Fischer, A Grammar of Classical Arabic

WOLFDIETRICH
FICH ER
THIRD REVISED EDITION

TRANSLATED FROMTHE GERMAN BY
JONATHAN RODGERS
YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW HAVEN & LON DON

Yale Language Series

t
,
suiinat,to i>ib
A GRAMMAR OF CLASSICAL
ARABIC
WOLFDIETRICH FISCHER
Third Revised Edition
Translated from the German by
Jonathan R o d g er s
YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS

NEW HAVEN & LONDON
>

.ktabosunnat.com
Copyright 2002 by Yale University.
All rights reserved.
Tliis book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illus-

trations, in any form (beyond tlrat copying permitted by Sections 107
and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the
public press), without written permission from the publishers.
Designed by the translator.

Set with E M . and A r a b - in Computer Modern Roman
and N a s h type by the translator.
Printed in the United states of America.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Fischer, Wolfdietrich.
fGrammatik des Jdassischen Arabisch. English]
A Grammar of Classical Arabic / Wolfdietric.h Fischer ; translated
from German by ,lonathan Rodgers. - - 3rd rev. ed.
p. cm. - - (Yale Language Series)
English and Arallic
Includes bibliographical references and index
ISBN 978-0-300-08437-5 (alk. paper.)
1. Arabic language - - Grammar. I. Title II. Series
PJ 6303 .F53 2001
00-048714
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and dura-
bility of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity
of the Council on Library Resources.
Printed in the United States o f America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
.

kitibosunn it.com
.
Contents
Translators Preface .................................................................X
Preface ...............................................................................xii
Introduction .......................................................................... 1
WRITING SYSTEM
The Alphabet (1-3) ................................................................. 3
Orthography (4) ......................................................................5
Short Vowels (5-6) .................................................................. 6
Long Vowels (7-10)..................................................................6
Tanwm (Nunation) (11-12)........................................................8
Ta' marbutah (13) .................................................................. 9
Hamzah (14-15)......................................................................9
Maddah (16) ........................................................................ 11
Shaddah (17-18) .................................................................. 11
Waslah (19-22)......................................................................12
Words Joined in W riting (23).................................................... 14
Abbreviations (24) ................................................................. 14
Numerals (25) .........................................................1 5
PHONOLOGY
Phonemes (26)....................................................................... 16
P ron un ciation (27-32).......................................................... 16
Vowels (28-29)....................................................................... 17
Consonants (30-31).................................................................18
Stress (32) ........................................................................... 20
C om bin a tory and H is t o r ic a l P h o n o l o g y ............................. 20
Vowels (33-37) ......................................................................20
Vowel Epenthesis (38) .............................................................24
Consonants (39) .................................................................... 24
Dissimilation o f {hamzah) (40-41) ............................................ 25
Dropping o f " (hamzah) (42-43) ............................................... 26
Assimilation (44-48) .................................................. 26
Syllable Ellipsis (49-50) .......................................................... 28
Syllable Structure (51) ............................................................29
Shortening o f Syllables (52) ..................................................... 30
Auxiliary Vowels (53-54) ......................................................... 30
Pausal Forms (55-57) ............................................................ 32
MORPHOLOGY
Root and Morpheme (58-60) ................................................... 35
N ominal F o r m s .................................................................. 37
Preliminary Remarks (61) ........................................................37
Stem Pattern M orphemes (62-63) ............................................. 37
vi Contents
Suffixed Pattern Morphemes (64-65) ...................................... 39

Prefixed Pattern Morphemes (66) ........................................... 41
"WeakRoot Stem Patterns (67-70) ...................................... 41
Substantive ..................................................................... 44
Primary Substantives (71-72) ...................... 44
Feminine Substantive Ending -atun (73) ................................... 46
Abstract and Verbal Substantives (74-76) ................................ 47
Semantic Groups (77) ......................................................... 48
Nouns of Place (Nomina Loci) and Tim e (Nomina Temporis) (78) .... 49
Nouns o f Instrument (Nomina Instrumenti) (79-80) ..................... 51
Diminutives (81-82) ........................................................... 51
Number o f Substantives (83) .................................................53
Singular Collectives (84-86) .................................................. 54
"BrokenPlurals (87-92) ..................................................... 56
Plural of Four-Consonant Morpheme Categories (93-99) .............. 60
Plural of Paucity, or a Small Number (100)............................. 64
Sound(Inflected) Plural (101-105) ....................................... 65
Combined Plural Morjrhemes (106) ......................................... 67
Dual (107-109) ................................................................. 68
Gender of Substantives (110-112) ........................................... 69
Adjective (113-121) ............................................................71
BrokenPlurals of Adjectives (122-123) .................................. 76
Quantity .........................................................................76
Elative ,afalu (124-127) ..................................................... 76
Formulas of Astonishment ma 'afala (128) ................................ 80
Numerals (129-135) ........................................................... 80
Totality (136-139) ............................................................ 85
Nominal Inflection (140-146) ................................................ 86
TOptotic Inflection (147-151) ................................................ 91
Diptot'ic Inflection (152-153) .................................................92
Inflection of III- and IV-Weak Nominal Forms (154-156) ..............94
Vocative (157-159) ............................................................ 95
V erb ............................................................................ 96
Preliminary Remarks (160) ................................................... 96
Formation of the stem (161-162) ............................................97
Verbal Stems of Three-Radical Verbs (163-173) ........................... 98
Verbal Stems of IGur-Radical Verbs (174-178) ........................... 101
System of Verb Forms (179-206) .......................................... 101
Use of the Perfect (181-183) ................................................ 102
Use of the Imperfect (184-188) ............................................. 104
The Verbal Particle qad (189) .............................................. 106
Use of Compound Verb Forms (190-193) ................................. 107
Use of the Jussive (194-195) ............................................... 108
Use of tire Subjunctive (196-197) ...........................................109
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Contents V
Use of the Energetic (198) 110

Use of the Passive (199-200) 110
Use of the Participle (201-204) Ill
Use of Verbal Substantives (205-206) 114
Inflection of the Verb 115
Suffix Conjugation (Perfect) (207-210) 115
Prefix Conjugation (211-215) 116
Imperfect Base (216-218) 118
Passive (219) 120
Imperative (220-222) 120
Participles (223-224) 121
Verbal Substantives (225-231) 122
Nouns Expressing a Single Action (Nomen Vicis) (232) .............. 126
II-Geminate Verbs ( Verba mediae geminatae)(233-236) ............. 126
Verbs with Weak Radicals (237-258) 128
Verbs with hamzah (237-239) 128
I- Weak verbs (Verba primae inftrmae) (240-243) 129
II- Weak Verbs (Verba mediae infirmae)(244-249) 131
III- Weak Verbs ( Verba tertiae infirmae)(250-257) 135
III-Weak-11-Weak verbs (Verba tertiae e mediae infirmae) (258) .... 138
E m p h a tic Q u a l i f i c a t i o n (259-263) 139
P ron oun s and P a r t i c l e s .............141
Personal Pronouns (264-271) 141
Pronominal Object Particle (272) 144
Reflexive (273) 145
Demonstratives (274-280) 145
Definite Clauses (Relative Pronouns) (281-282) 148
Nominal Demonstratives (283) 148
Demonstrative Particles (284) 149
Interrogatives (285-290) 150
Prepositions (291-309) 152
bi- (294), -(295), A (296), fca- (297), ma'a (298), min (299), mundhu (300),
'an (301), 'ala (302), Hla (303), hatta (304), lada (305), ladun (306), inda
(307), bayna (308), duna (309)
Particles of Exception and Restriction (310-314) 168
Hlla (310), ghayru, siwa (311), ma 'add, ma khala (312), Hnna-ma (313),
Hmma-la (314)
Adverbs (315-317) 170

- k ita fe o su n n a t.co m
viii Contents
Negation (318-327) .............................................................. 171

Id (318), am (319), an (320), ma (321),
in (322), laj,sa (323), lata (324),
ghayru, siu,a (325), bal (326)
Coordinating Conjunctions (328-333) ........................................ 175
1 - (328), fa - (329), thumma (330), 1
. 0, (331),
in,
irnmd (332),
am (333)
Particles Introducing the Main Clause (334-342) ........................ 178
a- (334), >a, hal (335), ammo (336), nibba (337), inna (339), lakinna
(340), lajta (:141), a
a a (342)
Subordinating Conjunctions (343-346) ...................................... 181
Vocative Particles (Interjections) (347-349) ................................ 182
Particles as Substantives (350) ............................................... 184
SY N TA X
S y n t a x : P a r t s o f t h e S e n t e n c e ......................................... 185
Subject and Predicate (351-370) .............................................. 185
Verbal Sentences (355-359) .................................................... 187
Nominal Sentences (360-367) .................................................. 189
C om poun d Sentences (368-370) .............................................. 191
Predicate Complements (371).................................................. 193
Uses o f the Accusative (372) .................................................. 193
A ccusative as O b ject (373-375) .............................................. 194
Inner (Absolute) O b ject (376-377) .......................................... 195
Adverbial Accusative (378-379) .............................................. 196
Circum stantial Accusative (380-383) ....................................... 196
Accusative o f Specificity (384) ................................................. 199
Nominal Constructions .......................................................... 199
Genitive C onstructions (385-392) ............................................. 199
A pposition (393-397) ........................................................... 204
Attributives (398-399) ......................................................... 205
Coordination of Parts of the Sentence (400-403) .......................... 206
S y n t a x : C lauses ............................................................... 207
Coordinate Clauses (404-406) ................................................ 207
C oordinate Circum stantial Clauses (407-409) .............................. 209
C oordinate Clauses with the Subjunctive (410-411)...................... 211
Asyndetic Result Clauses with tile Jussive (412) .......................... 211
Subordinate Clauses as Parts o f the Main Clause (413) .............. 212
Substantive Clauses (414-418) ................................................. 212
an (414),
anna (415), ma (416)
Clauses Functioning as Substantives (419-420).............................215
Relative Clauses as. Ruftstantives (421-427) ................................ 216
man (423), ma (424), a lia . (426)
Attributive Relative Clauses (428-430) ..................................... 219
Predicate Circumstantial Clauses (431-435)................................ 220
A ppositional Circumst.antial Clauses (436)................................. 222
.
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Contents ix
Adverbial Clauses (437-444) 222

li-, kay (438), hattd (439), hatta ,idha (440), haythu (441), ,idh (442), lammd
(443), bayna-ma (444)
Conditional Sentences (445-455) 227
in (450),
imma (451),
ilia (452), law (453), law
anna (454), law-la (455)
Defective Conditional Sentences (456-459) 232
Sentences witlt Conditional Implication (460-465) 233
Relative particles (461), ma (462), kulla-ma (463), 464) . 1), 'idha-ma
(465)
PARADIGMS
1. Nouns witli Pronominal Suffixes 237
2. Nouns Ending in - 238
3. Nouns Ending in -7 238
4. Basic Stem of the 3-Radical Verb (Active) 238
5. Basic Stem of the 3-Radical Verb (Passive) 239
6. 3-Radical Derived Verbs 240
7. II-Geminate Verbs 242
8. I-hamzah and 1-Weak Verbs 244
9. The Verb ra a see 245
10. II-Weak V erb s 246
11. Ill-Weak Verbs 251
12. 1- )- Ill-Weak Verbs 256
13. 11- - Ill-Weak Verbs 257
14. 4-Radcal Verbs 258
BIBLIOGRAPHY 259
1. General and Reference W o rk s 259
2. Historical Ijinguistics 262
3. Arabic G ram m ar 277
4. Arabic L inguistics 287
5. Lexicography 301
JOURNAL ABBREVIATIONS 319

