Etsu Reducing Energy Costs in Flour Mills

GOOD PRACTICE GUIDE 212
Reducing energy costs

in flour milling
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDE 212
BEST PRACTICE
PROGRAMME
REDUCING ENERGY COSTS IN
FLOUR MILLING
This booklet is No. 212 in the Good Practice Guide series and is designed to be used as a source
of reference by mill operators, milling engineers and those interested in supplying milling plant.
The Guide provides information on factors affecting energy consumption, particularly
electricity consumption. Particular attention is given to motors and drives, pneumatic
conveying systems and compressed air supplies. The Guide also addresses ways of saving
money through closer control of mill processes, lighting, heating and ventilation. Case studies
illustrate the savings that can be achieved, and a series of checklists give practical steps to
saving energy.
Prepared for the Department of the Environment by:
ETSU
Harwell
Didcot
Oxfordshire
OX11 0RA
and
Fichtner Consulting Engineers Limited

Frederick House
8 Acorn Business Park
Heaton Lane
Stockport
Cheshire
SK4 1AS
Crown copyright 1997
First published March 1997
Other titles in the Good Practice Guide Series

1. GUIDANCE NOTES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SMALL-SCALE PACKAGED COMBINED HEAT AND POWER
2. GUIDANCE NOTES FOR REDUCING ENERGY CONSUMPTION COSTS OF ELECTRIC MOTOR AND DRIVE SYSTEMS
3. INTRODUCTION TO SMALL-SCALE COMBINED HEAT AND POWER
13. WASTE HEAT RECOVERY FROM HIGH TEMPERATURE GAS STREAMS
14. RETROFITTING AC VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
17. GUIDANCE NOTES FOR ACHIEVING HIGH YIELDS IN IRON FOUNDRIES
18. REDUCING ENERGY CONSUMPTION COSTS BY STEAM METERING
30. ENERGY EFFICIENT OPERATION OF INDUSTRIAL BOILER PLANT
31. COMPUTER AIDED MONITORING AND TARGETING FOR INDUSTRY
36. COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION PLANT: ENERGY EFFICIENT OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
37. COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION PLANT: ENERGY EFFICIENT DESIGN
38. COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION PLANT: ENERGY EFFICIENT INSTALLATION
42. INDUSTRIAL REFRIGERATION PLANT: ENERGY EFFICIENT OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
43. INTRODUCTION TO LARGE-SCALE COMBINED HEAT AND POWER
44. INDUSTRIAL REFRIGERATION PLANT: ENERGY EFFICIENT DESIGN
47. RUBBER COMPOUNDING IN THE RUBBER PROCESSING INDUSTRY
48. REDUCING ELECTRICITY USE IN INJECTION MOULDING
49. ENERGY EFFICIENT LADLE PRE-HEATING TECHNIQUES WITHIN THE STEEL INDUSTRY
50. GUIDANCE NOTES FOR THE EFFICIENT OPERATION OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACES
58. CUPOLA MELTING OF CAST IRON IN IRON FOUNDRIES
59. ENERGY EFFICIENT DESIGN AND OPERATION OF REFRIGERATION COMPRESSORS
60. THE APPLICATION OF COMBINED HEAT AND POWER IN THE UK HEALTH SERVICE
63. METAL DISTRIBUTION AND HANDLING IN IRON FOUNDRIES
64. REDUCING ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND COSTS IN SMALL BAKERIES
65. ACHIEVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN THE MALTINGS INDUSTRY
66. ROTARY DRYING IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
68. ELECTRIC HOLDING OF HOT METAL IN IRON FOUNDRIES
69. INVESTMENT APPRAISAL FOR INDUSTRIAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY
70. ENERGY CONSERVATION IN THE DRY-CLEANING INDUSTRY
72. MONITORING AND TARGETING IN THE FABRIC CARE INDUSTRY
76. CONTINUOUS STEEL REHEATING FURNACES: SPECIFICATION, DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT
77. CONTINUOUS STEEL REHEATING FURNACES: OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
78. ENERGY CONSERVATION IN LAUNDERING
83. ENERGY EFFICIENT LIQUID RING VACUUM PUMP INSTALLATIONS IN THE PAPER INDUSTRY
84. MANAGING AND MOTIVATING STAFF TO SAVE ENERGY
85. ENERGY MANAGEMENT TRAINING
86. RUBBER MOULDING & CURING IN THE RUBBER PROCESSING INDUSTRY
87. THE PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY
88. ENERGY EFFICIENT USE OF BOILERS USING CHAIN GRATE STOKERS
89. GUIDE TO COMPACT HEAT EXCHANGERS
90. ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN THE PROVISION AND USE OF INDUSTRIAL GASES
91. MONITORING AND TARGETING IN LARGE MANUFACTURING COMPANIES
92. REDUCING ELECTRICITY USE IN EXTRUSION-BLOW MOULDING OF THERMOPLASTICS
114. ENERGY EFFICIENT REFINING OF PAPERMAKING STOCK
115. AN ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDE TO SMALL-SCALE COMBINED HEAT AND POWER
116. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF LARGE-SCALE COMBINED HEAT AND POWER
126. COMPRESSING AIR COSTS
127. ENERGY EFFICIENT ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IN THE GLASS INDUSTRY
140. THE ORGANIC DYE & PIGMENT MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
141. WASTE HEAT RECOVERY IN THE PROCESS INDUSTRIES
142. IMPROVING METAL UTILISATION IN ALUMINIUM FOUNDRIES
149. ROTARY DRYING IN THE FOOD AND DRINK INDUSTRY
163. ENERGY EFFICIENT PULPING/SLUSHING IN PAPER MANUFACTURE
164. ENERGY EFFICIENT OPERATION OF KILNS IN THE CERAMIC INDUSTRIES
166. ENERGY SAVING IN FOUNDRY SERVICES
169. TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
170. REDUCING WATER PUMPING COSTS IN THE STEEL INDUSTRY
181. ENERGY EFFICIENT CRUSHING AND GRINDING SYSTEMS
185. SPRAY DRYING
203. ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN THE PRINTING INDUSTRY
214. MAKING USE OF BUSINESS STANDARDS
215. REDUCING ENERGY COSTS IN INDUSTRY WITH ADVANCED COMPUTING AND CONTROL
Copies of these guides may be obtained from:
Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau

ETSU
Harwell
Didcot
Oxfordshire
OX11 0RA
Tel No: 01235 436747. Fax No: 01235 433066. E-mail: etsuenq@aeat.co.uk
Overseas customers please remit 3 per copy (minimum of 6) with order to cover cost of packaging and posting.
Please make cheques, drafts or money orders payable to ETSU.
FOREWORD
This Guide is part of a series produced by the Government under the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme. The aim
of the programme is to advance and spread good practice in energy efficiency by providing independent, authoritative advice
and information on good energy efficiency practices. Best Practice is a collaborative programme targeted towards energy
users and decision makers in industry, the commercial and public sectors, and building sectors including housing. It
comprises four inter-related elements identified by colour-coded strips for easy reference:
Energy Consumption Guides: (blue) energy consumption data to enable users to establish their relative energy
efficiency performance;
Good Practice Guides: (red) and Case Studies: (mustard) independent information on proven energy-saving
measures and techniques and what they are achieving;
New Practice projects: (light green) independent monitoring of new energy efficiency measures which do not yet
enjoy a wide market;
Future Practice R&D support: (purple) help to develop tomorrows energy efficiency good practice measures.
If you would like any further information on this document, or on the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme, please
contact the Environment and Energy Helpline on 0800 585794. Alternatively, you may contact your local service deliverer
see contact details below.
ENGLAND
London North West South West
Govt Office for London Environment Team Environment and Energy Management Team
6th Floor Govt Office for the North West Govt Office for the South West
Riverwalk House Cunard Building The Pithay
157-161 Millbank Pier Head Bristol
London Water Street Avon
SW1P 4RR Liverpool BS1 2PB
Tel 020 7217 3435 L3 1QB Tel 0117 900 1700
Tel 0151 224 6401
East Midlands West Midlands
The Sustainable Development Team South East Regional Sustainability Team
Govt Office for the East Midlands Sustainable Development Team 77 Paradise Circus
The Belgrave Centre Govt Office for the South East Queensway
Stanley Place Bridge House Birmingham
Talbot Street 1 Walnut Tree Close B1 2DT
Nottingham Guildford Tel 0121 212 5300
NG1 5GG Surrey
Tel 0115 971 2476 GU1 4GA Yorkshire and the Humber
Tel 01483 882532 Sustainable Development Unit
North East Govt Office for Yorks and the Humber
Sustainability and Environment Team East PO Box 213
Govt Office for the North East Sustainable Development Awareness Team City House
Wellbar House Govt Office for the East of England New Station Street
Gallowgate Heron House Leeds
Newcastle-upon-Tyne 49-53 Goldington Road LS1 4US
NE1 4TD Bedford Tel 0113 283 6376
Tel 0191 202 3614 MK40 3LL
Tel 01234 796194
NORTHERN IRELAND SCOTLAND WALES

IRTU Scientific Services Energy Efficiency Office Business and Environment Branch
17 Antrim Road Enterprise and Lifelong Learning Dept National Assembly for Wales
Lisburn 2nd Floor Cathays Park
Co Antrim Meridian Court Cardiff
BT28 3AL 5 Cadogan Street CF10 3NQ
Tel 028 9262 3000 Glasgow Tel 029 2082 5172
G2 6AT
Tel 0141 242 5835
SUMMARY
Energy is a direct charge on a companys operating budget - every 1 saved on the energy bill
immediately accrues as an increase in bottom line profit. For many companies, energy is a
significant operating cost - annual energy bills of 500,000 to 1 million are not uncommon in
the flour milling industry.
This Good Practice Guide describes good energy management practice applicable to flour
milling. The Guide aims to help mill operators, milling engineers and those interested in
supplying milling plant to identify areas where energy savings can be made. These range from
simple no-cost measures, e.g. switching off plant when it is idling, to medium-cost measures
such as specifying variable speed drives on large motors with widely varying loads, replacing
burnt-out motors with high efficiency models and installing automatic lighting linked to
occupancy.
The main operating processes in flour milling are outlined and those factors which affect energy
consumption, and which are within the control of the mill operator, are highlighted. Improved
electrical efficiency is the key to saving energy in flour mills. Particular attention is therefore
given to:
motors and drives;

pneumatic conveying systems;
compressed air supplies.
Ways of saving energy through closer control of mill processes, lighting, heating and
ventilation are also described.
Many of the recommended measures are simple and low-cost. They are summarised in a series
of checklists with opportunities for saving energy divided into no or low-cost measures costing
less than a few hundred pounds and medium cost measures with a payback of generally less
than two years. Case studies are used to illustrate the savings that can be achieved.
Where appropriate, other publications from the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme are
suggested as sources of further information.
CONTENTS
Section Page No.
1. ENERGY USE IN FLOUR MILLING 1
2. MOTORS AND DRIVES 4
3. CONVEYING SYSTEMS 11
4. COMPRESSED AIR 20
5. CONTROLS AND SERVICES 27
6. SITE REFURBISHMENT / NEW MILL DESIGN 32
7. ENERGY MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES 36
8. INVESTING IN ENERGY EFFICIENCY 43
9. MAIN ENERGY SAVING OPPORTUNITIES 47

