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CHAPTER 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Rapidly increasing world population and their growing energy demands raises
the requirement of energy with each passing day. A large amount of energy used
today is being met from fossil fuels, which are limited and are decreasing day by day.
The most important concerns today are ensuring sustainable existence of natural life
and leaving a livable and unpolluted environment for next generations. As known, the
usage of fossil fuels causes environmental pollution, greenhouse effect and CO2
emissions. Therefore limiting the use of fossil fuels is an urgent necessity. We must
explore the use of other renewable energy sources. Under renewable energy sources
we have hydrokinetic, wind, solar, biomass and geothermal energies. Hydrokinetic
power is an optimum choice among them.
There are four main types of hydrokinetic energy technologies: ocean wave,
tidal stream, river in-stream, ocean current. We will focus on Hydrokinetic energy
conversion turbines, which is used in river in-stream energy conversion. The process
of hydrokinetic energy conversion implies utilization of kinetic energy contained in
river streams, tidal currents, or other man-made waterways for generation of
electricity. This emerging class of renewable energy technology is being strongly
recognized as a unique and unconventional solution that falls within the realms of
both in-land water resource and marine energy. In contrast to conventional
hydroelectric plants, where an artificial water-head is created using dams or penstocks
(for large-hydro and micro-hydro, respectively), hydrokinetic converters are
constructed without significantly altering the natural path-way of the water stream.
This system can be arranged in multi-unit array that would extract energy
from tidal and marine currents as opposed to tidal barrages where stored potential
energy of a basin is harnessed. While modularity and scalability are attractive
features, it is also expected that hydrokinetic systems would be more environmentally
friendly when compared to conventional hydroelectric and tidal barrages.

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1.1 HYDROKINETIC ENERGY

Hydrokinetic energy is the energy that can be captured from flowing water
that occurs in rivers or ocean currents. This includes ocean wave energy, tidal energy,
river in-stream energy, and ocean current energy.
Wave energy is energy derived from the movement of ocean waves. Waves are
generated by wind passing over the ocean surface. Therefore, the height of sea waves
and, hence, the amount of energy transferred depends on the wind speed; the duration
of wind from a particular direction; and the fetch, or the expanse of water surface
over which the wind blows. In deep water, the energy of the waves can travel
thousands of miles before dissipating on shore.
Tidal energy is derived from capturing energy in ocean tides. There are two
basic types of systems used to convert tidal energy to mechanical or electrical energy:
barrage systems and tidal turbines. A barrage is a dam placed across an inlet or
estuary that allows a basin to fill during the incoming high tide and then water is
directed through turbines during the outgoing tide. A tidal turbine, similar to a wind
turbine, converts the horizontal movement of the water from the incoming and
outgoing tide into electricity. Tidal turbines can be placed wherever there is a reliable
tidal flow and where there is minimal conflict with existing uses (e.g., ship traffic) or
where conflicts can be minimized or are otherwise acceptable.
Ocean waters are constantly on the move. Ocean currents flow in complex
patterns affected by wind, water salinity, temperature, topography of the ocean floor,
and the earth's rotation. Most ocean currents are driven by wind and solar heating of
surface waters near the equator, while some currents result from density and salinity
variations of the water column. Ocean currents are relatively constant and flow in one
direction, in contrast to tidal currents along the shore.

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1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF HYDROKINETIC ENERGY

Human activity is overloading our atmosphere with carbon dioxide and other
global warming emissions, which trap heat, steadily drive up the planets temperature,
and create significant and harmful impacts on our health, our environment, and our
climate. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that
human-sourced greenhouse gases are responsible for most of the observed
temperature increase since the middle of the twentieth century, and natural
phenomena such as solar variation and volcanoes probably had a small warming
effect from pre-industrial times to 1950 and a small cooling effect from 1950 onward.
These basic conclusions have been endorsed by more than 40 scientific societies and
academies of science, including all of the national academies of science of the major
industrialized countries.
Economic growth and increasing human demands are among the most
important factors for growing world energy consumption.
Due to the increasing oil and natural gas prices and the decreasing amount of
world oil reserves, the usage of alternative energy sources is unavoidable and
preferable nowadays.
Hydrokinetic energy conversion devices, an emerging class of renewable
energy technology, which can be deployed not only to convert wave energy and
marine currents in oceans, but also be used in natural streams like rivers, tidal
estuaries, as well as in some constructed waterways. Conceptually, it works in a
similar way as wind energy conversion devices. In ocean-energy deployment,
hydrokinetic conversion devices can be flexibly arranged in multi-unit arrays, that
would extract energy from tidal and marine currents basically in the same way as a
wind farm operates. As opposed to the rigid, expensive, and environmentally-
aggressive construction of tidal barrages, the modularity and scalability of
hydrokinetic devices are attractive features