INDEX 321
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. a n s la to r
s Preface
WoJfdietricJi Fischer's Grammatik des klassischen Arabisch, Porta
Linguarum Orientalium, NS XI, Wiesbaden: Ilarrassowitz, 1972 (repi'inted
with additions to the bibliography in 1987) is unquestionably the most
useful reference grammar of the classical language for graduate students
who have acquired proficiency in German. It is both sufficiently concise for
quick reference as the student works on classical texts and rich in content to
instill confidence. Although for the English-speaking student, w. Wright's
A Grammar of the Arabic Language (3rd edition, Cambridge University
Press, 1991) contains far more material, its inconvenient arrangement, ob-
solete English style, and often unhelpful historical and comparative linguis-
tic data make it less than ideal for quick reference and possibly confusing.
Of course, as a ;omprehensive resource for the study of the classical Ara-
bic language, Wright is unsurpassed. For the English-speaking student or
one with inadequate command of German and, especially, for the student
who might be under certain conditions disinclined to invest effort and time
in consulting the exhaustive richness of Wright, there has been no suitable
reference grammar, 'rhis translation of Fischer's Grammatik aims to make
up for that lack and place iirto the student's hands a useful and accessible
reference tool.
The transliteration of the Arabic examples is based on the system em-

ployed by the English Encyclopedia of Islam, new edition (Leiden, 1954),
with two notable exceptions, namely is rendered by q, rather than k;
is j, rather than i . Thus, <, , are th) kh, dh, sh, gh. The o
definite article is assimilated to the following
sunletters, so that
is rendered
ash-shamsu, rather than al-shamsu.
The original bibliograplry, now more than ten years old, has been up-
dated with significant and major contributions to the field of classical Ara-
bic grammar and linguistics. Since, however, almost all recent books and
articles on classical Arabic grammar and its cognate fields are indexed or
available in full-text in one or several electronic resources, the translator
felt that an exhaustive update in print would be superfluous. Thus, the
updatol bibliography presented here is expected to serve only as an initial
reference tool.
t
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Translator's !!face xi
The idea to undertake the translation of Fischer's invaluable resource

was conceived long ago when t,he translator was a graduate student who
felt acutely the need for a handy English-language reference resource to
aid in working on classical texts. The work was not begun until recently
and has progressed unsteadily as time permitted. Originally planned to
be completed several years ago. it only now appears tlianks to persistent
and gentle reminders from the editors at Yale University Press and the
forbearance of the translator's employer and spouse.
The translator is pleased to acknowledge the indispensable and patient

assistance of the author, who graciously provided changes and additions to
the original text for incorporation into this updated English edition. The
chapter on syntax, especially, benefits from his numerous additions and
improvements.
Well-deserved credit is due Wolftiart Heinrichs, who willingly and pa-

tiently read through the translation, spotted numerous errors in translation
and style, and contributed valuable and much appreciai.ed suggestions for
improvement.
The contribution of Peter T. Daniels, who volunteered to undertake the

laborious task of proof-reading the final draft, is gratefully acknowledged.
His acute eye eliminated countless misspellings, inconsistencies, and other
typographical blunders.
This work was produced with Eberhard Mattes' typesetting program

E M | , in combination with Klaus Lagally's set o f - macros, Arab .
Their valuable contribution is hereby gratefully recognized. Aralj sig-
nificantly facilitated the typesetting of the text in mixed Arabic and Roman
fonts.
This work is dedicated to two towering figures of American scholar-

ship, John Rodgers, geologist and musician, and Franz Rosenthal, Arabist,
Islamicist, and Semitist. Their inestimable and unmatclied work continues
to challenge and inspire US.
Jonathan Rodgers
Ann Arbor, April 2000

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Preface
For German readers, Carl Brockelmann's Arabische Grammatik lias

served for more tlian half a century as the textbook presenting a systematic
grammar of (:lassical Arabic. The longevity of his grammar is due to its
exactness and precision, as it masterfully limits itself to the essentials. Ifis
description of the syntax represents a significant advancement in Arabic
grammatical studies. When Otto Ifarrassowitz invited me to undertake
a revision of t'.his ti'ied and proven text, which had already gone through
fourteen editions, it immediately became clear tliat it was really time t,0
tiegin from tlie ground up. Reworking the old grammar was out of the
question.
Earlier grammars had borrowed tlieir system of description from the

Arab grammarians and adapted it to the style of Latin grammars used in
schools. When Carl Brockelmann undertook his revision of Socin's Ara-
bische Grammatik for Porta linguarum orientalium in 1904, he was still
wovVXn. on \us CiTUTwln der uergleicheTiden Grammatik der semittschen
Sprachen. In particular, the syntax in .,his small Arabic grammar ben-
efited from tlie results of this historical-comparative study. Since tlien,
however, our understanding of this area of Arabic grammar lias grown, as
basic research in grammatical methodology has progressed. Research b e
gun a few decades ago that has led to a clearer knowledge of Akkadian has
thrown into question many of the old principles of Semitics and demands
a completely new presentation of the liistorical-linguistic issues. Modern
linguistics justifiably requires tliat a grammar emphasize the descriptive
aspect over historical speculation, which has, indeed, proven to be an inad-
equacy of previous grammatical descriptions.
A grammar tliat is intended to be used mostly as a teaching and refer-

ence work, anti thus is not a linguistic treatise, should not experiment with
methodological and terminological innovation. Therefore, traditional t.er-
minology and, in general, the traditional arrangement of the grammar liave
been preservetl, although effoi'ts have been made to present a description
consistent witl'1 cuirent theory. It has avoided, accordingly, a break witli
tradition.
Those who wish to embark on training in classical Arabic and those

who are already well-acquainted with it have an equal need for a systematic
grammar that contains not just, the bare essentials, liut also everytliing that
is necessary for tlie interpretation of texts. Brockelmann's treatise, despite
its excellence, is too terse. Wlienever searching for help in interpreting
difficult passages, one must resort to Wright's larger and more comprehen-
sive work, A Grammar of the Arabic Language, or to the more specialized
works on syntax by Hermann Reckendoi'f. In producing a new grammar of
classical Arabic, I t.ook efforts to offer more comprehensively and present.

wvw.kitabosunnat.com
Preface xiii
as elaborately and completely as possible all the grammatical material re-

quired for the interpretation of classical prose as one might encounter under
normal circumstances. The material selected is representative of the mor-
phology and syntax of normal classical Arabic. Deviations from the norm,
as they occur in p r e and post-classical texts, are pointed out in the notes.
The information present.ed should also be more than sufficient for the un-
derstanding of poetical texts.
The examples cited are for the most part borrowed from the standard
grammatical treatises (Wright, NOldeke, Reckendorf, Brockelmann, Wehr,
Spitaler) and to a smaller extent are Supplemented from my own stock.
As is usual in a work intended for instructional purposes, the origin of the
examples is not given in detail. Specialists will be able to find out in most
cases the sources without too much difficulty. Only citations from the Koran
are noted as such. As far as possible, the example phrases in the chapter
on syntax are taken from prose texts. Since, however, so much previous
research has been based on poetical texts, the goal of drawing examples
exclusively from prose sources could not always be fulfilled. Nevertheless,
examples from poetry, when they are not explicitly so indicated, are used
only if they can illustrate prose usage as well.
Description of t,he functions of morphological groups (e.g., forms of
the verb, state of the nominal forms, elative, etc.), as well as the formal
description of word constructions (e.g., genitive constructions, numerical
expressions, agreement), can be found in the section on morphology. This
arrangement represents a departure from the traditional, in which such
grammatical material is usually treated in syntax. Similarly, the function
and formal arrangement of the particles within the sentence structure are
also presented in morphology. Tire treatment of the syntax itself then comes
in its proper place: It comprises the description of the sentence composed of
its parts (Syntax: Parts of the Sentence) and the hierarchical arrangement
of the clauses that make rrp the sentence (Syntax of Clauses). Consistently,
I have attempt.ed to underpin the syntactic system with a formal theoretical
basis. Such an arrangement of the material is best suited for introducing
features of the language with which the beginner is unacquainted. The
arrangement according to function can readily offer to users of this grammar
the facts about function and meaning of specific linguistic phenomena.
A consistent arrangement with numerous cross-references whenever

several principles are involved in one and the same feature, as well as
repetition, when necessary, should make it easier for the user to look up
and locate specific morphemes and structures. The rules ire concisely for-
mulated, and the examples provided are selected to be as representative
as possible. The illustrative text and examples provided are intended to
supplement one another and to be mutually self-explanatory. References to

wwwJdtab.sunnat.com
xiv Preface
other sections of the work should not be overlooked. The reference numbers
always refer to paragraph numbers (). Numbers following decimal points
refer to the notes: 110.5 means 100, Note 5.
Arabic citations and examples are vocalized only in the phonology and
syntax chapt.ers. In morphology, the unvocalized Arabic is provided witli
transliteration, Tliat offers the advantage of a-llowing the reader to become
accustomed to seeing unvocalized text, as is the normal situation in Arabic
texts. Additionally, this manner of representation allows one to see clearly
how Arabic forms are correctly transcribed, an important feature, given the
increasing significairce of transcribed citations in tlie scholarly literature.
Hypothetical forms are noted by a preceding , and historical development
or origin of forms is noted by > or <.
Earlier grammars usually offered the terminology of the Arab gram-

marians. By design, most of the Arabic technical terms are absent from this
treatise. After considerable thought, they were left out and should be re-
served for a specialized description of the system of native Arabic grammar.
The system used in this grammar does not rely on the Arabic grammati-
cal tradition. The use of Arabic terminology would, if it were employed,
inevitably cause misunderstandings. Only occasionally, and only when an
Arabic expression has been naturalized in European grammars, has it been
employed.
The notorious difficulties of classical Arabic have their origin not only
in the language itself and its inadequate and equivocal orthography, but
also in the paucity of useful aids available to the student. The lexicon and
grammar are still far from the point where the language can be said to
be fully probed and understood. This grammar claims only to attempt
to gather together in a concise and clear manner the results of previous
scholarship and fasliion tliese into a grammatical system that adequately
describes the language. In undertaking this endeavor, several Arabists,
foremost Prof. Anton Spitaler and Prof. Hans Wehr, have supported me by
offering their friendly advice and many valuable ideas. I hereby extend to
them my sincere grat.itude. The publication of a new edition in English gives
me tlie opportunity to add some corrections and improvements. Finally, I
feel bound to say special thanks t,o Jonathan Rodgers, who spared no effort
to translate this book precisely and in an adequate manner.
Erlangen, April 1996

Wolfdietrich Fischer

Introduction
As a result of the conversion of Arabs to Islam and tlieir establish-

ment of the Islamic empire, Arabic, originally a language of poetry and
religion, arose as the linguistic medium of learning and literature for the
entire Islamic world. Muslims employed this language, known to US as clas-
sical Arabic, in government administration, in literature and science. After
the revival of modern Persian and the rise of popular literary languages
like Turkish began to constrain the far-flung realm of Arabic in later cen-
turies of the empire, classical Arabic continued to serve as the language of
learning for tlie Islamic world, particularly in the area of religious scholar-
ship. Wherever used, Arabic has maintained the status of a language of the
learned and cultured. Modern written Arabic is, indeed, a continuation of
and the current version of classical Arabic.
Prom its earliest times to the present, Arabic has remained superficially
almost unchanged. Apart from a few details, the morphology of the old po-
etic language and that of modern written Arabic are irlentical. Although
the language has continued naturally to change and adapt to new circum-
stances in many aspects of word usage, in choice of synt.actic patterns, and
in style, the vocabulary and syntax have remained fundamentally similar.
The "classicalperiod of this learned literary language occurs in the

late eightli and ninth centuries, the golden age of the Abbasid Caliphate.
In Kufah and Basrah, philologists had begun to impose on the grammar an
academic system, assemble the lexicon, and write the works of lexicography.
Mastery of classical Arabic became the highest ideal in the education of
Muslims. Philology and grammar became the most thoroughly cultivated
sciences in the Islamic world.
Vintage texts of pre- and early Islamic poetry served preeminently as

the foundation and prototype of the philological discipline that took shape
in the 9th century, while the Koran also played a role. These "preclassical
old Arabic texts, however, frequently exhibit subtle differences from the lan-
guage of the "classicalperiod: Among them is a degree of morphological
freedom and archaism that did not gain acceptance in prescriptive gram-
matical circles and therefore vanished from the classical language. It is
difficult, liowever, to draw a precise boundary between the "preclassical"
language of the p r e and early Islamic corpus and the "classicallanguage
of the philologically learned, because the early texts were widely known,
learned, and admired. To speakers of Arabic, belles lettres means almost
exclusively poetry. In poetry, the often celebrated poets of p r e and early
.