1
1. ENERGY USE IN FLOUR MILLING
This Section presents an overview of energy use in the flour milling industry. The main energy-
consuming activities in a flour mill are highlighted in two pie charts. This breakdown of energy
use helps to prioritise the energy saving opportunities described in the Guide.
The emphasis in the UK flour milling industry is on bulk production; capacity is concentrated
in large mills owned by three major companies which together account for over 70% of the UK
production.
Flour milling is an energy-intensive industry, with energy being the largest operating expense
after raw material costs. However, energy is also one of the most controllable production costs.
You cannot reduce manpower by fractions of a person, but you can achieve significant savings
by making percentage reductions in energy consumption.
A 5% reduction in energy consumption at a large multi-purpose continuous mill could be

worth as much as 50,000/year, even though the saving may be less than 1% of the total
production costs.
The UK milling industry uses approximately 560 million MWh of energy per annum, at a cost
of approximately 16 million.1 Approximately 75% of this energy is used for milling flour
from wheat. Within the flour milling industry, annual energy bills of 500,000 - 1 million are
not uncommon.
In flour milling, electricity accounts for almost 75% of total energy use and over 90% of energy
costs. In many large mills, electricity is often the only form of energy used for production
purposes, with only space heating and domestic hot water using oil or gas. In addition to the
cost benefits, energy savings therefore have an environmental benefit due to reduced carbon
dioxide emissions from fossil fuel power generation.
1.1 Breakdown of Energy Use
The main processes in flour milling are:
wheat reception and storage;

cleaning and conditioning;
milling and sieving;
blending, flour storage and packaging.
Fig 1 shows the breakdown of energy use at a typical flour mill by department.
Wheat storage
and cleaning
12%
Services
9%
Warehouse
6%
Packing
3% Milling and sieving
62%
Bulk store
8%
Fig 1 Energy use in a typical flour mill by operating department

1 Walshe, N.M. Grinding down energy costs. International Milling, Flour and Feed (May 1991)
2
These processes are accomplished using three types of unit operation, i.e.:
milling and grinding;

particle size classification;
conveying (mechanical and pneumatic).
More detailed information about all aspects of flour milling is given in a series of seven
correspondence course booklets obtainable from the National Association of British and Irish
Millers (NABIM).2
Fig 2 shows energy use in a typical flour mill by unit operation; the main energy consumers are
grinding and pneumatic conveying.
Services
3% Milling and grinding
Particle seperation 44%
5%
Mechanical conveying
9%
Compressed air
7%
Pneumatic conveying
32%
Fig 2 Energy use in a typical flour mill by unit operation
1.2 Factors Governing Energy Use
The main factors governing energy use for flour milling are:
wheat quality. This includes:

- the amount of impurities, e.g. grit, dirt, stalks, etc.;
- the water content;
- the variety of wheat being processed.
product quality. This affects:

- the degree of milling required;
- the need for blending;
- the type of flour produced, e.g. white bread flour, biscuit flour, soft brown flour or
wholemeal.
mill loading. High mill loading is needed to spread fixed costs over a greater product output
and thus reduce unit costs. At low throughputs, the electrical efficiency of motors is reduced
and the cost of energy per tonne of product increases.
atmospheric conditions. Factors such as humidity and ambient temperature affect the
milling behaviour of wheat and handling properties of flour. However, these are not
significant in the UK. Only extreme cold is likely to have an impact on energy use as
operators may override building thermostats to improve their working environment and
forget to re-set them when conditions warm up.
2 The titles are: Wheat and the Screenroom; Mill Processes and Performance; Product Handling, Storage and Distribution; Flour; Health, Safety
and Hygiene; Power and Automation; and Flour Milling Management. Available from NABIM, 21 Arlington Street, London SW1A 1RN.
Tel No: 0171 493 2521. Fax No: 0171 493 6785.
3
1.3 Energy Saving Opportunities
The best way of using energy efficiently is to maximise mill throughput. Energy is widely seen
as a fixed cost - distributed as an overhead - rather than as a variable cost related to production.
Significant resources have therefore been put into mill control systems which suspend milling
in the event of a choke or a loss of feed, thus allowing plant to remain idle until production is
resumed. However, some of the main energy consumers often remain on-line, notably the
pneumatic conveying fans which can account for over 30% of the energy use (see Fig 2).
Other industries have shown that it is possible to reduce both the fixed and variable cost
elements of energy use by a combination of structured energy management techniques, proper
maintenance and judicious capital investment.
When you are considering energy efficiency measures, it is important to identify:
the breakdown of costs for different mill operations;

the pattern of use.
Once you have obtained a comprehensive analysis of energy consumption, you can develop a
strategy for energy savings using appropriate energy management techniques. Table 1 shows
achievable energy saving targets and methods in two areas of high energy consumption.
Table 1 Energy savings in two priority areas
Target savings Techniques
Milling and sieving 2 - 5% High efficiency motors

Improved maintenance
Conveying 10 - 20% Optimising airflows

Reduced leakage
1.4 Purpose of this Guide
This Guide is aimed at those in the flour milling industry responsible for controlling the energy
element of production costs. It will also be of interest to engineers with an indirect interest in
milling, e.g. equipment and energy suppliers, who wish to understand the industrys
requirements.
The Guide describes energy saving opportunities in those areas likely to yield significant
savings, i.e. motors and drives, conveying systems, compressed air, controls and services.
Factors to bear in mind when undertaking a mill refurbishment or designing a new mill are also
discussed.
Where appropriate, the reader is directed to other publications from the Energy Efficiency Best
Practice Programme to obtain more detailed information.
4
2. MOTORS AND DRIVES
This Section provides a structured approach to tackling the energy costs associated with the
large numbers of electrical motors and drives found in a flour mill. Together they constitute
one of the largest consumers of energy in the mill and, as such, offer scope for significant
savings. Energy saving opportunities include:
reducing the external load on the motor;

switching off motors and drives that are idle;
reducing motor losses;
reducing the motor speed by using multi-speed motors and variable speed drives.
Energy Saving Checklist: Motors and Drives
Problem Solution No or Medium

low-cost* cost**
Reduce load on motor Reduce system load e.g. by using a

more efficient fan/pump.
Improve maintenance schedule and
procedures.
Motor/plant left idling Switch off when idling.

Ensure motor is not over-sized for the
job.
Reduce motor losses Ensure motor is correct size.

Replace with high efficiency motor.
If repaired or rewound, ensure
efficiency losses are minimised.
Reduce motor running Consider multi-speed motors (MSMs)

speed. or variable speed drives (VSDs).
* Less than a few hundred pounds.
** Generally less than a two year payback.
Sources of Further Information

Good Practice Guide 2 Guidance Notes for Reducing Energy Consumption Costs of
Electric Motor and Drive Systems
Good Practice Guide 14 Retrofitting AC Variable Speed Drives
Good Practice Case Study 164 Variable Speed Drives on a Flour Mill Extract Fan
These publications are available from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU, Harwell,
Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0RA. Tel No: 01235 436747. Fax No: 01235 433066. e-mail:
etsuenq@aeat.co.uk.
In energy terms, the most significant items of equipment in a flour mill are the numerous
electrical motors which supply power to the various operations. Most mills have over 200
motors, which can range in power from less than 10 kW to over 150 kW. A significant number
of these motors are used to produce a relatively constant and continuous torque, e.g. on roller
mills. These motors have high annual running hours.
5
There are several ways of reducing the running costs associated with motors and drives. These
methods can be summarised in order of priority as follows:
reduce the external load on the motor and the drive;

ensure motors and drives are switched off when not in use;
use high efficiency motors;
reduce the speed of the motor.
More detailed information on energy efficient motors and drives can be found in Good
Practice Guide 2 Guidance Notes for Reducing Energy Consumption Costs of Electric
Motor and Drive Systems.3
2.1 Reduce Load
(1) Reduce System Load

The first step is to examine ways of reducing the external load on the motor and drive system
as much as possible, e.g.:
minimising the amount of air moved by pneumatic systems;

reducing leakage from compressed air systems;
reducing pressure drops in pneumatic and compressed air systems.
These aspects are covered in more detail in Sections 3 and 4.
(2) Use Efficient Equipment

Machinery that is in use should be examined to determine whether it is operating at its optimum
duty or in a part load condition. For example, a simple method of improving blower efficiency
is to change the pulley size, or in the case of a fan, to trim the impeller.
When installing new machinery such as a fan, it is important to consider the equipments
efficiency as well as its cost. Since most equipment is in service for several years, significant
savings can be made by choosing equipment which has been shown by the supplier to be more
efficient than other products.
(3) Maintain Motor, Drive and Equipment Efficiency

The large number of motors, drives and machinery within the mill should be kept running
efficiently and reliably.
General vibration checks, e.g. using a shock pulse method, can indicate whether the shaft
alignment is correct.
Motor maintenance is relatively straightforward and should cover:
bearing condition. The bearings of all large motors - including those on pneumatic fans and
roller mills - should be checked regularly.
Standard vibration techniques, e.g. the shock pulse method, can be used to monitor bearing
condition. This will indicate whether bearing races are deteriorating. Careful interpretation
of the results is necessary as spurious readings can be obtained, e.g. if greasing has been
carried out recently. Monitoring the temperature of bearings is not as sensitive as vibration
techniques.
Use of external contractors for this work may be more appropriate than maintaining in-
house expertise and equipment.
3 Available from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU.
6
bearing lubrication. A schedule for lubricating bearings and gearboxes should be drawn up
in accordance with the equipment suppliers recommendations. This schedule should cover
the frequency, quantity and type of lubricant used.
It is important to apply the correct amount of lubricant as excessive amounts can cause
premature failure of the equipment.
Lubricants are available which their suppliers claim will reduce energy consumption. These
lubricants usually contain an additive, e.g. micro spheres, which reduce friction losses.
These products should tested prior to use on equipment which is not critical for production
purposes. It is also prudent to consider the possibility that long-term degradation of
materials may occur, e.g. bronze is damaged by chlorine-containing oils.
mechanical alignment;
electrical integrity of the insulation;
condition of the commutator, slip rings and brushes;
general cleanliness of the motor.
Further suggestions for ensuring that equipment and systems are kept running reliably and
efficiently are given in other Sections of this Guide.
(4) Optimise Transmission Arrangements

Most flour mills operate equipment using a variety of drive arrangements, including:
chain;
belt;
shaft-mounted gear motor;
directly coupled.
Direct drive methods are more efficient as there is no intermediate link to increase friction
losses. However, they are often more expensive.
Most transmission systems operate reasonably efficiently. For example, when using bucket
elevators, about 80% of the input power is directly attributable to the weight of material being
conveyed with the remainder due to friction, loading and discharge losses.
The selection of an appropriate drive arrangement depends on:
cost;
operational factors;
maintenance issues.
For example, some sites prefer not to use gearboxes due to their potential for leakage.
Proper maintenance is still essential.
For systems using chains, this means regular greasing.

For belt systems, regular checks on belt condition, tension and alignment avoids energy
losses between the motor and impeller shafts due to the belt being worn or slipping.
Replacing worn belts also helps prevent their failure during operation.
7
Belts
Toothed belts and notched timing belts may be used by equipment suppliers when accurate
speed or differential conditions have to be maintained, e.g. on roller mills. However, the most
common type of belts used are the V and wedge type. These are more commonly used than
flat belts as they require less space and the number of belts used can sometimes be reduced.
When fitting V and wedge belts, it is important that:
the size of the belt is correct in relation to the pulley groove;

multiple belts should be from matched sets and changed at the same time;
belts on the same drive should be supplied by the same manufacturer;
pulleys should be aligned correctly, i.e. parallel and in the same plane with no offset;
a tension indicator is used when fitting a belt to ensure that the correct tension is applied.
Fitting polycarbonate guards to drive arrangements allows easy viewing of the belt. This means
that visual checks of alignment and tension can be performed with the equipment on-line.
When altering drive guards, it is important to comply with all safety regulations.
2.2 Switch Off Machinery When Idling
Switching off machinery that is not in use rather than leaving it running is a simple, no-cost
method of saving energy.
For mills with programmable logic controller (PLC) systems, sections of the mill that are not
in production, e.g. mechanical conveying systems for wheat transfer and screening machinery,
can be automatically switched off. Control systems can be configured so that sensing
equipment such as weighers can be used to detect when machinery can be shut down.
Where PLC control is not installed, equipment can be switched off manually by operators.
Soft Starters
Soft starters are electrical devices that allow a rapid but gradual build-up of electrical power
rather than a sudden surge. They are used mainly to avoid wear on the transmission, problems
associated with mechanical shocks and to restrict in-rush current and thus reduce the peak load
on the electrical supply.
Since the risk of damage to motor and drive chain is lessened, soft starters can make it feasible
to turn plant on and off more readily to save energy.
Some soft starters also incorporate an energy optimiser which can limit efficiency losses when
motors are operated at part-load. The savings from this feature depend on the motor loading;
savings are marginal at loadings above 50%. Savings from energy optimisation are unlikely to
justify the capital cost of a soft starter, but are worth having if a unit is needed for other reasons.
8
2.3 Reduce Motor Losses
(1) Use the Correct Size Motor