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1.3 RIVER IN-STREAM ENERGY

River in-stream energy is derived from the movement (kinetic energy) of

water in rivers, streams, and canals. This differs from low-head hydropower systems,
which rely on the elevation difference (head) between the intake and turbine. River
in-stream devices are placed directly in the flowing water of rivers. River in-stream
energy is extracted from rivers with turbines similar to those used in tidal
installations. The major difference is that the river current is unidirectional. This
energy is converted to mechanical energy that drives a generator to produce
electricity.
River in-stream energy resources are available 24 hours a day, seven days a
week, but are highly variable throughout the year as the flow rate varies seasonally
depending upon rainfall in the watershed and possibly water withdrawals for
municipal or agricultural uses. At low flow rates, the devices do not produce any
electrical energy. The capacity factor is a function of this variability as well as
equipment malfunctions and maintenance activities.

Figure 1.1: World Renewable Energy Generation

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CHAPTER 2

2.0 HYDROKINETIC ENERGY CONVERSION

SYSTEM

Figure 2.1: Hydrokinetic Energy Conversion System

The above figure shows the various parts of a Hydrokinetic energy conversion
system.
Protection screen: Stops debris from entering the turbine.
Augmented float: Increases the velocity of flow of water stream.
Blades, Arms, Drivetrain: Blades convert the kinetic energy of
flowing water into motion. Arms attach the blades to rotor shaft.
Drivetrain consists of all components that deliver the power from rotor
shaft to the generator
Gearing, Bearing, Generator: Gearing connects the high speed shaft
to the low speed shaft. Bearing helps reduce friction between moving
parts and constrains relative motion to only the desired motion.
Generator converts the rotational motion into electricity.
Control system, Power converter, Grid integration: Control system
commands, directs or regulates the behavior of the conversion system.

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Power converts electric energy from one form to another such as

converting between AC and DC. Grid is an interconnected network for
delivering electricity from producers to consumers. It consists of
generating stations that produce electrical power, high voltage
transmission lines that carry power from distant sources to demand
centers, and distribution lines that connect individual customers.

2.1 GOVERNING EQUATION

The amount of electricity that can be generated from this energy source is
dependent on the volume and velocity of the water resource. It can be installed in a
flow with water velocity ranging from 0.5m/s and above. There
many concepts for harnessing this energy, but turbine has being the most common
and proven one. Similar to wind energy converters, the total available power(Watt)
captured by hydrokinetic turbine is dependent on the density, cross-sectional area,
velocity cubed and turbine coefficient as shown in Equation. The advantage is that the
water is approximately 800 times denser than air. This simply implies that the amount
of energy generated by a hydrokinetic turbine is much greater than that produced by a
wind turbine of equal diameter under equal velocity of wind and water.

Where is the fluid density, A is the cross sectional area of the turbine and V
is the flow speed. CpE, the overall power coefficient, gives the amount of kinetic
power that can be extracted from flow and converted into electricity. It takes into
account losses due to Betz law and those dissipated by the internal mechanisms of the
drive train. The CpE of a practical system has a typical value of approximately 0.35.

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2.2 ADVANTAGES OF HYDROKINETIC ENERGY SYSTEM OVER DAM

Avoiding risk of Flash floods caused by a breached dam.

No fish ladder required.
No silt accumulation.
Less initial cost as compared to dam construction.
Minimal need for Civil engineering works

2.3 DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROKINETIC ENERGY SYSTEM OVER

DAM

Output varies throughout the year as the flow rate varies seasonally.
Turbine suited only for unidirectional flow.
An array of turbines is required for economic power generation.

Figure 2.2: Hydrokinetic Turbine Setup

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CHAPTER 3

3.0 TYPES OF HYDROKINETIC TURBINES

Hydrokinetic turbines can be broadly classified into two:

1. Horizontal axis turbine.
2. Vertical axis turbine.
Horizontal axis turbine: axis of rotor is parallel to the incoming water stream.
Vertical axis turbine: axis of rotor is vertical to the water surface and also orthogonal
to the incoming water stream.