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2 Introduction
Islamic times have always been invoked, and archaic forms and unusual
syntactic constructions recur with equal frequency in the poetry of later
generations.
Despite tlie prescriptive preoccupat.ion of Arab philologists and gram-

marians and tlie language's almost definitive stabilization by the 9th cen-
tury, classical Arabic did not cease to exist as a natural language. There
was constant contact wit.il the spoken language alongside the pursuit on
the part of scholars of more precise arid flexible means of expression. Out
of these conditions, new stylistic and syntactic formations soon developed.
By the end of the tenth century, the classical period had ended and gave
way to a post-classical form whose constructions and expressions, although
rejected by prescriptive grammatical norms, became widely accepted. Nev-
ertlieless, the demarcation is equivocal. For every writer who faithfully
adhered to classical models, there was another wlro felt little compunction
about indulgii'ig in innovation.
From tlie beginning of its tradition, from the pre-classical language of

p r e and early Islamic poetry up tlirough modern written Arabic, classical
Arabic has been the language of poetry, culture, literature, and science,
the language of t,he school and education, but not the everyday spoken
language. Coexisting with the classical tojigue has been another Arabic
that contrasts in some respects in morphology and syntax and that is ex-
clusively spoken and not written. Command of the cultural language has
always been an issue of education and scholarship. Of course, there were
writers who had little or no familiarity witli grammatical rules and who
thus consistently used forms anrl expressions from the spoken Arabic in the
written or incorrectly used classical forms. We call the language of suclr
writers "Middle Arabic", because it occupied an intermediate position b e
tween the learned language and tlie spoken. Examples of this form exist
aliundantly in documents of Christian or Jewisli origin. The maintenance
of classical Arabic was the principal concern of Muslims who revered it as
the language of the Koran.
Despite some modification, t,he structure of classical Arabic, wliich had

stabilized in the 9th century, has remained a genuine immutable standard.
The description of classical Arabic necessarily focuses on the language of the
"classicalperiod. This grammar treats above all tliis classical language.
Insofar a.s it is possible from the current state of research, the
pre-classical
and post-classicallanguages are referred to as divergent forms, Devia-
tions from tlie classical norm, which cannot be unequivocally identified as
eitlier p r e or post-classical, are designated "non-classical".

wwv.kitabosunnat.com
W riting System
The Alphabet
1. In the 3rd century AD, Arab Nabateans, although they had normally
used Aramaic as their written language, began writing Arabic. The 22

letters of the Aramaic alpliabet, some of which in the course of time had
acquired t.he same shape, could not adequately represent the 28 consonantal
phonemes of Arabic. The Arabs had to distinguish the ambiguous letters
they had adopted with diacritical marks. The original Aramaic order of
the alphabet is preserved when the letters serve as numbers (see table):

Various writing styles developed during Islamic times, including,
among the most important, the monumental kufi and the C'irsive naskhi. A
peculiar style, the maahribi extended througho,it North Africa (Maghrib)
and Muslim Spain. Today, the most frequently encountered printed fonts
are based on the naskhi.
rasm. Diacritical
N ote 1. Script without diacritical marks is called
marks are partly or altogether lacking in some manuscripts.
N ote 2. In the Maghribi style of writing, is used in place of ( fa

)
and in place of ) /).
N ote 3. Today, the order of the letters in tile alphabet is for the most
part determined by similaritj, of shape. Instead of the order as the
last three letters, one sometimes encounters an older order . There are
also other sequences. In Muslim Spain and North Africa the usual order was:
2. Arabic writing runs from right to left. Some letters are joined to each
other, while others are separate. The letters connect only to
the preceding, not to the following, letter. Thus, a letter that follows one
of hese must assume its initial form: sahib, > ahl, sadiq,
lidhun, faras, ra 5, manzil, rnawdi.{, wafd.

4 Writing System
Table of the Arabic Writing System
Isolated From Medial To TTan- Letter Numeric

Right Left scription Name Value
- , 1
& ba.) 2
to? 400
1 I tha; 500
jim 3

h < 8

kh 600

d dal 4
dh dhal 700
, , - - ra.) 200
- zay
sin 60
sh shin 300
s sad 90
d dad. 800
ta> 9
z,d za> 900
' 70

ah ghayn 1000

f fa;
80
qdj 100

.
r k kaf 20
am 30
mim 40

i

h
nun
ha
50
5
- - w,u 6
y,i yd 10
For pronunciation, see 27 ff.
.
^w .k abosunnat.com
Writing System 5
3. Calligraphy prescribes the use of ligatures to join certain letters:
a) Initial forms of when joined to and create

the following ligatures, respectively: 6 i i >etc., or j ,
etc., and , etc., or r r" etc. Similarly, and join with
to form, respectively: tT etc.
N ote 1. For typographical reasons, certain ligatures containing

such as , etc., are avoided in print. Instead, such combinations
as , etc., are employed.
b) The lam-alif ligature is written and >1 , respectively; lam-mim,

and I , respectively; kdf-alif, kaf-lam, kaf-lam-alif,
Note 2. In the lam-alif ligature, of Nabatean origin, it appears that the
left shaft, lam , and the right, alif, cross to form > .
c) Before final , and are sliortened to:

, etc. Before and , the
teethof and are altered
to form the ligatures: r .
d) In combination with and final , the medial form o f

is changed as follows: _ etc.
Note 3. In a sequence of several letters of tile basic form of or - including
the
teethof - alternating higher and lower forms are used
to distinguish the letters. The sequence begins witlr a lower form:
tanassabtt, yatathabbatu, shatxt, tasruj.
Note 4. is also written ( with two points under the form, as in, i ) .
In many countries, is employed to express %and ay, while is used to
express a (!).
Orthography
4. The orthography of classical Arabic was fixed during the 8th-9th cen-
tury by the Arab grammarians. With few exceptions, classical orthographic
conventions have rem ain^ valid until the present for the written language.
Some archaic, pr&classical spellings have been preserved in the classical
orthography (cf. 7.7; 8; 9; 10.2). These archaic writing conventions origi-

w

ktabosunn;t.com
6 W riting System
nated in a form o f Arabic that in several respects deviated from the classical
norm, but they were adopted anyway alm ost without change by classi-
cal Arabic. T h e most, im portant deviations are: > (ihamzah) was not pro-
nounced within a. word or in final position', occasionally, it was replaced by
w or ^ (14). Th e noun case endings -1 , -in, -an were lacking. Th e femi-
nine ending was -ah (13). In adapting the orthograpliy to the phonology
o f classical Arabic, auxiliary orthographic signs were introduced. These
include signs to denote vowels, whicli were im perfectly represented in a
w riting system that consisted o f consonant signs only. The auxiliary signs
are used consisteirtly and fully only in the Koran and frequently in poetry.
For the m ost part, they are em ployed as needed to assist the reader througli
difficult texts, or frequently tliey are com pletely lacking.
Short Vowels
5. Th e short vowels a, i, w are rendered by diacritical marks placed above

or below the consonant tliat precedes them. (For the romatlized pausal
forms o f the Arabic technical t(.rms, see 57.)
1 : (zJ j fathah) a (/(: mana'a, dhahaba.
2. ) ( {?f'kasr): shariba, qabila.
3. ) dammah) (datum): < azuma, ' alu.
6. ) suhln) marks the absence of a vowel after a consonant. At

the end o f a word, this sign is called jazmah : bal, (
n iia ,
"yaktub.
N o te 1. On tile dropping of sukun with a, i, , see 7. For other examples,

see 18.
Long Vowels
7. Long vowels are represented by: 1: a, = i, U) where the

preceding letter ret.ains the corresponding short vowel sign (i.e., : a, : i,
u). Usually, however, sukun is not placed over 1 : qatala,
nuzva, lumi, siri. On the other hand, sukun is written
where and represent aw and ay: lawmi, sayri.
N o te 1. For representing I, ay and , a, see 3.4; 10.

- .k itiib osu n n a t.com
Writing System 7
N ote 2. A
silent follows in t.he plural verb ending -u, -aw:
katabu, yaktubu, ramaw, yalqaw.
N ote 3. For metre ,and , the vowels in the personal pronoun suffixes
, usually count as short, if a closed syllable precedes, but long if an open
syllable precedes. There is no orthographic distinction made: daru-kd)
rijli-hi, rama-hu, yarmi-hi (268).
N ote 4. Final -fin dhihi, hadhihi, tiki, hdtihi 'these' (fern.),

is not written. In the Koran, the same kinds of spellings also occur frequently
in other words: rabbi
my lord
,
burning
. In poetry, they are
often encountered at verse end where all vowels count as long (56c).
N ote 5. Final - in humu, kurnfi,' -tumu (264.2) is not written.

N ote 6. For metre in poetry, ,ana 'I' usually cojints as >.
N ote 7. Despite their short V.) the plural demonstratives (274 f.) are
commonly written with : < , ,ula
i,
< ulaka,
,ula'ika.
8. In arcliaic spellings, for example in the Koran, a is not consistently
represented by I . To distinguish long from short vowels, alif is introduced
as a vowel sign: = qiyamatun 'rising up',
) = ilahun 'god',
= samawatun 'heaven', = thalathun 'three',
= lakin 'but', ,etc. In some words, this spelling is consistently used:
hadha, 'this', iili al-lahu 'God', ,ar-rahmanu 'the merciful',
dhalika 'that'.
N ote 1. For technical reasons, sometimes just ifatha) is printed in place

of : , i.e., hadha, i.e.,
ilahun.
9. Some words ending in atun have preserved a liistorical spelling with an

Aramaic antecedent: and salatun prayer, and hayatun

life
, OjSj and 5 zakatun
alms
, and . mishkatun laitip niche
.
Simjar examples of historical orthography are found in )) and
))riban (>ar-ribd) 'usury', and tawratun 'Torah'.
>
8 Writing System
10. At the end of a word, -a is frequently written with ) 3.4(: rama
lie threw
, dhikrd
remembrance
,j t 'ala
on
, bald
certainly!
.
When such an -a occurs within a word, it is written with : ramdhu,
dhikrdha. The following rules for the writing of a with obtain:
With verbs, writing with is the rule; only in the basic stem (!) of verbs
ending in w (III-U, 250) is it written with 1. With nouns, figure when
a is not part of the stem (64 b). Stem final - should be written with
only in ]11-11) roots; see also 12.
N ot 1. fter 1 ,
is always used torepresent : dunya 'world' (not
( ,
revived(not ) .
N ote 2. In Koranic spelling, for a is often retained within a word before
an affix. Alif is used as a vowel sign to designate ( cf. 8), as it does for
final a: rama, ramdhu, simahum.
N ote 3. The Arab grammarians applied the term alif maqsur-
ah t,o a written with ( and 1), in contrast to alif mamdudah
for -d'u(n) written with .
Tanw in (Nunatlon)
11. The consonantal writing system does not represent the noun endings
-un, -in, -an (147). These must be indicated by diacritical marks -un,
f i n , l an. The accusative ending,
-an, is additionally accompanied by 1
(alif): rajulun, rajulin, rajulan. 1does not appear with the
accusative diacritic however, in tire feminine ending -a -an (13):
,nadJnafan, jamilatan, or in words ending in -. samd.an.
N o te 1. An arcliaic spelling has been preserved in the proper name "Amr:

Nominative 'Amrun, Genitive ' Amrin, Accusative 1
' Imran.
The serves to distinguish graphically 'Amr from the otherwise similarly
witten proper name 'Omar: Nominative
} ' Umaru, Genitive, Accusative
' Umara.
N o te 2. The writing I 1 occurs both in idhan, alongside ndhan,

, and in tlie energetic ending -an (215): yanfa'an or
then, therefore

yanfa'an, 'may it be u sefu l
.
îtab sunnat.c m
Writing System 9
12. In nouns whose stem final - is written with 10) ) , when the -n
ending is added, the spelling with is retained and tlie final -an is written
: hudan, fatan (compare ,al-huda, >< -0). The
spelling with is the rule, if y is the final root letter: however, if it is w,
1is written: ' a,an (compare al-'asd).
N ote 1. Spellings with and I alternate frequently in nouns: ,asan

or ,asan (root ,-s-w), hashan or hashan (root h-sh-w).
Ta,' marbutah,
13. The origin of the orthography of the feminine singular ending

-. -at(un) is non-classical -ah, -ah (4). To produce the classical
pronunciation, the two points of the are placed on the : h f kalimatun,
w f kalimatin, L f kalimatan (11), fatatun, fatatin, fatatan.
H am za h
14. The glottal st.op, >, which in classical Arabic is a plroneme, was pre-
served onl.y at the beginning of a word in the non-classical language, accord-
ing to the consonantal writing system. In initial position, it was indicated
by : arrir 'order', ,ibil, 'camel',
ukht 'sister'. In all other posi-
tions, since it was no longer pronounced, was not written. In syllable-final
position, the disappearance of > cairsed the lengtheriing of t
sound: ras 'head' in place of classical ra'sun, Ju bir 'well' for
classical b in n , bus 'misery' for classical k i
sun. Vowels of
like quality were contracted after the disappearance of >:
rus 'heads'
for ruiisun, sala 'ask' for sa
a/a; between vowels of different
quality, w or y developed: suwal 'question' for swalun, _
qayim 'standing' for qaimun, khatiyah 'sin' for khati-
atun. After consonants, > was completelj, dropped or replaced by y or w

for morphological reasons: bad 'beginning' for badm, masalah
'question' for mas
alatun, sawwah 'disgrace' for <7.
At the end of a word, > disappeared after long vowels: [r sama

heaven
for sam kn , 'innocent' for barvun, su 'evil' for
sum.
>
10 Writing System
15. In classical Arabic orthography, > (

hamz) is represented by )
hamzah), where, depending on the spelling convention, serve as car-
riers (or 'seats'), or, if none of these letters is available, lias no seat. If
hamzah falls on or the letter loses its diacritical points. Tlie following
rules for the writ.ing of hamzah olitain as a result of historical ort.hography:
a) At tjie beginning of a ivord, 1carries hamzah: amrun, hbilun,

< , .
b) Before and after ,! arries hamzah, if i or ,. is not in contact:

ra>sun, ,arasu, sa
ala, ]) qara'a.
c) Before and after u, carries hamzah, if f is not in contact: J y bu

sun,
a b t u n , ranifa, w asaii.
d) Before and after i, carries hamzah: i birun, ashlatun,
kahba, ?;7 anniun, rvasatun, suhla.
e) At tlie end of a syllable, hamzah is written without a seat following a

consonant or long vowel:
sam a
un, barinin, S U I,
badiin, shay
un, shav
an.
f) Within a word, is written without a seat after a consonant or long

vowel in the classical orthography: sa'ala, mas>alatun,
saw
atun, khatvatun. Today, however, one usually encounters
tliese spellings: or , .
N o te 1. The sign derives from )) .
N o te 2. Alter st.em final ->, the accusative ending -an is not marked
by I : z l f sam a
an (not, 1 ;)see 11.
N o te 3. Today, tlie sound sequences

f and
u within a word are usually
written anti Older spellings avoid the sequence of two or and
prefer and : = ruhisun, =kaibun.
N o te 4. An iolated historical spelling occurs in m i

atun 'hundred'.

Writing System 11
M addah
16. Rather than it for >a, to avoid two successive s, one writes: )
maddah): jr l
akilun, quranun, ravlhu.
Note 1. In archaic spelling, for example in the Kora , madda identifies

the sound sequences a , V , U' (long vowel + >): asdiqwuhu,
yajim, sudla. '
Shaddah,
17. Doubling of a consonant is indicated by

) shaddah): nazzala,
bashsharun, nawwara, sayyidun, J L sa'ilun. Since is
the same as iy and the same as uw (28)1 the sequences ly and uw can
be transliterated iyy and uww: sabiyun (sabiyyun), ?
('aduwwun).
N ote 1. The sign is derived from tliat is, shaddah.
N ote 2. In modern printing, kasrah is usually placed immediately under

: , while fathah lies on top:
=
nazzil.
N ote 3. When part of a doubled consonant is an element of inflection, only
one letter is written, and it bears the shaddah: ,(170)
aa - a (207). One spells forms resulting from assimilation in the
same way: rriimman < min-man, :alia <
an-la (45).
18. The l of the definite article (>) - is assimilated to the following con-
sonant, if the forward part of the tongue is involved in its articula.tion (the
"sunletters [44]). is always written, and the assimilation is ,indicated
by placed over he following letter. does not take sukun: ad-daru
< al-daru, ar-rajulu < al-rajulu, > as-san.a w <
a(-sana w,
- < <,al-naru, but 1al-jaru, al-babu. Before l, the article
behaves as it does in assimilation: al-laylatu,
al-lisanu; also
' al-lahu "God< al-Hlahu "tlie god(49d).
N ote 1. Note the writing of oqly one in the following forms of relative
pronouns:
alladhT, 1 alladhina. >a a f, while the othr
forms are swelled with two J
s:
al-ladhani al-latani,

al-lawati, etc. (281).
.

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12 Writing System
N o te 2. In the same way as with articles, the spelling of other words may
occasionally reveal assimilation, for example:
shahidtu > shahittu,
' aliafurun rahimun > ahafurur-rahtmun (Koran 2:173, 182,
192, etc.); cf. 48.
W aslah
19. Classical Arabic does not allow a double consonant at the begin-
ning of a word and avoids the possibility by introducing an auxiliary vowel
that precedes an initial double consonant. The orthography requires that
an introduce a word that would otherwise begin with a double conso-
nant. In non-classical Arabic, on which the orthography is based, the aux-
iliary vowel bec.ame an essential component of the word: H ism, classical
(
i)sm un 'name', ibn, classical (
i)bnun 'son', insaraf, classical
(,{)nsarafa 'turn away', mkhrui, classical ( u)khrui 'go away!'. In
such cases, in c.lassical Arabic context, the > is not pronounced. The that
is written is tlierefore merely a silent sign augmented by : ( waslah
or silah): wa- smuhu 'and his name', fa- 'nsarafa 'then
he t.urned away', yd bm oh my son'; at the beginning of a phrase,
however: mkhruj.
N o te 1. The ~ sign derives from , that is, silah

connection
.
N o te 2. In Arabic grammatical terminology, alif that takes waslah is called

]alif al-wasl.
N o te 3. In foreign words, initial double consonants are likewise eliminated;

nevertheless, the preceding auxiliary vowel becomes an essential component
of the word an is !intained within a phrase iqlvmun *region<
Greek kX pa, <
Plato
, ,ustulun
fleet< oroXoq.
20. Within a phrase, if a vowel precedes a word that begins with a double
consonant, no auxiliary vowel is needed: hadha
bnuhu 'Tliis is his
son
, qala 'khruj
He said, go away!
. If a consonant precedes,
lrowever, an auxiliary vowel i, w, (54) that produces another syllable
is attached to tlie final consonant of the preceding word: qad-i
'nsarafa 'He has gone away', ra>aw-u '1-baba
They saw the door'
min-i 'bnihi 'from his son'.
>
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Writing System 13
Note 1. how the article precedes alif al-wasl: ;)

)--
sm u
the
name
, (
a)l-i-
shtirg)u 'the act of buying
.
N ote 2. If tanwin (-WI, -in, -an 11: 12) precedes alif al-wasl within
a phrase, there is no way to represent the auxiliary vowel in writing. Yet,
the auxiliary vowel is pronounced:
rajulun-i
bnatuhu '-
mtlatun
a man whose daughter is beautiful', Muhammadun-i
'l-Qurashifi.
21. In the following cases,! is alif al-wasl:
a) In the words '>( i)sm m 'name', ( i)bm n 'son', (

i)bnatun
'daughter',( )stun 'buttocks', { ,tfmrwun 'man',
(>i)mra
atun 'woman', { n)thnani, fern. { i)thnatdni 'two'.
b) In the. article >( a)l- (142b).

c) In the imperative of the basic verbal stem (220b).
d) In the perfect, imperative, and verbal noun of the derived verbal

stems VII '{ i)nfacala, VIII ) j)/ a'a/a, IX >( i)falia,
X (
{)stafala, XI (
i)falla, XII >( )/'awala, XIII
) i)fawwala, Xv { i)fanlala, XV ( )fa n la , and t.he
verbal stems III( i) f anlala, IV ) (/alalia of quadriliteral
root verbs (169 ff.).
22. In a few fixed constructions, alif al-wasl is not written:
a) In the construction consisting of t.he particles li- and la- and the article:
lir-rajuli (not (, lal-majdu (not ). If in such
cases the following noun begins in , the of the article is not written:
li-llaylati (not (, li-llahi 'for God' (not ) .
b) In ) i)bnun 'son' and (
i)bnatun 'daughter' in apposition in
genealogical phrases, Maliku bnu Sa'di bni Tha'-
labata. If , are at the beginning of a line, however, they are
written with 1.
c) In the word ' Hsrnun in tile formula f H bi-smi

1-la.hi 'in the
name of God'.

- .k ita b o su n n a t.co m
Writing System
Words Joined in Writing
23. The particles and prepositions bi-, -, sa-, fa- , ka-,

- -, wa-, which consist of single letters, are joined to tlie words that
folloW: i-&ah din'in a country', 'by God!', sa-yaii
he will com e , li yafraha let ltim be liappy , wa- swadda and
became black'. With the enclitic particle ma, the spelling varies betwren
unjoined and joined forms: ba
da ma or ba'da-ma,
'tala
ma or tala-ma. Tlie elements must be written as one word when ma
is shortened to ma (285b): /fj fi-ma 'in what?', ' ala-ma 'on what?'
( = + ).
Abbreviations
24. Abbreviations are generally idiosyncratic. Only a few formulaic ex-

pressions are abbreviated, and they are marked as such with over the
abbreviation:
= alayhi '5-salam() 'Upon him be peace!'
' = h p s a l l a
l-llahu'alayhi wa-sallam(a) 'God bless
him and grant, him salvation' (eulogy for the Prophet Muhammad).
= radiya
1-lahu anku 'May God be pleased witlj him'
(eulogy for the cOmpanions of the Prophet).
= rahimahu
1-lahu 'May God have mercy upon him'
(eulogy for the dead).
=
ila
akhiriln 'To its end', i.e.i 'etc'.
7 Id hdhuna 'To liere', i.e., 'tlie citation goes this far

.
= liaddalhani 'He reported to me'.