One of the simplest ways of reducing motor losses is to optimise the size of motor being used
in relation to the duty.
Equipment suppliers often allow an excessive margin when selecting motors for their
equipment. It is therefore worthwhile comparing the motor rating with the equipment duty,
especially when replacing motors.
Downsize the motor where possible. It is more efficient to use a smaller motor at its full
design load than to use a larger motor at part-load.
If replacing a motor, always consider using a high efficiency version.
(2) Use High Efficiency Motors

The purchase cost of an electric motor is usually minimal compared to its annual running costs,
e.g. an 11 kW motor can cost less than 500, but its running costs over a ten year life are likely
to exceed 50,000.
Modern induction motors have efficiencies of 80 - 90%. However, High Efficiency Motors
(HEMs) have been available for at least ten years with efficiency improvements of 2 - 3% over
the standard models. This improvement has been independently verified.
Efficiencies have been increased by a combination of design improvements, e.g. reducing

resistance by increasing the amount of copper used in the slots and using higher quality stator
laminations. These improvements have, in turn, allowed the size of cooling fans to be reduced.
The cost of purchasing energy efficient motors is now considerably less and, in some cases,
similar to standard models. Information about the efficiency improvement and cost of HEMs
should be obtained directly from the suppliers of the different models. Suppliers should also
be asked to verify their claims of higher efficiencies.
Obtain quotes for HEMs and compare to standard models. Although there is often no price
premium, the savings can be considerable over the life of the motor. As an example, Table 2
shows the typical savings that can be obtained from a high efficiency 7.5 kW motor compared
to standard models at full load. Overall, higher annual running hours and higher loading mean
more savings.
When running hours are high, it can also be cost-effective to replace large motors (70 kW and
over) with high efficiency versions before they fail.
Table 2 Typical savings with a 7.5 kW High Efficiency Motor at full load
Annual use (hours) Annual savings
2,000 45
4,000 90
6,000 135
8,000 180
9
High Efficiency Motors have:
the same maintenance requirements as standard motors;

at least equal reliability;
possibly a longer operating life due to lower operating temperatures.
The cost benefit of using HEMs is just as great at part-load operation; the increase in efficiency
can be as high as 6.5% at 50% loading.
All new motors, including HEMs, are only available in metric sizes. If replacing an imperial
size motor, the cost of altering the frame/bed-plate should also be taken into account.
(3) Replace or Rewind?

The flour milling industry uses a large number of motors, so it is inevitable that some will suffer
burn-out. Often, the only aim is to get the plant operating again - so the quickest route wins.
However, motors that are rewound show a typical drop in efficiency of 0.5 - 2.0%. When
sending motors for rewinding, it is worth checking that the repairer can demonstrate high
standards of repair. The drop in efficiency can be 0.5% or less with high quality rewinds.
The choice between motor replacement and rewinding is site-dependent. Good Practice Guide
2 Guidance Notes for Reducing Energy Consumption Costs of Electric Motor and Drive
Systems4 describes a method of calculating the breakpoint in terms of annual running hours by
motor size. This calculation is based upon the cost of buying a new motor and repairing an old
one; it also takes into account the energy costs due to different efficiencies.
Other factors that should be taken into account include whether the motor:
is imperial or metric;
is already a high efficiency motor;
has been rewound before.
For motors below typically 12 kW, it is usual to replace rather than rewind.
2.4 Reduce Speed
Reducing the speed of motors can reduce energy costs significantly. For example, a 20%
decrease in speed on a fan or pump can reduce the energy cost by 50%, since the power drawn
is proportional to the speed cubed. Speed should be reduced to match the actual load
requirements.
Variable Speed Drives (VSDs)

The most versatile way of reducing speed to match the load is the electronic variable speed
drive (VSD). However, VSDs require careful consideration and evaluation.
VSD systems allow equipment to run at its optimum speed across a range of operating loads.
They are available in several categories, including modern electronic systems which allow
almost infinitely variable and constantly changing speed at relatively low cost. Such systems
normally use an inverter.
Variable speed drives - sometimes known as inverters - have traditionally been used for process
control applications. They are now being increasingly used to improve energy efficiency. The
high level of savings achievable with VSDs have been demonstrated in several case studies and
sectors.5

5 For example, Variable Speed Drives on Secondary Refrigeration Pumps, Good Practice Case Study 124 (Jul. 1992) and Variable Speed Drives
on Cooling Water Pumps, Good Practice Case Study 89 (Mar. 1992).
10
The advantages of VSDs include:
significant cost savings;

automatic or manual control;
versatility;
reliability.
An additional benefit is that most VSDs include a soft start feature which can reduce machinery
wear (see Section 2.2).
More information about VSD systems can be obtained from Good Practice Guide 14
Retrofitting AC Variable Speed Drives. This Guide is available from the Energy Efficiency
Enquiries Bureau, ETSU.
Retrofitting a VSD on a flour mill extract fan saved 4,900/year - with a payback period
of 2.6 years - at Rank Hoviss mill at Trafford Park, Manchester.
A 75 kW fan motor on the pneumatic system was originally controlled by a star/delta

starter. Once started, the motor operated at full speed with the airflow controlled by
adjusting damper positions. Fitting a VSD to the fan motor allowed the airflow rate to be
controlled by adjusting the motor speed. This reduced power consumption. Connecting
the VSD into the motor control circuit was relatively straightforward. The new system
proved very reliable and required minimal additional maintenance.
More details can be obtained from Good Practice Case Study 164 9, available from the
Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU.
Other ways of reducing motor speed include:
use of multi-speed motors (MSMs);

changing pulley size.
Multi-speed Motors
Two-speed or multi-speed motors (MSMs) can offer a simple and cheap method of altering the
motor power requirement to match the system duty. This type of motor can be used when the
duty allows two or more modes/speeds of operation. MSMs can be particularly effective if
speeds are carefully matched to the particular characteristics of the fan.
11
3. CONVEYING SYSTEMS
This Section describes opportunities for saving energy with the four main types of conveying
systems (mechanical, positive and negative pressure pneumatic, and dust collectors) used in a
flour mill. Emphasis is placed on the need to:
reduce the loading on the conveying system;

maintain the equipment properly;
balance the pneumatics;
optimise the fan/blower size in relation to system duty.
Energy Saving Checklist: Mechanical Conveying

low-cost* cost**
Breakdown and Improved maintenance schedules.
inefficient operation Lubricate chains.
Tension belts correctly.
Poor Operate at full-load for shorter periods.
part-load performance
Switch off when not in use.
Equipment running idle Automate with a sensor.
Energy Saving Checklist: Pneumatics
Problem Solutions No or Medium

low-cost* cost**
Poor fan and blower Check build-up of dust on fan

performance impellers or on inlet filter of blowers.
Check balance of fans.
Check pulley alignment and belt
tension.
Check performance of dust collectors.
Excessive air leakage Find and repair leaks.
Replace worn-out rotary valves.
Re-design blowline runs to reduce
erosion.
Excessive pressure drop Ensure lines are correct size.
Re-design blowlines to remove bends.
Check damper settings.
Transport velocities too Re-balance pneumatic system.
high Reduce fan speed by changing pulley
size.
Ensure fan is correct size.
Consider installing a VSD on fan if
flow variations are frequent.
Frequent chokes due Increase airflow by opening dampers.
to low flow Re-balance pneumatic system.
Replace fan and/or motor.

This information is intended as an introductory guide. Readers are advised to seek specialist
professional advice before starting system modifications.
12
Several different types of conveyers are used in flour mills, i.e.:
mechanical systems for wheat transfer.

pneumatic systems which convey stock within the flour milling operations. These are
usually negative pressure systems.
pneumatic systems used to transfer flour to storage or blending. These are usually positive
pressure systems.
dust collection systems.
All four categories offer opportunities for reducing energy costs.
3.1 Mechanical Conveying
Most modern mechanical conveying systems are reasonably efficient. Energy consumption is
therefore not usually the most important issue when selecting equipment. However, it is worth
considering the power requirement when installing new machinery as several different
transmission systems are available. For example, bucket elevators can be driven either
indirectly by belt or chain, or by a shaft-mounted gear motor, or direct coupling.
Bucket elevators, screw feeders and drag conveyors are all used for wheat transfer. The main
points to consider for efficient operation are:
ensure that the systems are well-maintained;

operate with a high loading to maximise efficiency;
switch off machinery when not in use.
Most wheat transfer systems operate more intermittently than equipment in the main milling
section. Energy savings can therefore be made by ensuring equipment is automatically turned
off when not in use.
In the case of screw feeders, there can be an advantage in using continuously-bladed conveyors.
The lack of breaks in the flight reduces mechanical resistance and allows them to operate more
efficiently.
3.2 Pneumatic Conveying (Negative Pressure)
The main negative pressure pneumatic systems used to convey stock within the milling section
and for dust collectors generally have centrifugal fans. These are often associated with large
motors, sometimes up to 150 kW.
Most pneumatic systems in the flour milling industry are operated in a lean phase mode. Such
systems have several advantages, including:
easier to design;
more tolerant to product changes;
lower capital cost.
However, they often consume more power than dense phase systems and can suffer from higher
wear on bends and system components. These problems are generally due to operating the
system with higher velocities than necessary.
13
Estimating Power Requirements

The power required to operate a pneumatic system can be estimated using the following
equation.6
p
P = 165 x m x 1n __1
p2 ()
Where: P = power consumption (kW)
m = air mass flow rate (kg/sec)
p1 = inlet pressure (bar(a))
p2 = outlet pressure (bar(a))
Allowance has to be made for losses due to pressure drops through blow tanks and filters and
air leakage through rotary valves. The annual operating cost can be estimated on the basis of
the operating hours per year and the cost of electricity.
An understanding of the physical laws governing fans will help you maximise the savings that
can be gained by optimising pneumatic systems. These general fan laws can be summarised as
follows:
the volume of air moved (V) is proportional to the speed (s), i.e. V s;
the static pressure (p) is proportional to the square of the speed, i.e. V s ;
2
the power required (P) is proportional to the cube of the speed, i.e. P s .
3
From these laws, it can be seen that if the volume of air moved is reduced by 20%, then the fan
speed is reduced by the same amount but the power consumption is reduced by about 50%.
Reductions in fan speed are possible only when the airflow requirements are reduced either due
to operational changes within the mill or because of system optimisation, e.g. reduced leakage.
Priorities for Energy Saving

With pneumatic systems under negative pressure, the priorities for energy saving are to:
reduce the loading;

balance the pneumatics;
optimise the fan size in relation to system duty.
(1) Reduce System Loading

Reducing the loading on pneumatic systems and fans can be achieved by paying attention to:
Maintenance Regular inspection and cleaning ensures optimum performance.