Figure 3.1: Horizontal Axis Turbine

Figure 3.2: Vertical Axis Turbine

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3.1 HORIZONTAL AXIS TURBINES

Figure 3.3: Types Of Horizontal Axis Turbines

Straight axis: Axis of rotor is parallel to the water surface and orthogonal to water
stream.
Inclined axis: Axis of rotor is inclined to the surface of water.
Solid mooring: The hydrokinetic turbine system is fixed to the riverbed or seafloor.
Buoyant mooring: The hydrokinetic turbine system floats on the water surface.
Non-submerged generator: The generator of the hydrokinetic turbine system is
situated above the water surface.
Submerged generator: The generator of the hydrokinetic turbine system is situated
below the water surface.

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Figure 3.4: Diagrams of Horizontal Axis Turbines

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3.2 VERTICAL AXIS TURBINES

Figure 3.5: Types of Vertical Axis Turbines

Darrieus turbine: The turbine consists of a number of curved hydrofoil blades

mounted on a vertical rotating shaft or framework.
H-Darrieus: It is a modification of Darrieus, in which the long "egg beater" blades of
the common Darrieus design are replaced with straight vertical blade sections
attached to the central shaft with horizontal supports.
SC-Darrieus: It is a modification of Darrieus, it consists of two disks at top and
bottom, with the airfoils running straight up and down between their rims.
Gorlov: It evolved from the Darrieus turbine design by altering it to have helical
blades/foils.
Savonius: It is a drag-type device, consisting of two or three scoops. Because of the
curvature, the scoops experience less drag when moving against the water than when
moving with the water.

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Figure 3.6: Diagrams of Vertical Axis Turbines

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3.3 HORIZONTAL AXIS TURBINES- MERITS AND DEMERITS

Merits:
Self-starting capability.
Gearbox elimination possible through the use of a duct.
Optimum performance is achieved at higher rotor speed (marine/tidal
conversion).
Demerits:
High generator coupling cost due to underwater placement.
Ducts cannot be easily used for floating purpose.

3.4 VERTICAL AXIS TURBINES- MERITS AND DEMERITS

Merits:
Low generator coupling costs due to placement above water.
Emits less noise due to reduced blade tip losses.
Can rotate unidirectional even with bi-directional fluid flow.
More suitable for operation under shallow channel with varying water
velocity and shallow stream with limited water flow rate.
Demerits:
Due to low starting torque, may require starting mechanism.
Lower efficiency.

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CHAPTER 4

4.0 GENERATORS

Electric generators are devices that convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy. Generators can generally give direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC).
Choosing a generator for specific application is governed by number of factors such
as the prime mover speed, required output power, range of operation and use.
Hydrokinetic plants use the same generators as used by conventional hydro and wind
power generation. Generally, the two commonly used generators in wind and
hydrokinetic turbine systems are synchronous and induction generators.

4.1 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

This type of generator runs at a constant speed. They are equipped with a DC
electric or permanent magnet excitation system. The permanent magnet excitation
type has cornered the market in small-scale hydro and hydrokinetic energy conversion
systems due to its simplicity, high reliability, low noise and high power density. It can
run isolated from the grid and produce power since excitation is not grid-dependent.
To work with variable speed, it includes a frequency inverter, composed by a rectifier.
The rectifier transforms the slip frequency ranges and currents into DC voltages and
currents, and an inverter transforms DC voltages and currents in synchronous
frequency voltages and currents.

4.2 INDUCTION GENERATORS

Induction generators are the most common types of electrical generators used
in stand-alone power generation systems. This type of a generator is also favoured for
small-scale electricity production due to its simplicity, robustness, small protection
capacity and small size per generated kW. Unlike the synchronous generators,
induction generator does not require external DC source. The commonly used
induction generators are squirrel cage rotor types since they are brushless. Despite the
lower efficiency than an equivalent PMSG and a need to run at a more or less fixed
speed, they are very attractive for small-scale electrification.

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4.3 DC GENERATORS
DC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into direct current
electrical energy. DC generators are equipped with a DC electric or permanent magnet
excitation system. DC generators are generally expensive. Using a DC generator we
can charge batteries via small micro hydropower plants, but it is not a viable solution
for rural electrification. Their usage is restricted due to low transmission efficiency.
The main reason being due to the low generated voltage, electrical transmission will
be difficult.