= haddathana 'He reported to US',
bl =
aklibaTana 'He transmitted t.o US'.
>
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Writing System 15
Numerals
25. The numbers, which the Arabs borrowed from India, are written as
follows:
. or
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
For example: 379, 1320.
N ote 1. Notice that the numerals are written from left to riglit.
The letters of the alphabet can also be used to represent numbers (see p. 4,
table of the Arabic writing system): 109 11, 45, .
^ -
Phonology
Phonemes
26.
a) Vowels: sonant short a u

long a X u
consonantal
b) Consonants: Non-emphatic Em phatic

Labial f b m
Apical t A th Ah t A (z)
Sibilant s z sh sd
Liquid r l n
Dorsal k Q D kk qk
Pharyngeal .ft
Laryngeal .ft
N o te 1. All consonants, including the semi-vowels w, can be geminated:

7iaa a 'come down' : nazzala 'send down', qawamun
uprightness: qaw-
wamun
established
.
Pronunciation
27. Th e Arab gram marians described the phonemes o f classical Arabic
according to place and manner o f articulation. The earliest classification is
that o f al-Khalll (d. 786/7). Sfbawayh (d. 793) and later grammarians pro-
vided an array o f elaborate systems in which they classified the plionemes
variously according to manner o f articulation. The following description of
articulation is based on Classical Arabic as it is spoken today in the Arab
world.
N o te 1. The Arab grammariansconception of phonetics was influenced by

the written form. They called the vowels (a, i, w), which are represented
by diacritical marks (5), harakatun (sing. harakatun,

movement
). The othe phonemes, represente by letters, including a, >
f, y, , ID, were hurufun (sing. harfun 'edge, letter').

- . k ita b o su n . a t. c o m
Pronunciation 17
N o te 2. The orthography distinguishes two phonemes and d (?)

that have merged in modern Arabic dialects. Originally, the articulation of
was probably lateral. The present-day pronunciation of - is in
Bedouin speech, and d in urban speech. This variation is secondarily used
to distinguish from , as is associated with the sound d, and J>, with
o r ? (31.1). Therefore, it is customary to transliterate , and , ?. In
this chapter on phonology, is rendered by d; elsewhere in the grammar, it
is romanized as ?.
Vowels
28. a) The short vowels a, i, u are sonant. They never occur at the begin-
ning of a syllable (51). y and w are consonantal vowels. They can appear
at the beginning and the end of a syllable. Sonant and consonantal vowels
may combine homogeneously or heterogeneously: homogeneous contact iy
= i,uw = , heterogeneous contact ay, aw. The long vowel is ambiguous
in that it can be regarded as a double sonant or as a sonant-consonantal
combination: nama sl^p' with a = a-a (morpheme type fa'ala), khalun
'uncle' with a = a 4- consonant (morpheme type fa'lun).
b) T he consonantal nature o y and w is evident in pronunciation only

at the beginning of a syllable. At the end of a syllable, / and w are so-
nantized by the preceding sonant, so that homogeneous combinations are
pronounced as long vowels a, I, u, heterogeneous combinations, as diph-
thongs [ai], [auj.
N ote 1. The sound sequences iyy (iy) and uww (uw) are written _
iyy , uww (17). A distinction between transliterations iyy and iy, uww
and liw should be made for morphological reasons:
aduwun
enemy
(morpheme pattern fa'ulun), quwwadun
leaders(pi.) (morpheme
pattern Û'.alun).
N ote 2. In the passive of verbal stems II, III, V, and VI, the orthography
distinguishes for morphological reasons between uw and uww in II-WJ verbs:
quwima (fwila), quwwima ifu"ila).
,
-.kitabosunnat.com
18 Phonology
29. The vowels exhibit a number of variants conditioned by contact. Con-

tact with empha.tic consonants usually results in back (velarized) variants.
Contact with non-emphatic apicals, sibilants, and liquids commonly causes
palatalization. The tense articulation of the pharyngeals is likewise trans-
ferred to following vowels. Precise rules for the distribution of conditioned
variants do not (xist for classical Arabic.
N ote 1. Arab grammarians called the palatalized articulation imalah

and the velarized articulation, tafkhtm.
N ote 2. The word allahfu)
Godis pronounced with distinct tafkhtm:
[>aJah). The velarized articulation does not occur if i precedes the 11: bi-
llah(i) fbillah).
Consonants
30. Non-emphatic consonants:
Labial: & and m are bilabial. / is labio-dental.
N ote 1. / re.places p in foreign words and personal names: aflatunu <

nXaruju (19.3), faradisu
paradise(plural) < Greek irapdSetaog.
Apical: and d are alveolar stops. is aspirated, 4 and dh are

interdental spirants.
N ote 2. Speakers of dialects lacking and I occasionally substitute s for

4 z for dh, and z for 31) a).
Sibilants: 5 is voiceless: z is voiced sh is voiceless.
Liquid: is a voiced dental vibrant ('r' flapped at the tip of the tongue);
( is lateral; n is nasal.
N ote 3. Before , n is usually assimilated partially [mj: janbun [jambun)

sid e
.
Dorsal: k and g are palatal stops, kh and gh are velar spirants, k and
kh are voiceless; g and gh are voiced.
.
-.kitabosun nat.c m
Pronunciation 19
N ote 4. The original pronunciation of g is preserved in Lower Egypt

(Cairo). In other dialects, g is pronounced as a pre-palatal affricate [j],
as a voiced sibilant [zh] (voiced correspondent of sh). or as a palatal semi-
vowel [y]. The description of g by Arab grammarians indicates that they had
in mind a )pronunciation. Therefore, it is common to pronounce classical
Arabic as ]and transliterate it also as j.
Pharyngeals: and h are produced by tightening the glottis while

raising the larynx against the pharynx. is a voiced, h an unvoiced, spirant.
N ote 5. Since there is not any oral constriction in the articulation of h,

h, these sounds have an affinity to a. One perceives an a after and h,
which is only an attendant feature of their articulation; frequently, however,
a after , h, h acquires the status of a phoneme: shacarun occura alongside
shasrun
hair(38).
Laryngeal: > (hamzah) is a glottal stop. In Arabic it is a consonantal

phoneme and appears not only before vowels but also after vowels at syllable
end: yozmuru 'he ordered', ra.sun 'head', h is a laryngeal spirant, which,
like >, can occur at syllable end: fahmun 'understanding'.
31. a) The emphatic consonants, in contrast to their non-emphatic coun-

terparts, have an additional feature of articulation: velarization. Velar-
ization is the raising of the back portion of the tongue against the velum
to further constrict the space. The raising of the back of the tongue in-
volves the larynx and the base of the tongue, and the result is a slightly
constricted articulation. Velarization in the production of t, d, s shifts
the apical constriction back from the alveolar ridge toward the base of the
tongue. According to rules of pronunciation for Koran reciters, d is an
emphatic interdental spirant (27.2).
N ote 1. Speakers of dialects that have no interdental spirant substitute z

(the emphatic counterpart of z) for d (30.2). It is common, therefore, to
transliterate the letter in classical Arabic with z.
N ote 2. In contrast to , emphatic t is not aspirated.
t .
20 Phonology
b) is a voicelass postvelar, or uvular, stop, the emphatic cotinterpart

of k and 5. Commonly described as velarization, the palatodorsal articu-
lation of k, g moves back, as the back of the tongue is raised towards the
uvula.
N ote 3. In Bedouin dialects, q is pronounced as a voiced [gj. This pronun-

ciation was recognized by the Arab grammarians.
Stress
32. Nothing is known about stress in classical Arabic at the time of its
codification by tire Arab grammarians. Egyptian Koran readers determine
the placement of word stress according to the followiirg rules:
a) The final syllable never carries, the word stress.
b) The main word stress never falls back beyond the antepenultimate
syllable.
c) Tire penultimate syllable is stressed, if it is closed (51): qatala :

qatalta, raqabatrm raqabati, raqabatai.
d) In the constrrrct state (146), the final syllable counts as part of the
following word: talabatun :
l-
{lmi.
e) One-syllable proclitic particles are not stressed: fa-masha, >al-

abu,
bi-
dbi, )al-ladhi (281).
In some re.gions, differeirt stress patterrrs are used, irr wlrich the
preantepenultimate syllable may receive stress: mdmlakatun vs. mamldka-
tun, qatalaku vs. qatalaUu.
Comljinatory and Historical Phonology
Vowels
33. When the sequence iw and uy occurs, the similarity of i and y, u and
UI usually produces a levelling of the heterogeneous vowels.
< >
v.kitabsunnat.com
Combinatory and Historical Phonology 21
a) iw regularly becomes iy (?), when w ends a syllable: iqa'un <

<( root w-q-<), mizanun < miwzanun (root w-z-n), mitatun <
*miwtatun (root m-u,- ). iw also becomes iy: aliyun < *'aliwun (root
N ote 1. iw becomes iy in verbal nouns and plural morphemes of the pattern

fvdlun, even though w would be at the beginning of a syllable: qiyamun

standing(root q-w-m), thivabun
garment
, plural of thawbun. In other
cases, w is maintained: qiwdmun 'foundation' (248.4). In morphemes of
the pattern iw > iy is optional: thiwaratun, thiyaratun, plural
of thawrun
bu ll
.
b) uy becomes iy (i), or, infrequently, uw () : bidun < *buydun (root

b-y-d), stem talaqqi- < talaqquy- (34), aydin, stem >aydi- < *
ayduy-
plural of yadun 'hand' (root y-d-y). also becomes iy: marmiyun <
*marmuyun (root r-m-y), huwiyun < *huwuyun (root h-w-y) (34), >uqh-
niyatun < *)ughnuyatun. In verb stem rv of rot>ts, morphologically
distinctive is preserved. Thus, uy must become uw (u): yiiqinu, rriuqinu
< ^ , muuqinun.
N ote 2. uy is maintained, if y is geminated (yy): suyyira, cf. 68 c.