Fan performance is adversely affected if dust is allowed to build up on the trailing edge of
the impeller as this alters the shape of the blade (relevant to blades with an aerofoil design).
The fans balance is also affected if build-up occurs and then a lump of dust breaks off.
Balance can also be affected by general mechanical wear. Vibration analysis is a useful
method of checking balance. If re-balancing is required, this can be carried out by attaching
a test weight to the impeller and repeating the vibration analysis prior to fixing a permanent
weight.
6 Economics of pneumatic conveying systems: A case study. J.W. Hayes, A.R. Reed, M.S.A. Bradley; Powder Handling and Processing,
Vol. 5 No. 1 (Mar. 1993).
14
Leakage A vigorous policy of identifying and rectifying leakage should be standard

practice in all flour mills.
Leakage on all pneumatic systems significantly increases the air volumes being moved.
High levels of leakage can affect the performance of individual lifts; it is therefore prudent
to check for leakage before altering damper positions.
Regular inspection of seals on pneumatic systems allows faulty or suspect seals to be

replaced before leakage occurs.
Conveying line design Increased pressure drops increase the system loading.
The routing of conveying lines for pneumatic systems (both negative and positive pressure)
should be as direct as possible with all unnecessary bends and restrictions eliminated. Tight
bends should be avoided as the resistance to flow is higher than in longer radius bends. In
general, the ratio of bend radius to duct diameter should be about 6:1.
Pneumatic systems should be reviewed to ensure pipe sizing is not causing excessive
resistance to flow - perhaps due to changes in system configuration or loading. Stock and
flour velocities in the conveying system should be of the order of 18 - 20 metre/sec. Air
velocity can be measured using a standard Pitot tube or vane anemometer.
To avoid blockages, conveying lines are normally designed so that the system operates at a
safety margin above minimum velocity. Although operating at the minimum velocity
reduces power consumption, the system will be more sensitive to fluctuations and thus more
prone to blockage. This leads to greater plant downtime.
Stepping, i.e. increasing the bore of the pipe at one or more points along its length,
compensates for the expansion of air along the pipe as the pressure decreases. This results
in progressively higher velocities in a single diameter line. For a typical lean phase system
with an inlet pressure of 1 barg, the air velocity at the inlet will be twice that at the outlet to
atmosphere. Detailed information about air velocity and pressure drop in the system is
required when deciding where to increase pipe size in a stepped system.
The design and modification of conveying lines is a specialised task, requiring knowledge
of the system characteristics relating to the material being conveyed. For flour or wheat
conveying, data obtained from test rigs is translated to other pipelines using an appropriate
scaling method.
Conveying line design can either be carried out by in-house specialists or by an external
contractor.
(2) Pneumatic System Balance

Airflow rates in the main pneumatic system used for conveying stock in a flour mill are
controlled by dampers. These dampers, which are usually located in the ductwork after
cyclones, control the flow rate in each lift by creating resistance to flow. In general. they are
individually adjusted when the mill is commissioned. However, they then remain in a fixed
position even though the loading subsequently fluctuates.
If the pneumatic system is not balanced correctly, energy consumption is higher due to
increased airflow rates. In energy terms, the system can be optimised by:
opening damper positions to reduce the pressure drops in the conveying lines;
reducing the fan speed to minimise the quantity of air moved.
15
The fan speed can be reduced by either changing the pulley size or by using a variable speed
drive (see Section 2.4). Determining the correct pulley size requires detailed information about
the system characteristics, while a variable speed drive requires capital investment. Even if no
action is taken, it is still worthwhile re-balancing the pneumatic system. Closing the damper
positions to reduce the quantity of air moved will produce an overall drop in energy
consumption.
Reasons for altering the balance of a pneumatic system include:
changes in the wheat condition, e.g. crop changes;

changes in the condition of rolls (this affects particle size);
polishing of the conveying lines. This reduces friction.
Re-balancing of the pneumatic system should be carried out at least once a year to allow for
changes in wheat condition.
Re-balancing protocol
1. Start with the tail end, i.e. final break passage, conveying lines and progress towards the
head end, i.e. first break conveying lines.
2. Observe the flow rate of air in the first line and then reduce the flow rate to just above
stalling. Then increase the air valve by 15%.
3. Repeat the previous step for each line in turn and 2-3 times for all the lines depending on
when the system becomes correctly balanced.
4. Record the velocity and pressure drop in each line using a Pitot tube, vane anemometer,
manometer or gauge (as appropriate).
5. Record damper positions and monitor the system to check that the balance is maintained.
Problems with the pneumatic system at Bowmans flour mill in Hitchin were initially
thought to be due to the capacity of the main pneumatic fan being inadequate.
However, re-balancing the system reduced the total air throughput and also increased the
available pressure drop. Re-balancing was performed by:
observing the flow of stock in one conveying pipe at the roller mill floor;
manually altering the corresponding damper position to reduce the airflow rate.
This exercise was repeated for each conveying line at least three times in order to achieve
the minimum acceptable limit for conveying velocity in each line. Following successful
re-balancing, the new position of each damper was marked for reference purposes.
The motor was originally running close to an overload condition. Re-balancing the system
reduced the loading to about 92% of full load. The lifetime of the dust collector sleeves
was also increased as the airflow through them was reduced.
The alternative to re-balancing the pneumatic system is to fit automatic air control units. These
are continuously adjusted to maintain the system in a state of optimum balance. A variety of
models are available, including valves with orifice plates and others with an aerofoil design.
The general principle of operation is similar - the valve position is altered as the air speed
changes, e.g. if the air speed decreases and the lift becomes more heavily loaded, the air setting
is increased to compensate.
16
(3) Optimise Fan in Relation to System Duty

This can be achieved by:
selecting the correct pulley size. This is a simple and low-cost opportunity to achieve
energy savings on belt-driven fans and blowers.
Fans are often over-sized, either to provide a safety margin during operation or due to
changes in the system configuration. Matching the fan characteristics to the system load by
changing the pulley ratio is a simple method of optimising the system in terms of energy
consumption. However, this may be easier to achieve on positive pressure systems as
accurately calculating the loading on the main negative pressure system can be difficult.
The correct pulley can be selected by:
- calculating the system duty required from the quantity of material to be conveyed, the
conveying velocity and the airflow rate for each line;
- determining the correct pulley size for the fan duty required from a fan performance
chart or fan supplier.
fitting variable speed drives (VSDs). Efficiency can be optimised by controlling the fan
speed to match the airflow requirements by fitting a VSD. However, altering the fan speed
alone will not allow individual lifts to be optimised as a single fan usually provides suction
for a large number of lifts. This method of reducing energy use is more suitable for use with
automatic damper controls. When fitting a fan with a VSD, it is important to confirm the
suitability of controlling the fan in this way.
An example of the benefits of applying variable speed control to a flour mill extract fan is
given in Section 2.4.7
3.3 Pneumatic Conveying (Positive Pressure)
Positive pressure pneumatic systems generally use rotary piston (Roots type) blowers.
Positive displacement blowers move a volume of air which is almost constant, varying only
slightly with changes in pressure drop in a single conveying line. These blowers are capable of
producing positive pressures of up to about 1 bar. A screw compressor is often used when
pressure drops in the blowline are higher.
The priorities for ensuring energy efficient operation of these systems are:
reduce loading;
optimise blower duty;
consider using sonic valves on blowlines.
(1) Reduce Loading

This can be achieved by paying attention to:
maintenance. Blowers should be well maintained to ensure efficient operation
Pulley alignment and belt tension should be checked in accordance with the manufacturers
instructions and adjustments made (if necessary).
The inlet air filter should also be cleaned regularly.

7 See also Good Practice Case Study 164 Variable Speed Drives on a Flour Mill Extract Fan, available from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries
Bureau, ETSU.
17
optimise design of conveying lines. The same general principles as for negative pressure
systems (see Section 3.2) also apply to positive pressure systems.
A supplier of Roots blowers was called to a flour mill to investigate why the unit they had
supplied was not performing to its design specification.
Examination of the blowline that had been installed from the blower revealed excessive
resistance to flow as the line contained numerous bends to avoid various obstructions.
Re-designing the layout to give a much more direct route enabled the blowing system to
perform satisfactorily.
ensure rotary seals are used correctly. Rotary seals are commonly used in flour mills
where stock is transferred between areas of different pressure. Ensure that air leakage is
minimised by considering:
- the blade gap;
- the speed at which the seal rotates;
- the seals size in relation to its design duty.
In some seals, the blade tips are adjustable so that alterations can be made when the blades
wear.
Table 3 shows the increase in leakage for two throughputs when the seal rotation speed is
increased by 10 rpm.
Table 3 Increase in leakage caused by increasing seal rotation speed by 10 rpm
Throughput
1 tonne/hour 28 tonnes/hour
Blowline diameter (mm) 50 150

Seal volume (litres) 2.5 58.0
Increase in speed of rotation (rpm) 10 10
Increase in air leakage (m3/hr) 1.5 34.0
18
(2) Optimise Blower Duty

The blower set-up should be optimised for energy efficiency by ensuring that the pulley size is
correct for the system duty as described for negative pressure systems (see Section 3.2).
Pneumatic conveying systems powered by positive displacement blowers are used at

Westmill Foods Ltd to distribute rice stock between milling processes.
In one part of the mill, a single blower originally supplied five conveying lines. Following
modifications to the process, this was reduced to three lines. The amount of material being
conveyed, and thus the amount of air required, were therefore less.
3
This blower had a maximum rating of 19.2 m /min at 1.0 bar. It was decided to reduce the
blower duty by the simple expedient of changing the pulley size. The blower pulley was
originally 140 mm in diameter, corresponding to a blower speed of 2,420 rpm. The new
pulley size was determined by comparing the estimated system duty with information on
the blower performance provided by the manufacturer. The new blower pulley, which is
200 mm in diameter, resulted in a reduced blower speed of 1,700 rpm.
The new pulley, which cost 58, was installed during a routine maintenance period. The
reduced airflow rate corresponded to a reduction in energy consumption of 57%, which
resulted in annual savings of 4,960. The payback period was about four days!
(3) Are Sonic Valves Really Necessary?

Two or more blowlines are often connected to a single blower. However, to ensure that pressure
variations in the blowlines do not affect each other, this arrangement requires a device such as
a sonic valve to be inserted between the blower and each blowline to create a pressure drop.
Otherwise the air flows will not be properly controlled and will drift as the loadings on the lines
change, leading inevitably to blockages.
A sonic valve has a very narrow constriction which is sized to increase the air velocity through
the valve to the speed of sound. This generates a continuous shock wave which prevents any
downstream pressure changes affecting the airflow rate. Although sonic valves allow a single
larger blower to be used, the increased pressure drop should also be considered when evaluating
system efficiency. The sonic valves need an air pressure drop across them of at least 43% of
the absolute value of the highest pressure on the conveying lines, to ensure that sonic flow is
maintained. If this does not occur, then flow will become sub-sonic through the nozzle and the
air flow will drop off, leading to a blockage. Hence it is always more energy efficient to
abandon sonic nozzles and, if practicable, simply use one dedicated blower to each blowing
operation.
When deciding whether to use sonic valves, the following factors should be considered:
the cost of installing, operating and maintaining the blowers;

the pressure drop in conveying lines;
the capital cost of the sonic valves.
3.4 Dust Collectors
Dust collection systems, which are used in several areas of a flour mill, usually consist of
centrifugal fans applying a negative pressure to conveying systems or storage bins. The fans
exhaust through dust collectors - usually the reverse/pulse jet type - to atmosphere. These
systems can be low, medium or high pressure.
19
A manometer is usually used to check the pressure drop across the filter. This indicates whether
the sleeves are being cleaned adequately.
When maintaining dust collectors, it is important to:
ensure the manometer is working correctly with the right liquid level;
ensure the manometer reading is within the systems design range;
check for leakage or blockage;
make sure there is no material build-up on the filter outlet.
The operation of dust collection systems should be reviewed to:
ensure ducting is properly sized;

check that the main fan is optimised to the system duty;
check that the correct exhaust flow rates are being used.
It is worth checking these factors periodically as systems are often altered, e.g. when new lines
are added or redundant lines removed.
20
4. COMPRESSED AIR
Supplying compressed air to any manufacturing unit is expensive. This Section highlights the
significant potential savings from compressed air systems and describes energy efficiency
measures associated with leakage, misuse, distribution, treatment and generation.
Energy Saving Checklist: Compressed Air

low-cost* cost**
Leakage Find and repair leaks.

Isolate sections not in use.
Low pressure at end user Check distribution system for

excessive pressure drop.
Check for unnecessary users and
misuse.
Evaluate load control management
systems
Increase compressor capacity.
Capacity constraints Check for leaks.

Check for unnecessary users.
Check treatment system.
Uprate compressor.
Air quality Check level of treatment (dryness

levels, etc.).
Check pressure drops across treatment
plant (filters, etc.).
Generation efficiency Reduce system operating pressure if

possible.
Optimise compressor control.
Keep compressor as cool as possible.
Recover waste heat from cooling
water.
Reduce number of compressors.