4.4 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR - MERITS AND DEMERITS

Merits:
No extra field excitation needed.
Have higher efficiency due to direct drive permanent magnet.
Can operate at slower speeds, hence allowing the direct- drive train
without gearbox.
Lower maintenance costs due to absence of brushes.
Demerits:
Frequency inverter and rectifier needed during variable speed.
To get a suitable frequency at low speed, it requires large number of poles
and an increase in turbine radius.

4.5 INDUCTION GENERATORS - MERITS AND DEMERITS

Merits:
Can supply constant voltage and constant frequency at.
Variable speeds.
High reliability.
Cheap and simple to design.
Demerits:
Lower efficiency compared to permanent magnet synchronous generator.
Needs speed faster than the synchronous speed. At low river flow speeds a
need exist for speed increaser.

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CHAPTER 5

5.0 CASE STUDY

A case study of two different situations where the Hydrokinetic energy
conversion turbines were utilized is described below.

5.1 SMART FOOD PROCESSING PROJECT EMPOWERING RURAL

ENTREPRENEURS IN KARNATAKA, INDIA
A project financed by the Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and
Energy and performed together with Gram Oorja and Sanjeevani Seva Trust.

Situation: The village of Bhamane is located in Uttar Kannad district of

Karnataka, India. The main occupation of the villagers is farming and their main crop
is rice. Before farmers practiced rain fed farming with the activity being restricted to
the monsoon months. Availability of power enabled farmers to grow crops during the
non-monsoon season, thereby significantly enhancing their incomes. Besides that,
people in Bhamane and surrounding hamlets had to travel 20 30 km to the next rice
mill in order to process the grains. On that account, there was a strong demand from
the community for setting up a rice and flourmill at the village.

Technology: Installation of a hybrid system for productive use.

SMART Hybrid System (canal turbines + photovoltaic + backup generator).
Twenty-four 2 V batteries connected in series to a total voltage of 48 V and
connected to the SMART Energy Management System.
Three-phase power supply for rice and flour mill.

After setting up a micro grid, the system currently supports 34 households

with electricity for multiple uses such as battery charging, food processing, street
lighting, refrigeration etc.

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Figure 5.1: Layout of Hybrid system

Figure 5.2: Free-stream Turbine

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5.2 SMART Irrigation Project in Neiva, Colombia

A project co-financed by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs

and Energy and performed together with ENERA S.A.S.

Situation: Rice requires constant irrigation. The rice farms in Neiva are not
connected to the grid. Therefore, the irrigation pumps are powered by 110 kW diesel
generators, which are expensive (US$ 1.2/l) and harmful to the environment.

Technology: Installation of an irrigation pump directly powered by a SMART

Duo-float Turbine in order to (partly) replace the diesel pump.

Water velocity of 1.7 m/s results in an average annual generation of 1.1 kW or

36 m/hour of water pumped.
Direct -coupled systems eliminates the use of batteries.
The water pump connected to the river turbine pumps 1,000 m for 30% of the
costs compared to a diesel generator.

This project is part of the worldwide dena Renewable Energy Solutions

Programme coordinated by Deutsche Energie-Agentur (dena) the German Energy
Agency and co-financed by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and
Energy (BMWi) within the initiative renewables Made in Germany

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Figure 5.3: Layout of Duo-float Turbine System

Figure 5.4: Duo-float Turbine

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CHAPTER 6

6.0 SMART HYDRO POWER: PRICING

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CHAPTER 7

7.0 CONCLUSION

The hydrokinetic turbine systems are at a phase of extreme development. The

scope of economic power generation through river in-stream energy is not far from
reality. There are many companies in the fore front developing more efficient designs,
focused on creating the new energy revolution.
The vertical axis turbines usually need some exciting and starting mechanism.
This is the reason why most companies are opting for a horizontal axis design. Use of
an augmented duct can help increase the power produced by the turbine, but the
investment cost would be higher.
It can be said that each system has its own advantages and disadvantages. The
river current system has restriction because of the size of rivers and seasonal changes
in flow rate. But considering its vast potential especially in India, it is a field worth
exploring.
Vertical axis Darrieus, H-Darrieus or Helical turbine can be used for the cases,
where the water flow rate is relatively limited. The selection of the most suitable type
depends on our requirement, capital and river conditions. But all kinds of hydrokinetic
electricity systems offer a good and brilliant hope to meet our energy demands with
clean, sustainable and renewable energy in all cases with the consideration of
overcoming environmental concerns.

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