In cases like liyyun, luyyun, i.e., pattern fu'lun of the root l-w-y, either
possibility exists.
N ote 3. Notice , > iy, when the personal pronoun suffix -ya (269
c) is added. In morpheme pattern fwila of 11- roots, morphological is
preserved: zuyila
was separated'.
N ote 4. Infrequently in pre-classical texts, uy > iy in morpheme patterns

fu'ulun and fwaylun of II-J, roots is observed: 'iyunun for
uyunun and
i j a p u n tor s h u n a i i ' h v y a fm 0 hu'yajijuTi.
c) yw and wy as a rule assimilate to yy: ,ayydmun < *,aywamun

(root y-w-m), ahavvun < *ghaywun (root ah-w-v), ubayyun < *,ubaywun,
diminutive of 'father' (root >-b-w). After u, ww replaces yy: quwwat-
un 'power' (root q-w-y).

till losunnat.com
22 Phonology
N ote 5. Sometimes, yw is maintained for morphological reasons:

aywamu
= pattern afalu of root ,- judaywilun, diminutive of jadwalun.
34. a) Although -a, -I, or - may occur in stem final position in verbs
of Ill-weak roots, in nouns only - and -i may occur in that position (69
a). Accordingly, forms of the patterns tafaul, tafarul, ,af'iil with stem
final i are treated as forms of III-y with uy > iy (33 b): taramt- = tajd'ul
pattern of the root, r-m-y. In the same way, nominal (88) is formed
with y as the third radical: 'usiyun = fu'ulun of the root i-s-w/y. In verbal
fwiilun, as well as/a.(dun and mafiulun, however, tlrere is variation between
III-W and III-y (256 b; 257.1).
b) Sonant suffixes are contracted into stem-final -a, -i, -u. Suffixed so-
nants , i, u merg : into 5: yalqa = *yalqa-a (yafcala) or *yalqa-u (yafalu),
'* =
a'la-u, -i, -a {,afialu, ajkali, ,a}1ala) Only i, w are contracted
into stem-final -u; suffixed tt, however, is preserved after -i, - : talaqqi
= talaqqk, -1 (tftfa"ulu, taQub, talaqqiya (tajaula)' y a lu = yad'-u-u
(yafulu), yad'uwa (yafula), cf. 252.
N ote 1. Aft.er uww (fiw) and iyy (iy), contraction does not occur: yamani
= *yamani-u, -i (116.1), but yamaniyyu, yamaniyyi.
35. a) The following contractions and vowel combinations occur wlien

suffixes consisting of long vowels are attached to stems ending in vowels:
> * larmi-ina > tarmina, *qadi-ina > qadina
14 > u . *yarmi-una > yarmuna, *qddi-una > qaduna
- > V. tad'u-ina, > ta lm a
U-U > u: .ija liL im a ) ijad'U i
0,4 > ay: *talqd-ina > talqayna,
ada-fna >
a'layna
a-u > aw: rama-ii > ramaw, *,a
-la-una > ,adawna
a-a > ayd: ram a-a> ramaya, fata-am > Jatayani
> awd: .d a'a -a ) da' a i , * asa-ani > 'asauiani.
The distribution of aya/awa is determined by the root consonant: ramaya

(root r-m-y) and (1.(1awd (root d-
-w 250).
N ote 1. In nouns, sometimes both ayd and awd are possible: ,

qanayatun, plurals of qanatun (stem qand-) 'cane'.

- . k<bosunnat.cm
b) If a is suffixed to a noun ending in -a (10; 64 b), 5-0 always

becomes aya. i k r a i i > AhikroAiatuu. hubla-am > hublayam. 11 I k
noun ends in
, -d
un (64 c), - always becomes awa: *sahra-ani
> sahrawani (sahrcvu) 'desert', *khadra-atun > khadrawatun (khadra
u)
'herbs', *hirba-ani > hirbawani (hirba'un) 'chameleon'.
Note 2. In nouns of Ill-weak roots with stem-final -a>u (69 b), > is re-
tained before the ending: kisd'-ani (kisa
UTi)
garment
. An exception is
samawatun, plural of samd
un
heaven
.
Note 3. In the formation of the nisbah adjective (117), a-iyy regularly

becomes awiyy, but also in many cases auiiyy.
c) ) is inserted to prevent contraction of the sequence a-i in stem mor-

phemes: qanlun = fd
ilun (stem qdl-) (247 a), fadd'ilu = fa'a'ilu (Jadilatun)
(98). > also prevents contraction in -d'u, -a'un, inflect.ed variants of -
(64c).
36. a) Consonantal vowels w and as a rule do not fall between sonants.

This is why, for example, there is no morpheme pattern fulul formed from
Ill-weak roots and, for the most part, II-W. On this, cf. 60.
Note 1. II-J, roots do have a/w'wlwn pattern: buyudun, plural of bayudun

(egg-)laying'. Exceptionally, there is a fwulun pattern of root II-w:
su m km, plural of siwakun
tooth cleaner
. Usually, the pattern fwlun
(a contraction of WWW > w) occurs instead: sukun.
Note 2. j, or w between sonants in 11-weak roots is sometime avoided by

forms with yy. bayyutun
stale(otherwise fa'ulun, root -- ( sayyidun

master(otherwise fa'ilun, fa'ilun, root s-w-d).
b) w and , if they precede long vowels, can, liowever, fall between

sonants: qawamun, qiwamun (33.1), tawilun, âwWwww, huwulun. In
forms based on II-w roots, ww, wW may be replaced by Jw, Jw: nawumun or
na
utnun (root w-w-m), khuwulatun or khu
ulatun (root kh-w-l), 'annmqun
OT ' d T C u q u n ( to o t T v tq V
.
ww.kitabosunnat.com
24 Phonology
N o te 3. There are occasional variants of 1-111 roots which appear with :

,irthun *inheritancefrom wartha
inherit
.
N o te 4. There are some 11-weak roots that consistently have fixed conso-
nantal 111 and y: (iwajun,
awajun,
acwaju (245.3).
37. a) In the fu
ulun patt.ern of III-j, roots, Yike'hmuuyun > huwiyun (33
b; 34 a), the u of the first syllable can be assimilated to the following iy:
utiyun, ,itiyun 'coming', usiyun,
istyun *sticks', qusiyun, qislyun *bows
(88).
b) In the words (H)mru'un *man' and (i)bnumun = (>i)6 m *son', the

stem vowel assimilat.es to the inflectional ending: (i)m rtu n , (,{)mrvin,
{>i)mra,an, and (i)mra
atun *woman') i)bnumun, (,i)bnimin, (>)bnam-
an.
N o te 1. Alternation of the stem vowel in harmony with inflectional ending

was originally regular in several two-radical words (70 b): sanatun
year
,
plural suniina, simna; kuratun *ball
, plural kuruna, kirina. In classical
Arabic, the alternation was discontinued: sinuna, sinina, kuruna, kurina.
Vowel Epenthesis
38. frequently after r, l and , gh, h, h, non-morphologically condi-

tioned sonants fire generated. These extra vowels are usually a, less often
i: *talbun > talabun *desire', tardun or taradun *hunting', halkatun, ha-
lakatun *ruin', raahbatun, raahabatun *wish', *sarqun > saraqun, sariqun
*theft', nahrun, naharun *river', sha'run, sha<arun *hair', datfun, dwafun
*weakness
.
Consonants
39. Classical Arabic lias preserved almost unchanged the proto-Semitic

inventory of consonantal phonemes. Only the sibilants have undergone
simplification. Arabic sh is the successor of prot.o-Semitic *i. In Arabic, s
represents the coalescence of proto-Semitic *s and *sh.

-.kitabosun nat.c m
Root consonants (radicals) exhibit stability in all morphological vari-

ations. No assimilation occurs between root Consonant'S in contact. Any
assimilation that takes place is caused by consonants that are elements of
inflectional morphology (44 ff.).
Dissimilation o f > (h a m za h )
40. > is dropped at the end of a syllable, if the syllable also begins with
>:>< < , < < , > >Hy: a'thara > athara, ,wminu > im in u,
vmanun > ,tmanun, *'wfaqun > 0 faqun.
Note 1. In cases like *(

iytamara > itamara (21 d), necessarily
dissimilates only at the beginning of a phrase. Within a phrase, this form is
pronounced t i a r a (spelled ^ a-> amara). See 237.1.
41. a) If two syllables beginning with > follow one another, the second is
usually dissimilated: a
immatun > ayimmatun (root -m i ), *y'a.t
wn >
*jaHyun > jaHn 'coming'. In *ri'&
vn > riya
un 'hypocrisy' and *dha'a
ibu
> ia w a
ibu 'forelocks', the second has to be preserved.
Note 1. As a rule, dissimilation does not occur in verbs I-> after the prefix

U'ammilu
I hope', >' <I am familiar with'. There are, however,
forms with w root variants: ,uwamiru,
Uamiru 'I seek advice', 'uwasi,
'U'dsi'1 share
.
Note 2. In bum' &) > burwu (90.3), the syllable is dropped following
dissimilation of . Cf. 49 d.
b) If the first of two consecutive syllables beginning with ends in a

consonant, the second > may be dropped as the vowel of the first syllable
is lengthened: abdrun or abarun, plural of bvrun 'well',
aratnun or
'ardrnun, plural of ri
Tnun 'white gazelle', ,ab
urun or
aburun, plural of
bvrun. The same process takes place where secondary < wu (36 b):
an'uqun < anwuqun or
anuqun, plural of naqatun 'shecamel'.
Note 3. The plural of rcvyun is

ara
un (< .
ora.w n).

26 Phonology
N o te 4. The merger of roots I-and II-in the plural morpheme pattern

afalun occasionally produces new formations: 'adabun
custom
, a back-
formation from
adabun, plural of da=bun
habit
.
c) If the particle > (335 a) precedes a word beginning witl >, both >'s
are retained: 'a-igdkhulu 'shall I come in?' The initial glottal stop and vowel
of the article {'a)l- (142 b) are not elided after )a:
a-'a -'a&du 'the slave?'.
Other words beginning with double consonants (21) use the contextual
form after >a: ig-shtakd 'did he complain?'.
Dropping of) (h am za h )
42. Some I-> verbs lose in the imperative: kul 'eat!' (root )-&- ), likewise
khudh 'take!', mur 'order!' (238). As a change that originates in a ra
> ,ara, the imperfect forms of raid (he saw' and verb stem IV of tliis root
lose the root > in all inflectional categories:
ara, Zara, yard, etc. and ara,
>araj, a, 'uri, ):, yurd, etc. (239 b).
43. In the formation of nouns from III-> roots, there often occur forms
based on variants of Ill-weak roots (67 a). In non-classical texts. III-
weak roots very often replace III-' roots, for example: (
i)ttaka (imperfect
yattaki) instead of (>f) ufcu"a (imperfect; yattakvu) 'lean on' (root w-k-i).
N ote 1. nabiyun
prophet
, which etymologically belongs to the root n-b-',
is borrower! from Aramaic nbtyia). Forms like nabvuri] plural nuba
du are
hyper-classicisms.
Assimilation
44. The z of tlie article (

a)Z- (142 b) is assimilated completely to conso-
nants articulated witli the forward part of the tongue: , d, th, dh, r, n, l,
s, z, sh, s, d., t, ) \ 'al-taqwa)
dt-taquua \ .
aTsaydu > as-sajd,u
'game', ,al-dabyu > a ija b y u 'antelope'. Cf. above. Writing System, 18.
N ote 1. The Arab grammarians called these consonants

al-huruf ash-shamsiyyah 'sun letters' after >( a)^-âmsu 'sun'.
The rest of the letters, which are not assimilated to the z, are called
al-huruf al-qamariyyah moon letters' after (a) Z f-
m ar
m oon
.