Good Practice Guide 126 Compressing Air Costs
Energy Consumption Guide 40 Compressing Air Costs - Generation
Energy Consumption Guide 41 Compressing Air Costs - Leakage
Energy Consumption Guide 42 Compressing Air Costs - Treatment
Fuel Efficiency Booklet No. 4 Compressed Air and Energy Use
Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0RA. Tel No: 01235 436747. Fax No: 01235 433066.
e-mail: etsuenq@aeat.co.uk.
21
Most flour mills use compressed air for:
operating control valves and other equipment;

reverse jet/pulse jet cleaning of filter systems.
Supplying compressed air is an expensive operation; only about 5% of the energy consumed by
compressing air is actually available for work at the point of use. The rest is accounted for by
heat losses during compression and by losses in the generation, treatment and distribution
system.
4.1 Potential Savings
Table 4 shows the annual cost of operating air compressors, based on an electricity cost of
4.5p/kWh. To use Table 4, you need to know the compressors rating (kW) or rated output
(litre/sec). You also need to estimate how long the machine is used each week by noting the
average on-load and off-load running times.
Table 4 Annual cost of operating air compressors at 50% and 75% of full load*
Annual cost ()
Compressor capacity 48 hour/week 120 hour/week
kW litre/sec cfm 75% 50% 75% 50%
18 55 110 1,700 1,100 4,200 2,800

25 75 150 2,300 1,600 5,900 3,900
37.5 110 220 3,500 2,300 8,700 5,800
55 165 330 5,100 3,400 12,700 8,500
85 250 500 7,800 5,200 19,500 13,000
165 500 1,000 14,900 10,000 37,400 24,900
250 750 1,500 22,400 14,900 56,000 37,300
320 1,000 2,000 28,400 18,900 70,900 47,300
* Assuming an electricity cost of 4.5 p/kWh.

22
Recent studies of industrial compressed air systems have shown that about 30% of the total
annual operating cost of compressing air can be saved by introducing simple cost-effective
energy efficiency measures.
Table 5 shows the annual potential savings obtainable with compressed air systems assuming a
30% saving.
Table 5 Potential savings from compressed air systems based on 100% load
Compressor capacity Potential annual savings ()*
kW litre/sec cfm 48 hour/week 120 hour/week
18 55 110 700 1,700

85 250 500 3,100 7,800
165 500 1,000 6,000 14,900
320 1,000 2,000 11,400 28,400
* Assuming an electricity cost of 4.5 p/kWh.
More details of the significant savings that have been obtained are given in Good Practice
Case Studies GPCS 136,8 GPCS 137,9 GPCS 23310 and GPCS 277.11 These publications
are available from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU.
4.2 Methods of Reducing Costs
Attention should be given to the following areas:
leakage;
misuse;
distribution;
treatment;
generation.
Detailed information on how to reduce the energy costs associated with compressed air is given
in the publications listed at the beginning of this Section.
The main energy saving opportunities are summarised below.
(1) Leakage
Reducing air leakage from the system is one of the simplest ways of reducing costs.
A 3 mm hole discharging from a pressure of 7 bar wastes about 11 litre/sec of air. If the
system is on-line for 120 hrs/week, this corresponds to an annual cost of 1,050.
Determine the Leakage Rate
The first step is to determine the leakage rate either using a measuring device or by carrying
out a no-load test. Methods 2 and 3 are examples of the latter.
8 Cost and Energy Savings Achieved by Improvements to a Compressed Air System, Good Practice Case Study 136 (Oct. 1993)
9 Compressed Air Costs Reduced Automatic Control, Good Practice Case Study 137 (Oct. 1992)
10 Energy and Cost savings from Air Compressor Replacement, Good Practice Case Study 233 (Aug. 1994)
11 Refurbishment of a Compressed Air System, Good Practice Case Study 277 (Sep. 1995)
23
Assessing Compressed Air Leakage Rates: Method 1
The best method of measuring the leakage rate is to install a flow meter and pressure gauge
in the main supplying the distribution system. Monitoring the output from the flow meter
during a representative period will allow you to establish the leakage rate.
This method is applicable to compressors which are operated in on/off load, i.e. when the
compressor is on-load it produces a known amount of air.
a) Close down all equipment operated by compressed air.

b) Start the compressor and operate it to full line pressure, when it will off-load. Air
leaks will cause the pressure to fall and the compressor will come on-load again.
c) Record the average on-load time (T) and average off-load time (t) over a number of
cycles.
d) Calculate total leakage using the following equation:
Leakage (l/s) = Q x T
T+t
where Q = air capacity of the compressor (litre/sec)
For modulating compressors, the test is more difficult as the compressor output is
unknown.
The following method can be used if there is a pressure gauge downstream of the receiver.
Calculate the volume (V) of air mains downstream of the receiver isolating valve,
including all the pipework (25 mm and above) and the receivers.
Pump up the system to the initial pressure (P1), and then close the isolating valve.
Record the time (T) for the pressure to drop to the final pressure (P2).
Calculate total leakage using the following equation:
P1 - P2(bar(g))
Leakage (l/s) = V(litres) x
T(sec)
24
Set Targets for Reducing Leaks

The leakage test results can be used to set targets for reducing leaks.
Regular surveys of the system should be carried out to identify leakage, e.g. applying a
proprietary leak detection compound to suspect joints.
Repairs should be instigated immediately.
Ultrasonic leak detectors are particularly useful for identifying leaks where there is
significant background noise from other machinery.
Removing redundant pipework reduces the potential for leakage.
The compressed air system should be re-tested for leakage at frequent intervals, e.g. every
2 - 3 months.
A leakage survey carried out at a major industrial manufacturing site revealed that an
estimated 60% of the compressor output was accounted for by leakage. The survey was
carried out by:
measuring compressed airflow rates to the main factory areas using a turbine flow
meter;
identifying where leakage was occurring;
calculating the amount of air lost.
Following this survey, a system for identifying and repairing leaks was instigated on a
regular basis. Annual savings of 12,000 have been achieved.
(2) Misuse
Compressed air is often used:
for applications for which it is inappropriate and costly;

incorrectly at the point of use.
Two examples of misuse from the flour milling industry are:
using compressed air for cleaning purposes, including moving flour and other materials that
have accumulated due to spillage. Alternative methods of cleaning should be used, e.g. a
localised blower or vacuum system.
using a short blast of high or low pressure air to clean dust collector filter sleeves. The blast
is controlled by a solenoid and diaphragm unit on the end of each blow tube. Each sleeve
is cleaned in turn until the cycle is completed. The cycle time should be checked and
compared to differential pressure measurements to ensure that sleeves are not being cleaned
more often than is necessary. In addition, the length of the cleaning pulse should be kept
very short at 50 - 60 milliseconds.
It is also important to switch off compressors during periods of non-production.

25
(3) Distribution
Significant energy can be wasted if the distribution system is incorrectly designed and not
maintained properly.
Configuration Improved balancing of pressure in the system is obtained if a ring main or

grid system is used rather than individual branches.
Pipe sizing The system should be designed so that air velocities are below 6 metre/sec in
the main sections. At full demand, the pressure drop between the main and the point of use
should be about 0.1 - 0.2 bar.
Valves and fittings should be checked to ensure pressure drops are not excessive. Good
Practice Guide 126 Compressing Air Costs12 contains useful charts and tables to help you
calculate the correct pipe size.
Maintenance Regular maintenance of the distribution system is essential for efficient
operation. Pipework should be checked for leaks and drains for contamination. Rectifying
action should be taken, including clearing any contamination from the system.
Isolation Although compressed air is used in most of the processing areas of a flour mill,
not all these areas are operational at the same time. For example, the wheat intake and bulk
outloading areas may be off-line while the main milling processes are running.
Isolating sections of the distribution system during non-operational periods prevents
wastage due to leakage. Isolation can be automated by linking a control valve to a PLC
system.
(4) Treatment
Compressed air can be treated after compression to remove water, oil and other contaminants
using a variety of treatment systems. Filters and refrigerated or desiccant dryers are among the
systems currently used in the flour milling industry.
Various measures can be taken to improve the energy efficiency of these treatment systems.
Check the air dryness (dewpoint) against specification.

Check the pressure drop across the pre- and after-filters. This should not exceed 0.4 bar with
the system on full demand.
Measure the dryer pressure drop. This should not exceed 0.3 bar with the system on full
demand.
Measure the dryer inlet temperature. This should not exceed 35C with the compressors on
full load.
Measure the temperature of the dryer room. This should be within 5C of the outside
ambient temperature.
Check that the condensate collection system is working properly and that there is no
constant bleed of air from the condensate drain traps.
Consider treating the bulk air supply to the minimum acceptable level and upgrading the
quality - if necessary - at the point of use.
When installing new equipment, it is important to select the right equipment for the duty and
to minimise energy requirements. Considerable energy can be expended on unnecessary levels
of treatment.
Further details of how save energy when treating compressed air are given in Good
Practice Guide 126 Compressing Air Costs. This publication is available from the Energy
Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU, Harwell, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0RA. Tel No:
01235 436747. Fax No: 01235 433066. e-mail: etsuenq@aeat.co.uk.

26
(5) Generation
Tests carried out at typical UK industrial sites before and after corrective action13 was taken
indicated that average energy savings of 10.4% can be made by improving compressor
efficiency.
Possible improvements will depend on the compressor type. The main factors to be considered
are:
generation pressure. The compressed air system should be reviewed to determine whether
the system is running at pressure levels above those actually required at the point of use. For
example, a 6 mm nozzle consumes 80 cfm at 6 bar and 92 cfm at 7 bar. Reducing the system
pressure to 6 bar would save 260 per year for this item alone.
It may also be possible to reduce pressures during periods of non-production if other users
require air at a lower pressure than production equipment.
control. Various control systems are available for optimising compressor use. The type of
control system that is appropriate depends on the compressors in use and the pattern of
generation.
Modern control systems can automatically sequence compressors, shutting down machines
that are off-load. For a relatively small capital investment, it should be possible with these
systems to save 5 - 20% of total generation costs.
heat recovery. Over 90% of the energy consumed by a compressor is rejected in the form
of low grade heat. Heat recovery systems can be installed to make use of hot water or air
from the compressor house - possibly for space heating. The cost of installing such a
system depends on the application, but payback periods of between one and three years are
typical.
Other factors to be considered include:
number of compressors used;

location;
quality of the inlet air;
quality of the cooling services;
quality of maintenance.
13 See Energy Consumption Guide 40 Compressing Air Costs - Generation. Available from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU.
27
5. CONTROLS AND SERVICES
This Section outlines the use of well-maintained process controls to reduce energy costs and the
provision of energy efficient lighting, steam systems and other services. The benefits of
electrical load management are also indicated. Readers are referred to other publications from
the Best Practice Programme to obtain detailed information and advice on energy efficient
controls and services.
Energy Saving Checklist: Services (HVAC, lighting, boiler plant)

low-cost* cost**
Lights left on Fit automatic sensing, e.g. PIRs,

daylight sensors and time switches.
Old lighting systems On failure, replace with low energy

lighting.
Over-illumination Reduce lighting levels.
Boiler performance Burner and steam system maintenance.

Maintain insulation.
Fit appropriate temperature control.
Space heating Fit tamper-proof thermostats.

(Recover heat from compressors.
Energy Saving Checklist: Electrical load management and distribution systems

low-cost* cost**
High maximum demand Check causes of peak load.

Consider soft start rather than direct
on-line starters.
Consider performing batch operations
outside peak hours, e.g. pelleting.
Switch off idle plant
Power factor Check charging policy with local REC.

Review use of corrective devices (if
required).

