

2
=
2 2

where HB = Brinell Hardness Number (BHN); F =

indentation load, kg; Db = diameter of the ball,
mm; and Di = diameter of the indentation on the
surface, mm.
 Brinell Hard Test (3)

The resulting BHN has units of kg/mm2, but

the units are usually omitted in expressing the
number.

For harder materials (above 500 BHN), the

cemented carbide ball is used because the
steel ball experiences elastic deformation that
compromises the accuracy of the reading.
 Brinell Hard Test (4)

Also, higher loads (1500 and 3000 kg) are

typically used for harder materials. Because of
differences in results under different loads, it is
considered good practice to indicate the load
used in the test when reporting HB readings.
 Rockwell Hardness Test (1)

Rockwell Hardness Test

In the Rockwell Hardness Test, a cone-shaped indenter or small-
diameter ball, with diameter = 1.6 or 3.2 mm (1/16 or 1/8 in) is
pressed into the specimen using a minor load of 10 kg, thus seating
the indenter in the material.

Then, a major load of 150 kg (or other value) is applied, causing the
indenter to penetrate into the specimen a certain distance beyond
its initial position. This additional penetration distance d is converted
into a Rockwell hardness reading by the testing machine.

Differences in load and indenter geometry provide various Rockwell

scales for different materials.
Rockwell Hardness Test (2)
 Vickers Hardness Test (1)

Vickers Hardness Test

This test uses a pyramid shaped indentermade of
diamond.
It is based on the principle that impressions made by
this indenter are geometrically similar regardless of
load.
Accordingly, loads of various size are applied,
depending on the hardness of the material to be
measured. The Vickers Hardness (HV) is then
determined from the formula :

where F = applied load, kg, and D = the diagonal of the

impression made by the indenter, mm,
The Vickers test can be used for all metals and has one
of the widest scales among hardness tests.
Knoop Hardness Test (1)
Knoop Hardness Test
The Knoop test, developed in 1939, uses a pyramid-
shaped diamond indenter, but the pyramid has a length-to-
width ratio of about 7:1, and the applied loads are
generally lighter than in the Vickers test.

It is a microhardness test, meaning that it is suitable for

measuring small, thin specimens or hard materials that
might fracture if a heavier load were applied.

The indenter shape facilitates reading of the impression

under the lighter loads used in this test.

The Knoop hardness value (HK) is determined according

to the formula

where F = load, kg; and D = the long diagonal of the

indentor, mm.
Because the impression made in this test is generally very
small, considerable care must be taken in preparing the
surface to be measured.
Hardness selected material
Hardness Selected Ceramic
Hardness Selected Polymer
 S-N Curves

(a) Typical S-N curves for two metals. Note that, unlike steel, aluminum does not have an
endurance limit. (b) S-N curves for common polymers

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Reduction in Fatigue Strength vs. Ultimate
Tensile Strength

Reductions in fatigue strength of

cast steels subjected to various
surface-finishing operations. Note
that the reduction becomes greater
as the surface roughness and the
strength of steel increase. Source:
Courtesy of M. R. Mitchell

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Proses Manufaktur
 Sumber Daya Mineral Indonesia (2008)

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 Batere Lithium untuk Kendaraan Listrik

Daya penyimpanan baterai 16 kW-Jam dan

85 kW-jam
25 % biaya produksi kendaraan
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04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles

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