.kitibusunualtom
45. The w of the particles .in, 'an, min, .an and of the verbal stems
(>i)nâ'ala and (. )ânlaia is assimilated to following m. n of 'in, >an also
is assimilated to followitrg l:
nm > mm: in-ma >

imma, min-ma > mimma, m n-m.an > mimman,
an-m > 'amma, 'an-man > 'amman, (Vjnmahaqa > (>i)mmaâ a 'be
annihilated', (
.ra n m a sa > (.?').ammasa 'grow dnmb'.
n l)
. n u - la > 'ittd, '1 -1(1 > 'alia.
46. Infixed - - of verbal stem VIII causes assimilation after d, th, dh, 2 , s,
d, t, d as follows:
it > lid'. d- -aa > (>i)dda<a 'claim '

ijvt > thth or it; Uyt-a?a,ra> V i M i t t f a
o r r a r ely (>i) a'ara 'get r e v e n g e '
| t> I I OT dd-. | - . t-akara > fn^dhlakara

or ('{)ddakara 'r e m e m b e r '
2 < ^ : aâm a > (>i)2 d a
a m a 'c r o w d - -
2'
s t ) st. S-
-aâ&a > (>i)s aâ
a 'a ccom p an y'
At > dt o r d d / tt . d-t-tt a > t i dtarra, lorce?

d-t-ataftt < viyidala'a
or (>i('n uu 'be proficient
t t > tt'. alum > (>J) a am 'become aware- - .*'
it) dd or tt. - t-alamo, > tn ddalama
or infrequently (>f) a ama 'suffer injustice '
Note 1. Orthographical convention prescribe that the assimilated forms

be written: < , , , , ,
, 1 . Cf. also ) . (.
ttaba
a < * - -a&a'a
follow
The prefix of the preclassical V and VI verbal stems was - instead .47
of a-. This prefix was assimilated to following /, : ,dh, d, 2, 5, sh, s
zayyana > (>f)22 aj,j,ana 'adorn oneself', * - aj,j/ara > (>f) aj,j,ar-a 'see- *
ya-t-saddaqu > yassaddaqu 'he gives alms', *ya-t-daththaru ,'an evil omen
vaddaththaru 'he covers himself > '.
Note 1. Forms with .- prefix instead of fa- are recognizable as such only
by their spelling, which reveals the assimilation: , , .

ww,
'.ktabosuat.com
28 Phonology
48. Perfect suffixes beginning in (- a, -ti, - w, -turn, -tunna, -tuma) can

assimilate to stem-final d, , i , d, t, d: labith-tu > labittu 'I lingered',
,arad-ta > 'aratta \'0 desned1 hasat-tirm > basattum spread out'.
The unassimilated forms are always written: 18.2) , ) .
Syllable Ellipsis
49. If two identical or similar consonants follow one another separated only
by a sonant, the sound sequence cvcv or cvcv tends to be simplified,
as long as no morphological ambiguity results.
a) In the prefix-conjugation, ta-ta- tends to be reduced to a- in stems

V, VI, and in stem II of quadriliteral verbs: tata'allamu or a.allamu

you/she learn/s', tatanawamu or tanawamu
you/she go/es to sleep'.
b) .- may be reduced to - in stem X of 11-weak verbs: (>(.50

or (
i)s. a 'to be able', (i)statala or (i)stala 'to become long'.
c) -na- preceding the personal pronoun suffixes -71*1 -na (268) may be
elided: ,inna-m or inni, Hnna-na or ,inna,
ama-m/-nd or anna, 'ami)
tadribui-TO or tadribum, tadri,bma-na or tadribma,. In t \e same way, -ni
in the dual is elided: tadribdni-m or tadribdm.
N ote 1. The shortening of -nama to -na is evident in the pair bayna-ma

or baynd
while
.
d) Aft.er the definite article (>a)l- in the words

ilahun 'god', >ula'i
'these', and
unasun 'people', > is dropped and the following vowel is also
elided: >al-)Udhu 'the god' > ,allahu 'God', al-'ilatu > 'alldtu 'Allat'
(proper name of a goddess), ,al-
ula
i > alla
i 'those who', al-
unasu >
,an-nasu 'people', from wlrich the indefinite nasun 'people' developed as an
independent word.
e) The prepositions 'ala 'on' and min 'from' can be shortened to (a-
and mi- when they precede the unassimilated form of the article () -:
min-a
l-baladi or mil-baladi 'from the country', ala
l-
ard,i or
al-'ardi 'on
the earth'. The shortened forms occur only in poetry or in non-classical
texts.

N ote 2. The short form (>(5 ( yastahi) alongside (H)stahya (/-

tahyi)
be ashamed(root h-yy, h-y-y) developed through dissimilation, as
the j, is dropped in forms like (
i)stahyaytu > (i)stahaytu, yastahyi >
,yastahi;.
50. Geminated root consonants, like tliose that appear in Il-geminate (2

)= roots and in verbal stems IX, XI, are usually preserved as geminates,
even when the morpheme pattern requires another arrangement of the root
consonants. In morphemes that call for a CVCV arrangement, the sonant
that is expected to fall between both identical consonants is absent if a
vowel appears before c v c v : radda 'return' = fa
ala pattern of root r-dd,
massa 'touch' = fa'ila of root m-ss, dallun 'erring' = fd
ilun of root drll.
If, however, a consonant precedes, c v c v is rearranged as v c c v , that
is, the sonant that is expected precedes the geminate: ,aqallu 'fewer' =
'afalu of root q-ll, muhibbun 'loving' > mufilun of root h-bb, yaruddu
'he returns' > yafulu of root r-dd. Only in morpheme patterns fa
alun,
fralun, fwalun, and fu
ulun is the geminate group split up for the sake of
morphological precision: sababun 'cause', sihakun 'coins', durarun 'pearls',
<ununun 'reins'.
Note 1. Long vowels always break up geminates: (>i)hmirarun, verbal-

noun of (
i)hmarrra
redden
, takhfifun
lightening= tafilun of root
kh-ff, mururun 'passing' = fu
vlun of root m-rr.
Note 2. In morphemes that require the sequence (V) c v c , geminates as

a rule cannot be preserved: radadtu 'I returned= fa
altu of root r-dd,
()hmarartu
I reddened' (,t)hmarra (Cf., however, 52.2). If (V)CVC
appears at the end of a word, the geminate can be preserved with an auxiliary
vowel: yardud or yaruddi, yarudda, yaruddu
may he return(53).
Syllable structure
51. The old Arabic syllable consists of three elements: an explosive, a

vocalic nucleus, and an implosive element. In the explosive element, there
is always a consonantal phoneme, or in certain cases, a long, or doubled,
consonant. Every syllable contains a nucleus that is always represented by
a sonant {a,i,u). The implosive element is realized by a consonant or is not
.
30 Phonology
articulated. (Consonantal clusters cannot appear in any syllable element. A

syllable cannot begin with a sonant. Accordingly, there are only two types
of syllables:
a) open syllable: c v
b) closed syllable: CVC and CV
N o te 1. After closed vocalic syllables, doubled consonants can be realized

as long consonants in explosive syllable elements: da\llun, ((/ ma|rra,
da\bba,\tun, du\way\bba\tun. In poetry, where long consonants interfere
with the rhythm, doubled consonants are reduced: da\llun > a|h n.
N o te 2. After sonants, doubled consonants behave like geminates. The

first part is classified as the implosive, and the second part as the explosive
element of the syllable: naz\za\la, qaw\wa,\mun.
Shortening of Syllables
52. If a syllable-closing consonant comes in contact with a closed vocalic

syllable, the syllable as a rule is shortened tlirough elision of the conso-
i u t \\ M.'eV lAemeuV. CaC > CaC, CtC > etc, CuC > CuC, CttijC >
CttC'. .'ttqdm,-tu 'aqamtu, s tn > s in , qul > q u l/ la q s- tu ) tastu.
Shortening also occurs when the indefinite ending -n (141) is affixed to
stems ewYm, vn -t, -a-. tttlaqqt-n > talttqqiu, qa^t-n > qadtn, *Jata-n. >
(atau, *mulqa-n > mulqan.
N o te 1. A similar kind of shortening takes place in

ayn > >in
not
(322).
N o te 2. c v c c > C V C also occasionally affects non-vocalic consonants:

m u u d h u > TOUTtdh, > m u d h 'sm ee' qat m fa -qa t
o n ly 1.
Such shortening does occur rarely in the classical language in the perfect of
Il-geminate verbs: d all-tu > daltu or diltu, ..5- < a( a.5 w.
Auxiliary Vowels
53. If C V C C cannot be shorteired, the syllable structure after ;condi-

tions a sonant as an auxiliary vowel. This vowel can, however, occur only
at the end of a wortl: mass > massi, massa 'touch!', firr > firri, ^rra
flee!
.

v.ktabosunnat.com
yarudd > y a r u d d i/ a / u 'may he return'. The auxiliary vowel is usually i,

infrequently 0. It can also be u if the preceding syllable, contains w.
N ote 1. If there is a doubled consonant at the end of a word, either an

auxiliary vowel appears or the geminate is broken up: * y a ru d d > ya ru ddi,
yarudda, or y a rd u d (50.2).
N ote 2. Under certain circumstances, an auxiliary vowel can also appear

after a closed vocalic syllable, if shortening needs to be avoided: * fa dl
> fa
a li (225.1), *-un, *-in, *-an, .-ajqt > -una, -ina, -ani, -ayni
(plural and dual endings), *h a yh at > hayhati, hayhata, ?
not!
,
'how wrong!
.
N ote 3. Lengthened auxiliary vowels also appear at the end of interjections'

* iff
ugh, phooey' > >' ûffa, if f u or iffi, uffa, written or I,
(incorrectly with tanwin, cf. also 7.4).
54. a) Within a phrase, an auxiliary vowel must appear before a word

beginning in cc, when the preceding word ends in C; cf. 19 ff. The
auxiliary is usually i. After hum, turn, kum and the plural ending -aw,
it is u. After -nf (1st person singular suffix), it is a. It is also a
after the preposition m in , but only when the article follows (21 b): qad-i
nsarafa 'he has departed', Hftah-i

1-baba 'open the door!', ,a n tu m -u r-
rijalu 'you are the men', da'a.w-u

n - n i s a i 'they called the women', daraba-
niy-a
l-w aladu 'the boy hit me', m in - a 'l-bayti 'from the house', but m in -i
,m ra
a tih i 'from his wife'.
N ote 1. After 111!

or
, the auxiliary vowel is i
'im ru 'u n aw-1 ,m r a i t u n

man or woman'.
N ote 2. Long vowels are shortened before cc, since extra-long syllables
are not permitted: la qii !l-<aduwa > la qu
l-'aduw a
they met the enem y
,
,afcu l-'A bbasi
l- 'A b b < isi> ,abu the father of al-'Abbas. The orthography
does not indicate the shortening. The forms are written morphemically
> (.
N ote 3. An auxiliary vowel appears before the article (,a)1-, even when
another auxiliary vowel comes after the article: min-a
l-i-htijaji 'from the
argumentation'.

-.kitabosunnat.com
32 Phonology
b) If words beginning in cc occur at the beginning of a phrase, must

precede the auxiliary vowel. The quality of auxiliary vowel is determined
by the vowel of the following syllable. It is I before i and a, and w before
in the following syllable: (
{)sta'mala 'lie used', (>i)drib
hit!
, (i)ftah
'open!', (>u)stwmila 'it was used', (u)ktub 'write!'. The words listed in
21a always have . The article is always pronounced >nl- at tlie beginning
of a phrase.
N o te 1. The auxiliary vowel at the beginning of a word is transliterated

vowel plus between ( ): (>)!-.
Pausal Forms
55. Before a pause in speech, it is normal to decrease tlie sound of the final
word. Pausal forms develop as the voice and articulation subside, and the
final sound segment or two fade into silence. Sonants are completely silent
in pause. Long vowels sound short, and sometimes the reduced expiratory
effort produces an -like sound: -a (i.e., sounds in pause like) -ah, -i
-ih. The noun endings -un, in, -an (11 f.) lose final -n or are completely
deleted. Geminates are reduced: firr (53) fir.
56. In poetry, rhyming words have the following pausal forms:
a) Words with final rhyming consonants are written with sukun (6).
As such, there may occur words whose contextual forms end in a consonant
anyway: lam yaiam
he did not know
. Similarly, doubled co n so
nants at the end of words are simplified: firr (53) +
fir. There can also
be pausal forms with rhyming consonants whose contextual forms end in
sonants (a,i,u) or the morphemes -un, -in, -un: ya
lamu 'he knows+
ya'lam, mut
amnn 'fed' + mut
am. Sometimes words whose stems
end in - also have pausal forms ending in consonants: yurcri 'he observes
yurar. Pausal forms of the feminine ending -ah (57 e) can occur
rhyming with -ah. Tlie third-person singular suffixes -hu, -hi (-hu, hi) are
read -h in pause.
N o te 1. Pausal forms in which the accusative ending -an is completely

dropped occur rarely as rhyming forms.
. .
ww'.kitab0 suat.com
Note 2. <) )!-'A s (a proper name) is a pausal form whose stem-final