28

Good Practice Guide 30 Energy Efficient Operation of Industrial Boilers
Good Practice Guide 197 Energy Efficient Heat Distribution
Fuel Efficiency Booklet No. 2 Steam
Fuel Efficiency Booklet No. 14 Economic Use of Oil-fired Boiler Plant
Fuel Efficiency Booklet No. 15 Economic Use of Gas-fired Boiler Plant.
etsuenq@aeat.co.uk.
Good Practice Guide 158 Energy Efficiency in Lighting for Industrial Buildings -
A Guide for Building Managers
Good Practice Guide 159 Converting to Compact Fluorescent Lighting -
A Refurbishment Guide
These publications are available from the Enquiries Bureau, BRECSU, Building Research
Establishment, Garston, Watford WD2 7JR. Tel No: 01923 664258. Fax No. 01923 664787.
e-mail: brecsuenq@bre.co.uk.
5.1 Mill Control

Many modern flour mills use either a comprehensive process control system or individual PLCs
to control sections of the mill. These systems can also be used to control energy use.
Appropriate and well-maintained instrumentation is required for control systems to function

correctly. This can include:
position sensors and transducers;

proximity detectors;
flow measurement;
weighing equipment.
Poor maintenance of control equipment can lead to increased energy consumption, e.g. badly
set-up flow detection probes can cause spurious plant trips which may suspend milling.
Control Functions
In mills capable of producing several different types of flour, a recipe system can be used to
select the wheat required for milling and the exact process route through the mill.
Machinery can thus be kept off-line when it not required, e.g.:
wheat conveyors and screening equipment need only be running when material is present;
various pieces of mill machinery may be bypassed if product quality can be achieved
without further processing
given appropriate controls, grinding passages can be adjusted according to the recipe
dust collection systems can be selected according to the flour silos being filled.
Control systems also allow machinery to be scheduled, perhaps for a progressive start-up or for
load scheduling. Weighing can also be accurately controlled, which in turn allows greater
control of conveyor loading.
Many of these features ensure that the correct product quality is achieved. This reduces the
amount of product that is out-of-specification and therefore reduces reworking.
29
Monitoring Functions
Alarms, which are activated by changes in throughput, can be programmed into the control
system. Chokes can therefore be anticipated and prevented.
By monitoring the running hours of motors and the current drawn, computer-aided preventative
maintenance can be applied. Machines will therefore run at their optimum performance
characteristics - both in terms of production and energy consumption.
The advantages of monitoring plant performance to minimise energy consumption are

described in Section 7.
5.2 Lighting
The provision of energy efficient lighting within flour mills is an area that is often overlooked.
Many of the buildings within flour mills have little or no natural daylight. It is also general
policy at most mills to reduce window areas in order to prevent possible contamination of the
product due to their accidental breakage. This makes the design and installation of energy
efficient lighting systems particularly important given the lack of opportunity to utilise natural
daylight.
Various measures can be taken to reduce lighting costs. Each area or building will require
specific assessment of its lighting needs and evaluation of the costs and benefits of altering the
lighting configuration.
Example energy efficiency measures include:
check illumination levels using simple detection equipment;

select appropriate lamps to give adequate illumination in work areas;
fit passive infrared detectors (PIRs) to sense occupancy;
install timed control of lighting circuits to coincide with periods of known occupancy.
Further information on energy efficient lighting is given in Good Practice Guide 158
Energy Efficiency in Lighting for Industrial Buildings - A Guide for Building Managers
and Good Practice Guide 159 Converting to Compact Fluorescent Lighting - A
Refurbishment Guide.
Both these Guides are available from Enquiries Bureau, BRECSU.
A review of lighting requirements at a manufacturing site identified several areas where

savings could be made, e.g.:
three fluorescent tube fittings were removed completely from one part of the office area,
while the remainder were converted to a two-tube arrangement;
a passive infrared detector was fitted to a meeting room to ensure the lights were switched
off when the room was unoccupied;
a photoelectric cell was fitted to the reception area to reduce the power requirement during
daylight hours.
The total cost of this work was 743. The annual savings were calculated to be 490,
giving a payback of 1.5 years.
30
5.3 Boiler Plant
Some flour mills use steam for the pelleting process. A variety of boiler plant is used to produce
this steam including gas-fired, fuel oil-fired and electric units. However, the quantities of steam
produced are relatively low - usually less than 2,000 kg/hr.
Simple measures to ensure steam systems operate efficiently include:
maintaining adequate insulation and steam traps on pipework;

regular servicing of burners;
correct functioning of the temperature control system on the pellet press.
Details of other improvements to boiler plant and steam systems can be found in Good
Practice Guide 30 Energy Efficient Operation of Industrial Boilers, Good Practice Guide
197 Energy Efficient Heat Distribution, Fuel Efficiency Booklet No. 2 Steam, Fuel
Efficiency Booklet No. 14 Economic Use of Oil-fired Boiler Plant and Fuel Efficiency
Booklet No. 15 Economic Use of Gas-fired Boiler Plant..
These publications are available from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU.
5.4 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
The main requirement for the milling area is that there is an adequate circulation of fresh air to
enable the pneumatic system to work effectively, as well as ensuring that dust is removed from
the mill effectively. Air is normally supplied to the milling area via a centrifugal fan. There
are usually no controls of the quality of the air supplied to flour mills.
Heating on the roll floor in a flour mill is not usually required as the machinery in this area has
a large space heating effect.
Some mills have attempted to recover waste heat from the air extracted from the mill to preheat
incoming air for general space heating. However, the heat exchanger tends to foul up with dust
from the exhausted air. This problem could be overcome using a suitable filter arrangement.
Alternatively, some space heating load could be supplied by recovering waste heat from air
compressors and blowers. This reduces the need for electrical or steam heating.
5.5 Electrical Load Management
For process reasons, flour mills generally operate with an even load profile. Most of the
machinery is in use during production - only if milling is interrupted for some reason does it
stop for short periods.
This even load profile can be used to the mills advantage when negotiating tariffs with your
Regional Electricity Company (REC). Maximum demand is a mechanism by which RECs
penalise customers that have a period of very high demand rather than spreading the load more
evenly throughout the day. The maximum demand is generally defined as the highest demand
reading that occurs over a defined period; it is usually summated over 30 minutes. Information
on the maximum demand profile is usually available from the local REC.
The maximum demand charge can be reduced by managing the load at peak times. If
operations can be moved to a different period during the day, then this can produce savings on
maximum demand charges and often allows the company to benefit from lower unit prices, e.g.
overnight tariffs.
31
Control systems can be modified to monitor the electrical demand. If maximum demand is
likely to be exceeded, they can also be set up to load shed according to a pre-set priority list.
Within a flour mill, only discrete operations - such as pelleting - are likely to be controllable in
this way as the main milling processes tend to be either in production or shut-down.
Power Factor Correction

Most flour mills have installed power factor correction equipment. Operating with a high
power factor avoids the main distribution system of the electricity supply company carrying
idle current. Most suppliers encourage customers to operate with a high power factor by
applying financial penalties. Using a low power factor can also adversely affect the size of
cables required to supply the load.
The power factor is corrected by installing capacitors either at distribution boards or locally on
equipment. A mixture of corrective devices are available; the method used depends on several
factors including:
the type of load;

number of points being corrected;
target power factor;
cost.
Local correction is most likely to be used on fixed loads.
The growth in direct supply contracts between the generator and the user is forcing many RECs
to review the use of power factor correction charges. Flour mills should consider negotiating
with their REC to reduce or remove power factor charges.
32
6. SITE REFURBISHMENT/NEW MILL DESIGN
Additional points to be considered when embarking on a major refit or the building of a new
flour mill are highlighted. The main areas for consideration include:
mill design;
selection of conveying methods;
selection of mill equipment;
optimisation of the electrical distribution system.
Energy efficient equipment should be specified wherever possible to minimise energy

consumption from the outset. Appropriate provision should also be made for logical metering
to ensure that energy costs can be properly apportioned between different departments.
Energy Saving Checklist: Mill Design/Refurbishment
Keep conveying and transfer routes as short as possible by achieving an in-line

arrangement for the milling process.
Minimise transfer distances for wheat and flour by arranging the mill so that each processing
area is next to the previous one.
Minimise the number of lifts of wheat and stock.
Consider all factors when selecting the conveying method for each process.
Choose energy efficient milling equipment.
Operate equipment at, or near to, full load.
Install energy efficient lighting and other utilities, e.g. steam, compressed air, space heating,
ventilation, etc.
Install process control and monitoring equipment.
Consider running equipment overnight to benefit from reduced tariffs.
Design the mills electrical distribution system for optimum operation and cost.
6.1 Mill Design
When designing new mills or redesigning an existing site, one of the main aims should be to
achieve an in-line arrangement for the milling processes. This minimises energy requirements
by keeping conveying and transfer routes as short as possible.
Wherever possible, the mill should be arranged so that each processing area is next to the
previous one. This minimises transfer distances for wheat and flour.
When designing the screenroom and milling area, the aim should be to minimise the number of
lifts of wheat and stock, e.g. using gravity for stock movement in tall buildings.
In practice, the final mill design, i.e. the number of floors, tends to be a compromise between
the capital cost of the building and equipment and annual running costs.
33
6.2 Conveying Methods
Flour mills generally use mechanical systems for conveying wheat in the screenroom and
pneumatic conveying of stock and flour in the milling section.
The factors to be considered when selecting a conveying method include:
power consumption;
capital cost of equipment;
maintenance and operating costs;
the need to transport many streams to and from the same item of equipment;
hygiene and infestation considerations;
ease of installation;
safety.
Mechanical conveying systems are more energy efficient as at least 80% of the power
consumption is related to the theoretical amount of energy needed to convey the material.
Pneumatic systems are generally less efficient because power is consumed in moving the mass
of air needed to carry the stock as well as the stock itself. Frictional losses can also be high if
the pipe runs are large or there are a large number of bends.
Table 6 gives the comparative power consumption for mechanical and pneumatic conveying
under the same conditions.
Energy
consumption
(kW)
Mechanical system Vertical 0.8
Horizontal 0.5
Pneumatic system (+ve) (80 mm line) Vertical: straight 5.0

two bends 7.5
Horizontal: straight 3.0
two bends 5.5
Pneumatic system (-ve) (80 mm line) Vertical: straight 4.7

two bends 8.0
Horizontal: straight 2.5
two bends 6.0
Table 6 Energy used to convey 10 tonnes/hr of material through 20 metres
Table 6 shows that the energy required for a pneumatic system is over five times that for a
mechanical system. However, once the wheat is broken open the stock must be processed
rapidly to minimise the risk of bacterial infection. The need to separate and transport different
particle sizes at high speed tends to require the use of pneumatics rather than mechanical
systems.
34
For mills processing large quantities of wheat, i.e. greater than 20 tonnes/hour, it may be cost
effective to consider:
transferring stock from first break by mechanical means rather than by pneumatics;
situating the first break roll stands above the remaining roller mills.
6.3 Mill Equipment
In the past, energy efficiency has not tended to be given a high priority when specifying new
plant. However, part of the specification for new equipment should include guarantees for
performance in terms of power consumption. Equipment suppliers should be asked to provide
details of the power consumption for a particular machine or process under varying load
conditions.
Where appropriate, high efficiency motors should be specified for all new equipment.
With most flour milling equipment, it is important to operate at or near to full load for highest
efficiency. This is particularly applicable to equipment such as screening grinders which should
also be run overnight to benefit from reduced tariffs.
In cases where there are conflicting claims over the energy efficiency of a particular piece of
equipment, the suppliers should be asked to demonstrate the basis for their claims - otherwise
an independent assessment should be carried out. An example of this concerns the removal of
stock from a roller mill stand. This can either be performed by direct pick-up or using a drop-
through arrangement - although direct pick-up has a shorter lift, the pressure drop may in fact
be higher due to more bends and the route taken through the roll stand.
A recent development is the double stand roller mill. This contains two passages together, such
as first break and second break rolls, i.e. eight rolls in a single stand. This configuration reduces
the number of air lifts and makes better use of dressing surface. It also allows the sifting area
to be reduced for certain product types and has enabled energy savings to be made in terms of
sifter operation and conveying.
Another example of more efficient equipment design is aspirators that recycle air to remove
impurities rather than transferring them to a central exhaust system. Such equipment, which is
now commonplace in the flour milling industry, uses considerably less energy because lower
air volumes are being moved.
6.4 Electrical Distribution Systems
The purpose of an electrical distribution system is to provide an adequate power supply to the
mill. The system, which varies according to a mills requirements, must:
satisfy all relevant safety standards;

be reliable;
be economic;
be capable of expansion (most mills invariably need to add new loads to the system).
35
When modernising an electrical distribution system, the following factors should be considered
in order to optimise system operation and cost:
supply to the system;

size of load;
load factor;
site layout;
system life;
system extension.
When making additions to, or altering, the distribution system, it is also important to:
minimise voltage loss by using the most efficient cabling methods;

determine the size and layout of each load;
consider each circuit from the point where the motors or other equipment are installed;
consider fitting current transformers to feeders to allow energy use by different sections of
the mill or individual motors to be monitored;
optimise the layout of the distribution system by using local motor control centres. This will
reduce cabling and operating costs.
36
7. ENERGY MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
This Section outlines the key aspects of energy monitoring and targeting as an effective tool for
managing energy use. To control a production cost, it is necessary to understand how and
where that cost is incurred. The cost can than be monitored, and targets set for its reduction.
Applying this standard management practice to energy allows significant savings (typically 5 -
15%) to be achieved.
The application of monitoring and targeting (M&T) to flour milling is described, including
issues such as energy cost drivers, responsible areas and sub-metering.
Energy Saving Checklist: Monitoring, Targeting and Control Systems

low-cost* cost**
Identifying energy use Carry out an energy audit to establish

where and how energy is used.
Install meters.
Awareness among staff Use energy targets for monitoring

performance.
Involve operating staff in an energy
management team.
Spurious plant trips Ensure sensors are operating correctly.


Good Practice Guide 91 Monitoring and Targeting in Large Manufacturing Companies
Good Practice Guide 31 Computer Aided Monitoring and Targeting for Industry
Good Practice Guide 84 Managing and Motivating Staff to Save Energy
etsuenq@aeat.co.uk.
This Section provides a brief overview of monitoring and targeting (M&T) and indicates the
potential scale of benefit. It is not, however, intended to be a comprehensive guide to M&T.
Detailed guidance on setting up and running a M&T system is given in Good Practice
Guide 31 Computer Aided Monitoring and Targeting for Industry and Good Practice Guide
91 Monitoring and Targeting in Large Manufacturing Companies.
Both these Guides are available from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU.
37
7.1 An Overview of M&T
Monitoring and targeting (M&T) is a management technique which helps to control energy. To
control any resource, it is necessary to:
obtain information on its use;

establish a guideline to indicate if consumption is varying from a pre-determined norm.
M&T relates energy consumption to site operations that use energy and helps identify
opportunities for saving energy. Managers are made responsible for energy use in the areas
under their control in the same way that they are responsible for other controllable resources.
M&T is now operated by around 1,000 companies in the UK. The benefits of M&T have been
shown to include:
typical energy cost savings of 5 - 15%, with some instances as high as 25%;
improved management information to aid decision-making and focus corporate investment;
improved budgeting and product costing;
better preventive maintenance;
improved product quality;
less waste.
Investment in metering, data analysis software and manpower is usually recovered by the
energy savings achieved within a couple of years.
There are five key steps in implementing a M&T programme:
allocate responsibility;
set up a monitoring system;
report performance;
agree targets;
encourage action to reduce energy consumption.
(1) Allocate Responsibility

To achieve savings and sustain energy efficiency, it is necessary to involve interested staff (see
Section 7.2) or to use the existing management function. Mangers of departments, buildings
and production lines can be brought in to help the energy manager by giving them responsibility
for energy in their areas. Indeed, they will probably already have financial responsibility in that
area as a budget/cost/profit centre manager.
When defining responsibility for a particular area, remember that it is necessary that in that
area:
energy consumption can be measured;

ownership can be established;
at least one production variable which drives energy consumption can be identified.
38
(2) Monitoring System

Monitoring data should provide the information to answer the following questions.
Which types of energy are used and where?

How much energy is used and over what period of time?
What is the corresponding cost driver variable over the same period?
The system used to provide this data can range from a manual pen and paper approach to
sophisticated information technology. You must decide the most suitable method for your
requirements.
It is also necessary to analyse the relationship between energy consumption and its cost driver.
Continuous monitoring of this relationship will show whether performance is improving or
declining.
(3) Report Performance

The next step is to communicate this knowledge effectively to others who can make use of it.
This includes the responsible managers, plant operators and senior management.
The form of reporting varies from:
summaries for general use and for senior management;

specific details for responsible mangers and plant operators.
The form of the communication plays a key role - charts and figures are more easily understood
than reams of text and complicated tables.
Reporting should:
generally inform on performance (good, bad or indifferent);

help to motivate people to reduce energy consumption, e.g. by changing working methods,
implementing good housekeeping, etc.
(4) Agree Targets

The knowledge of what has gone before provides the framework for energy savings to be
identified. To move forward and reduce energy consumption, it is useful to agree sensible and
achievable targets with responsible managers and staff. If targets are too difficult, then people
lose interest. On the other hand, targets that are too easy do not attract the effort energy
efficiency deserves.
39
(5) Encourage Action

Above all, it is essential to encourage all employees to take steps to save energy.
M&T in itself does little to actually save energy; it merely provides the information about what
is happening. This allows informed decisions to be made, helps to prepare investment cases
and shows how successful projects have been.
An M&T system developed for a crystal glass manufacturing plant achieved savings of 5%
- equivalent to 100,000/year - following the installation of 20 new electricity meters and
five gas meters.
Allocation of energy costs to responsible areas ensured that energy consumption was
highlighted in the weekly production performance reports. Most of the savings arose from
simple measures, including:
reduced compressed air leakage;

switching off extraction fans out of production hours;
higher operator awareness;
rationalisation of the factorys lighting system;
re-setting of space heating time switches;
improved combustion control.
7.2 Managing and Motivating Staff
Like many other industries in the UK, the flour milling industrys attitude to energy
consumption ranges from almost no interest in saving energy to sites where management has
already implemented capital projects.
There are invariably energy savings that can be made. Most sites can usually save at least 5%
of energy consumption using a combination of low-cost measures and some capital projects.
A structured management approach is the key to the cost-effective reduction of energy costs.
The key management aspects are:
develop a company policy to reduce energy costs;

obtain support from senior management;
establish energy costs, usually by area, e.g. budget/profit/cost centre, production line,
building, etc.;
assign responsibility for energy costs to cost centre managers;
establish a support network using a combination of operational and maintenance staff;
understand the situation by monitoring energy use.
40
Many of the energy saving measures described in this Guide can be incorporated into existing
maintenance programmes and carried out with only a marginal increase in labour costs.
Motivating staff to keep them aware and active in terms of saving energy will encourage the
implementation of no-cost and low-cost energy saving measures. Most staff respond positively
when they are:
given the opportunity for involvement;

kept informed of progress;
given some authority, responsibility and perhaps reward.
More information about how to motivate staff to save energy can be found in Good
Practice Guide 84 Managing and Motivating Staff to Save Energy. This Guide is available
from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU.
7.3 Application to Flour Milling
Selecting Energy Cost Drivers

Issues that should be taken into account when implementing M&T in a flour mill include:
wheat quality;
product specification;
range of flours produced;
climate.
Production rate is not regarded as a specific energy determining factor, as mills are either on
or off. It is not normal for throughputs to be reduced during periods of low demand; instead,
the mill is run at its design throughput for a shorter time.
It follows that, when energy consumption is monitored against mill throughput, a constant
value should be observed. Any variation is accounted for by the type of product, the condition
of the wheat and any production stoppages. Production stoppages are the most significant.
The controllable factors are generally regarded as being a minor proportion of total energy use.
These include:
wheat delivery;
blending;
packing;
product outloading.
These four operations are controllable in the sense that they are rarely 24-hour operations and
that management has some control over when they occur, e.g.:
blending and packaging could take place at night to take advantage of lower power tariffs;
bulk outloading of finished product can be held over until low-cost power is available.
Other controllable items include maintenance, heating and lighting.

41
Responsible Areas
Splitting a flour mill into logical units for separate M&T control is complicated by the fact that
many mills have only a single meter for incoming power, i.e. there is no sub-metering to
indicate how the power is distributed throughout the mill.
A modern flour mill could logically be split into:
wheat reception;
milling;
flour blending and packing;
bulk outloading;
ancillary processes;
offices and warehouses.
Within a large mill, it may be useful to regard the roll floor, air compressors, pneumatic fans
and blowers as discrete units for performance monitoring. These operations are all major
consumers of energy. Energy consumption can also be used to indicate deteriorating
performance.
Once the areas and responsible managers have been defined, responsibility for their
performance should be delegated to an appropriate manager, e.g.:
the head miller in the case of process plant;

the engineering manager in the case of maintenance, offices and warehouses;
the packaging supervisor in the case of blending and packing operations.
The scale of operations should also be considered; it can cost as much to install and read a meter
monitoring energy worth 1,000/year as it does to monitor 50,000/year of energy.
Applying M&T initially to those areas that use most energy can limit the investment - in time
and money - and improve the economic justification for the project. Once the benefits have
been established and the system tailored to the sites needs, then M&T can be extended to other
areas where the savings may not be as great but the investment required is correspondingly
reduced.
42
Sub-metering
Additional metering should only be installed if the anticipated savings are likely to yield an
acceptable payback on the metering expenditure.
Table 7 shows the estimated minimum utility cost above which metering is cost-effective for
the two utilities of most interest to flour millers, i.e. electricity and compressed air. The typical
savings are also indicated.
Table 7 Sub-meter evaluation for utilities of interest to flour millers14
Electricity Compressed air
Annual utility cost 10,000 10,000
Repayment period one year one year
Approximate installation 300 1,000

cost of a meter/flow meter
Anticipated savings. 3% 10%
On this basis, it would be worth installing meters on any electrical load greater than about 250
MWh/year, e.g. 50 kW operating for more than about 5,000 hours/year.
In practice, extensive metering of individual large drives of constant load is not generally cost-
effective, as the drives will either be on or off. However, it may be useful to monitor the
power consumption of drives such as the pneumatic fans to find out if they could benefit from
variable speed drives. This can be carried out using portable metering, which can be used to
check different plant items at considerably less cost than permanent meters.
Meters by themselves do not save money; however, reliable information about energy use is an
essential starting point in focusing management effort on those areas likely to yield real
savings. Properly defined targets also help to identify these areas.
14 See Good Practice Guide 91 Monitoring and Targeting in Large Manufacturing Companies. Available from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries
Bureau, ETSU.
43
8. INVESTING IN ENERGY EFFICIENCY
This Section offers some practical suggestions for preparing an investment case for energy
efficiency projects. It emphasises the need to:
identify all the costs, savings and benefits associated with the project;
establish the financial and other benefits to the company;
make a clear, concise presentation to the decision-makers of the case for investment;
have a clear understanding of company procedures of capital expenditure.
Energy Saving Checklist: Investing in Energy Efficiency
Gather all the necessary supporting information.

Establish a baseline against which the changes can be compared.
Obtain firm costs for all engineering work, including design and project management
services.
List all the benefits - financial, operational and environmental.
Apply the financial analysis tool used by the company to appraise projects as a first
evaluation.
Review the cost and benefit statements to identify areas of risk and uncertainty.
Perform sensitivity analysis on key items to determine whether risk is acceptable or not.
Review design to see if capital expenditure can be reduced.
Re-run the financial model to confirm conclusions.
Present case to senior management with a single page statement of costs and benefits,
including the justification in terms of business performance and company policy.

Good Practice Guide 69 Investment Appraisal for Industrial Energy Efficiency
Good Practice Guide 165 Financial Aspects of Energy Management in Buildings
GPG 69 is available from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU, Harwell, Didcot,
Oxfordshire OX11 0RA. Tel No: 01235 436747. Fax No: 01235 433066.
e-mail: etsuenq@aeat.co.uk.
GPG 165 is available from the Enquiries Bureau, BRECSU, Building Research Establishment,
Garston, Watford WD2 7JR. Tel No: 01923 664258. Fax No. 01923 664787.
e-mail: brecsuenq@bre.co.uk.
There is often a gulf between the engineers perception of an investment opportunity and the
accountants requirement. It is therefore important to present the case for investment in an
energy efficiency project in the best possible light, while being as honest as possible about the
risks and uncertainties involved.
44
It is important for the engineer to be familiar with:
the companys procedures for evaluating investment cases;

the selection criteria used to rank alternatives;
the companys procedures of capital expenditure.
If the engineer can obtain the relevant information and perform the initial financial analysis, it
is possible to establish at an early stage:
whether the proposal will be competitive;

what areas of the project need to be refined to make it more economically attractive.
Detailed information about financial aspects of energy efficiency projects is given in:
Good Practice Guide 69 Investment Appraisal for Industrial Energy Efficiency,

available from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU..
Good Practice Guide 165 Financial Aspects of Energy Management in Buildings,
available from the Enquiries Bureau, BRECSU.
8.1 Preparing the Case
Capital investment in energy efficiency projects has to meet the same requirements as any other
projects. Companies invest for several reasons.
The investment may be necessary to maintain existing business activity, e.g. to meet health,
safety or environmental legislation. As such it is an essential investment, which may or may
not have financial benefits.
The investment may lead to increased business. This could involve new capacity for existing
products, new product manufacturing plant or R&D into new products and processes.
The investment could lead to a significant reduction in operating costs and hence to
increased profits.
Investment in projects that result in reduced operating costs helps to maintain competitiveness
and increase the return on capital.
Energy efficiency projects should be given a higher priority than perhaps has traditionally been
the case because they contribute directly to business maintenance and lower operating costs.
This aspect of the investment case is often not given adequate emphasis when a case is
presented.
What action can you take to increase the chances of an energy efficiency project being
accepted?
Define the project properly. The more detailed the scope definition, the less risk there is
of changes which could lead to escalating costs and conflict.
Make the baseline definition clear. The savings from an energy efficiency project are
sometimes difficult to predict, especially if energy consumption has not previously been
measured directly.
Performance should be monitored to establish a baseline for energy consumption.
The design of the modification should include a heat and mass balance to demonstrate the
savings potential. Facilities should also be included in the design to measure energy use
after the changes have been implemented. This will enable the anticipated savings to be
validated and the effectiveness of the investment to be determined.
45
Include all the cost elements, i.e. engineering, project management, installation and
commissioning costs.
Also include the cost of any lost production due to the unavailability of plant during
installation. The consequences of an overrun on the installation phase should be reflected
in the performance clauses of the contract to supply and install new equipment.
Use the correct utility costs in the analysis. Electricity savings are often based on the
average cost, i.e. the total cost of electricity divided by the total number of units used.
However, the average unit cost includes elements of fixed charges which will remain
irrespective of the amount of electricity used.
The correct value to use is the appropriate marginal cost of a unit of electricity delivered to
the site. If the plant is only running at certain times of the day, the appropriate time-based
tariff should be used.
Present the financial case clearly and concisely. The decision-makers are likely to be
accountants, not engineers - they will not be impressed by a purely technical justification for
expenditure.
If an energy efficiency project is implemented without resolving these issues, the actual
performance (both operationally and financially) may differ from that planned. As a result, the
credibility of future energy efficiency projects will be called into question.
8.2 Determining the Financial Benefits
Every company uses different economic criteria to rank investment opportunities.
Simple payback, i.e. capital cost divided by annual savings, provides a rough and ready
comparison, but does not indicate the magnitude of the investment. Most companies use some
form of discounted cash flow analysis both to identify expenditure and revenue profiles and to
determine the true cost of financing the investment.
(1) Calculate the True Cost

The true cost is determined by a number of financial factors. These are discussed in detail in
Good Practice Guide 69 Investment Appraisal for Industrial Energy Efficiency.15 They include:
the source of funding, e.g. business development or maintenance budgets, external sources
such as bank loans which incur interest payments, etc.;
the preferred investment appraisal methods, e.g. net present value of investment after x
years, return on investment compared with notional interest rates, capital ratios, etc.;
anticipated project lifetime.
(2) Emphasise All the Benefits

In addition to defining the costs fully, the benefits must also be stated clearly. Otherwise, there
is a danger that the project will not be presented in its most attractive light and will not compete
effectively with other demands on a limited capital budget.
Although most of the savings will be due to reduced energy consumption, there may be other
cost savings. These could include:
reduced water and effluent discharge costs;

reduced labour requirements, e.g. reduced overtime payments;
reduced maintenance and downtime;
improved quality;
increased throughput.

46
In addition, there may be other intangible benefits including:
better process control;

simpler operating procedures;
improved working environment;
reduced atmospheric emissions;
reduced accident risk.
8.3 Comparing Alternatives
The flour milling industry seeks to drive down production costs at every opportunity.
The price of the raw material for flour production is, by and large, controlled by the European
Union Common Agricultural Policy and the international commodities market. The price of
wheat accounts for some 80% of production costs. The selling price is therefore heavily
dependent on wheat prices, which to a large extent are beyond the control of flour mills.
The two controllable costs in a flour mill - energy and labour - form a small proportion of total
operating costs. Thus, the driving force for flour milling companies is to maximise the
production of flour from existing assets. In this climate, energy efficiency tends to have a low
priority as a 10% reduction in energy consumption implies a reduction in total production costs
of only 1%. However, for large mills this could still be tens of thousands of pounds, and as
such, represents a significant saving in a highly competitive market.
Targeting investment at areas of greatest inefficiency, e.g. compressed air, motors and drives,
can achieve good returns on investment without incurring significant capital expenditure.
Indeed, many of the energy saving opportunities described in this Guide can be funded out of
a revenue budget.
Motor replacement is one example of a low-cost energy efficiency measure (see Section 2). If
a motor needs replacing, the investment in energy efficiency is not the total cost of replacement,
but the incremental cost differential between a standard replacement motor (or the repair cost
of rewinding) and a high efficiency motor. The payback on the marginal extra capital cost will
be a matter of weeks or months depending on the pattern of use.
Investing in energy efficiency can also improve the working environment, e.g.:
extracting hot, moist air from the mill floor is cheaper than installing air conditioning;
heat recovery from compressor cooling systems can help to reduce energy costs for space
heating in winter.
A number of tools are available for evaluating investment opportunities. These are explained
in Good Practice Guide 69 Investment Appraisal for Industrial Energy Efficiency, available
from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU.
47
9. MAIN ENERGY SAVING OPPORTUNITIES
Over 90% of the expenditure on energy in a flour mill is accounted for by electricity costs.
Most of the achievable energy savings described in this Guide are therefore associated with
improvements to electrical systems. They involve better system management and the
application of improved technologies.
The scope for improving energy efficiency at a flour mill can be broadly categorised as:
improvements to mill operations and equipment, including replacement of plant with energy
efficient components;
major site refurbishment or new mill construction.
Immediate savings can usually be achieved in the first category, although the existing mill
design and layout may impose limitations. Energy savings from the second category can be
more substantial, but the opportunity arises infrequently.
The main priorities for energy saving in most flour mills are:
Reduce load on plant, e.g. reduce the airflow in pneumatic systems.

Reduce leakage and other losses from compressed air systems.
Reduce motor speed to demand, e.g. by using electronic variable speed drives (VSDs) or
multi-speed motors (MSMs).
Optimise motor size relative to its duty.
Replace burnt-out motors with high efficiency motors (HEMs).
Switch off lights, heating, idling and redundant plant, etc. Use automatic controls where
possible rather than rely on manual intervention by operators.
Improve maintenance schedules and procedures.
Establish energy use by different departments and set achievable targets to reduce energy
consumption.
Publications request form
Good Practice Guide 212: Cutting Energy Costs in Flour Milling
Please copy and return this form to the address below with comments or for further information.
To: Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU, Harwell, Oxfordshire, OX11 0RA
Tel: 01235 436747 Fax: 01235 433066 E-mail: etsuenq@aeat.co.uk
Name: Position:
Company Name:
Address:
Postcode: Tel:
The following sections were particularly useful:
The Guide could be improved by:
Please send me a copy of the following Best Practice Programme publications:
Good Practice Guide 2 Guidance Notes for Reducing Energy Consumption Costs
of Electric Motor and Drive Systems
Good Practice Guide 14 Retrofitting AC Variable Speed Drives
Good Practice Guide 30 Energy Efficient Operation of Industrial Boilers
Good Practice Guide 31 Computer Aided Monitoring and Targeting for Industry
Good Practice Guide 69 Investment Appraisal for Industrial Energy Efficiency
Good Practice Guide 84 Managing and Motivating Staff to Save Energy
Good Practice Guide 91 Monitoring and Targeting in Large Manufacturing
Companies
Good Practice Guide 126 Compressing Air Costs
Fuel Efficiency Booklet No. 2 Steam
Fuel Efficiency Booklet No. 4 Compressed Air and Energy Use
Energy Consumption Guide 40 Compressing Air Costs - Generation
Energy Consumption Guide 41 Compressing Air Costs - Leakage
Energy Consumption Guide 42 Compressing Air Costs - Treatment
Good Practice Case Study 164 Variable Speed Drives on a Flour Mill Extract Fan
Other:
The Governments Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme provides impartial, Energy Consumption Guides: compare energy use in
authoritative information on energy efficiency techniques and technologies in industry, transport specific processes, operations, plant and building types.
and buildings. This information is disseminated through publications, videos and software,
Good Practice: promotes proven energy efficient techniques
together with seminars, workshops and other events. Publications within the Best Practice through Guides and Case Studies.
Programme are shown opposite.
New Practice: monitors first commercial applications of new
Further information
Future Practice: reports on joint R & D ventures into new
For buildings-related publications For industrial and transport publications
please contact: please contact: General Information: describes concepts and approaches
Enquiries Bureau Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau yet to be fully established as good practice.
BRECSU ETSU
Fuel Efficiency Booklets: give detailed information on
Building Research Establishment Harwell, Didcot, Oxfordshire, specific technologies and techniques.
Garston, Watford, WD2 7JR OX11 0RA
Tel 01923 664258 Fax 01235 433066 Energy Efficiency in Buildings: helps new energy managers
Fax 01923 664787 Helpline Tel 0800 585794 understand the use and costs of heating, lighting etc.
E-mail brecsuenq@bre.co.uk Helpline E-mail etbppenvhelp@aeat.co.uk
CROWN COPYRIGHT FIRST PRINTED MARCH 1997

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GOOD PRACTICE GUIDE 212

Reducing energy costs

Prepared for the Department of the Environment by:

Fichtner Consulting Engineers Limited

Other titles in the Good Practice Guide Series

Copies of these guides may be obtained from:

Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau

NORTHERN IRELAND SCOTLAND WALES

motors and drives;

1. ENERGY USE IN FLOUR MILLING 1

2. MOTORS AND DRIVES 4

5. CONTROLS AND SERVICES 27

6. SITE REFURBISHMENT / NEW MILL DESIGN 32

7. ENERGY MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES 36

8. INVESTING IN ENERGY EFFICIENCY 43

9. MAIN ENERGY SAVING OPPORTUNITIES 47

1. ENERGY USE IN FLOUR MILLING

A 5% reduction in energy consumption at a large multi-purpose continuous mill could be

1.1 Breakdown of Energy Use

The main processes in flour milling are:

wheat reception and storage;

Fig 1 Energy use in a typical flour mill by operating department

milling and grinding;

Fig 2 Energy use in a typical flour mill by unit operation

1.2 Factors Governing Energy Use

wheat quality. This includes:

product quality. This affects:

1.3 Energy Saving Opportunities

When you are considering energy efficiency measures, it is important to identify:

the breakdown of costs for different mill operations;

Table 1 Energy savings in two priority areas

Target savings Techniques

Milling and sieving 2 - 5% High efficiency motors

Conveying 10 - 20% Optimising airflows

1.4 Purpose of this Guide

2. MOTORS AND DRIVES

reducing the external load on the motor;

Energy Saving Checklist: Motors and Drives

Problem Solution No or Medium

Reduce load on motor Reduce system load e.g. by using a

Motor/plant left idling Switch off when idling.

Reduce motor losses Ensure motor is correct size.

Reduce motor running Consider multi-speed motors (MSMs)

Sources of Further Information

reduce the external load on the motor and the drive;

2.1 Reduce Load

(1) Reduce System Load

minimising the amount of air moved by pneumatic systems;

These aspects are covered in more detail in Sections 3 and 4.

(2) Use Efficient Equipment

(3) Maintain Motor, Drive and Equipment Efficiency

Motor maintenance is relatively straightforward and should cover:

(4) Optimise Transmission Arrangements

The selection of an appropriate drive arrangement depends on:

Proper maintenance is still essential.

For systems using chains, this means regular greasing.

When fitting V and wedge belts, it is important that:

the size of the belt is correct in relation to the pulley groove;

2.2 Switch Off Machinery When Idling

2.3 Reduce Motor Losses

(1) Use the Correct Size Motor

(2) Use High Efficiency Motors

Efficiencies have been increased by a combination of design improvements, e.g. reducing

Annual use (hours) Annual savings