-has been dropped. Its contextual form is (>) - ' disobedient
.
b) In words with final rhyming vowels, all vowels that rhyme are consid-
ered long. The length of a is normally indicated in writing by 1, regardless
of the underlying contextual form, d a m m a h (5) indicates u, and or
(7.2) is written only for morphemic u. When the rhyme is I, either ka srah
(5) or can be written. Under most circumstances, when is used, it is
only when it is morphologically justified.
c) In words with final rhyming vowels, the following pausal forms are
possible: 1. Words whose contextual forms end in long vowels show no
pausal variation. 2. Sonants in words whose contextual forms end in so-
nants are counted as long vowels and thus are not dropped. 3. Noun
endings -un, -in, -an drop final -n and are likewise considered long vowels,
-n is also dropped from both a and noun stems (154 ff.)and the rhyming
forms end in -a and , respectively. 4. Words wliose contextual forms end
in consonants can take an auxiliary vowel i to fit rhyme. Thus, for words
in which final vowels rlryme, the following pausal forms are possible:
a-rhyme: 1. Ian y a ia m a , contextual

2. Ian y a ia m a , contextual
3. m ut'am a, contextual
asa, contextual
f-rhyme: 1. Ian ulamj contextual
1 m in - a d-d am i, contextual
3. m in dam i, contextual
or am i, contextual
4. lam â.Iamf, contextual
Wrhyme: 1. Ian y a ia m u , contextual
2. y a 'la m u , contextual
3. m ut'am u, contextu'al
57. There is also a system of pausal forms observed in the reading of

classical Arabic prose texts. The following reductions in word-final position
are occasioned by pause:
.
WWW.kill bosunnat.com
34 Phonology
a) Sonants are dropped: kataba in pause katab, qaina + qam, yarmi

yarm yarmiK), h a l-kita,bu l-kttab.
b) Noun endings -un, -in are dropped: kitabun, kitabin + kitab

maqalatun, m a q a l i , maqdlat (foKttmne pkcaVy
c) - replaces -in in -stems (155): qadin qadi, taramin tarami
d) - replaces final -an: kitaban (accusative) + kitaba,

asan * .
hudan Huda, yanja'an (ensscgdic \\ yanja'i
e) - or replaces the feminine singular endings - ( ), -ati(n),

-tttan. a n d - a tu ( n - -ataljC) hd. ') \. m a d m a tu n , m a d m a tin ,
m a d in a ta n madmah,', salatu n , s a l i , , sa la ta n galdh.
In prose, oi'thography is unaffected by the pausal reading. Every word

in pause is vocalized as in context, to the extent t.hat vowel signs and other
diacritics are used.
N ote 1. When words not in context are cited in transliteration, it is usual

to write, toe pausal io n . Muhammad, madmafK), kltab, katab, sukun
(6), 17) () ), tamarbuta(h) (13), etc. This manner of citation
is used frequently in titles of books, for example: Kitab al-faraj 'd ash-
shiddaUd ratoer toan Kitabu l-fara) ba'da
s h r s H ia t i
N ote 2. In transliteration of genitive constructions in

pausal transcrip-
tion, the first member is also introduced without: case ending, for example
wlto personal name'. abd allah ('Abdallah^, imraal-qays klmraalqaysY,
but Abu Bakr, Abu l-Qasim because of the long vowel (150). The femi-
nine ending appears as the first member of genitive constructions in the form
-: Hibat Allah (proper name), 5 ra rasul Allah (title of a book).
, .
- . k ita b o su . n a t. c . m
M orphology
R oot and M orpheme

58. In a d d i t i o n t o p r e f ix e d , in fix e d , a n d s u f f i x e d m o r p h e m e s , A r a b i c , lik e
th e o t h e r S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s , h a s s t e m p a t t e r n m o r p l i e m e s t h a t d e t e r m i n e
th e d is t r i b u t i o n o f v o w e l s in a w o r d - s t e m . R o o t s , a s a r u le , c o n s i s t o n l y
o f c o n s o n a n t s , c a l l e d r a d ic a ls . V o w e l s a r e u s u a l l y m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y d e te r -
m in ed. M o s t r o o t s c o n s i s t o f t h r e e r a d ic a ls , w lr ile a s m a l l e r n u m b e r h a v e
fou r r a d ic a ls . R o o t s w ith m o r e th a n fo u r r a d ic a ls o c c u r o n ly in fr e q u e n tly
in p u r e ly S e m i t i c w o r d s . I n p r o n o u n s , a fe w p a rt.icles, a n d p r i m a r y n o u n s
(71 f.), v o w e l s a r e n o t m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y d e t e r m in e d , b u t a r e c o m p o n e n t s o f
th e r o o t.
S e p a r a b le p a t t e r n a n d i n f l e c t i o n a l m o r p h e m e s c o m b i n e w i t h s t e m p a t -
tern m o r p h e m e s t o m a k e u p m o r p h o l o g i c a l u n its , o r w o r d s . A m orph o-
lo g ic a lly d e t e r m i n e d w o r d - f o r m , o r m o r p h e m e c a t e g o r y , is r e p r e s e n t e d
p a r a d ig m a t ic a lly , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o d e l d e v e l o p e d b y A r a b g r a m m a r i a n s ,
by th e r o o t f-'-l ('do'): is t h e first, th e secon d , a n d t h e t h ir d , r o o t
c o n so n a n t, o r r a d ic a l. F o u r - r a d ic a l r o o t s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y f-'-k-k
T h us, a w o r d lik e fadUatun 'v irtu e ' b e lo n g s to th e m o r p h e m e c a t e g o r y
failatun. It c o n sis ts o f th e ste m p a tte r n m o r p h e m e fa'll, w h ic h d e t e r m i n e s
th e v o w e l d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e r o o t f-d-l, a n d t h e f e m i n in e e n d i n g - - w i t h
th e n o m i n a t iv e e n d i n g -u a n d s i g n o f i n d e f in i t e n e s s -n. yadmahillu
'he fa d e s a w a y ' is o f t h e m o r p h e m e c a t e g o r y yafakikU u o f th e r o o t d-m-
h-l. T h e m o r p h e m e c a t e g o r y h e r e c o n s is t s o f th e im p e r fe c t p r e fix ya-, th e
im p e r f e c t b a s e -fahiliU, a n d t h e e n d i n g -w.
59. A m o n g t h r e e r a d i c a l r o o t s a r e t h o s e t h a t h a v e c o n s o n a n t a l v o w e l s (w,
y) o r >. T h e y a r e c a l le d w e a k " r o o t s , b e c a u s e y a n d WJ, a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y >,
are r e p la c e d b y v o w e l s o r c o m p l e t e l y d is a p p e a r . A l l o t h e r r o o t s w i t h s t a b l e
r a d ic a ls a r e c a l le d s t r o n g r o o t s . T h u s , t h e r e a r e t l ie f o l l o w i n g d if fe r e n t
ty p e s o f r o o t s :
a) S t r o n g r o o t s w i t h t h r e e o r f o u r d if f e r e n t r a d i c a l s
b) I l - g e m i n a t e r o o t s ( m e d ia e geminatae): T h e s e c o n d a n d t h ir d ra.di-
ca ls a r e i d e n t i c a l a n d f o r m a g e m i n a t e g r o u p . (50; 54)
.
-.kitabosunnat.com
36 M o r p h o lo g y : R o o t a n d M o r p h e m e
c) 1- r o o t s (primae hamzatae): T i l e p h o n o l o g i c a l r u le s in 40-43 ap-
p l y t o th e s e . O t h e r r o o t s w i t h > a s t h e s e c o n d o r t l ii r d r a d i c a l are, w i t h a
fe w e x c e p t io n s , t r e a te d a s " s t r o n g " .
d) 1-w a n d -IJ r o o t s {primae infirmae): S o m e 1-, r o o t m o r p h e m e s a r e
f o r m e d a s t w o - r a d i c a l m o r p h e m e s w i t h o u t t h e first; r a d i c a l (240). The
p l t o n o l o g i c a l r u le s in 33 a p p l y t o t h e r e s t o f t h e s e r o o t s .
e) I I I and -j, r o o t s ( m e d ia e infirmae): In m o s t m o r p l ie m e s , l o n g
v o w e l s r e p l a c e t h e m it l d le ra.dical.
f) III- W a n d -j, roots [tertiae infirmae): In m o s t m o rp h e m e s, lo n g
v o w e l s r e p l a c e th e t l ii r d r a d ic a l. III-W a n d 111- a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d o n l y in
t h e b a s i c s t e m o f t h e v e r b a n d in s o m e d e r iv e d n o u n s.
N o te 1. Within Semitic roots, consonants that are alike or share points of

articulation are largely incompatible. Roots with identical first and second
radicals do not occur. Roote with like first and third radicals rarely occur
and, when they do, usually derive from reduplicated roots: q-l-q < q-l-q-l,
S -I-S < s .l- s- 1 .
N o te 2. There are 11-weak roots in which w, or j, are treated as

strong
radicals (cf. 245.3).
N o te 3. The last radical in four-radical roots can be

weak: IV-weak roots
(cf. 251.3).
60. S t e m s o f " w e a k r o o t s c o n t a i n i n g l o n g v o w e l s a r e c l a s s i f i e d in th e
s y s t e m o f t l i r e e r a d i c a l s t e m p a t t e r n m o r p h e m e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o l l o w in g
r u le s :
a) S te m s o f th e p a ttern CaC, CiC, CuC o f 11-weak r o o t s c o r r e s p o n d
t o o n e - s y l la b l e s t e m m o r p h e m e s fa'l, fvl, fit'l or fal, fill, fiul, e.g., in th e
i m p e r f e c t (216) a n d m o r p h e m e p a t t e r n s w i t h ma- p r e fix (78 a). CaC a lso
f i g u r e s in t w o - s y l la b le m o r p h e m e s w i t h s h o r t v o w e ls , fa'd, fa'll, fa'ul. In
a ll o t h e r m o r p h e m e s , U) a n d y a r e t r e a t e d a s c o n s o n a n t s .
N o te 1. Witlr fvl, fu'1 of 11-wealc roots, the phonological rule in 33 is

observed.

Nominal Forms 37
Note 2. With fa'l, aw or ay usually replaces long vowel a when w and

belong to the root.
b) Stems of Ill-weak roots occur with final -a, 4, 4. - occurs only

in the basic stem of verbs (250). Noun stems, have only -a- and i- in final
position: - represents a morpheme with a in the final syllable of the stem
(fal, fa'al, fral, etc.), and - represents a morpheme with i or u in the final
syllable of the stem (fil, ful, fa'il, etc.).
Note 3. Stem final - sometimes represents the third radical in fa'l, fvl,
fu
1. Thus, these morphemes appear to be fa'al, fval, fu'al (257 a).
Nominal Forms
61. Preliminary remarks: Nominal forms are 1. substantives, 2. adjectives,

and 3. quantitative expressions that cannot be classified as substantives
or adjectives, such as elative forms and numera.ls, among others. Most
morpheme categories can be substantival and adjectival. Only a few are
reserved primarily for adjectives. Nominal inflectional endings (140 ff.)
attach to the stem, whose form is determined by stem pattern morphemes.
Additionally, suffixed and prefixed pattern morphemes may be appended
to the stem.
Stem Pattern Morphemes
62. Threeradical nominal stem pattern morphemes:
a) Onesyllable morphemes:
JaT, 1 Jwl
b) Two-syllable morphemes with short vowels:
iaal, Ja'il, a il, fill, Jwal, Ju'ul
c) Two-syllable morphemes with long vowels:
faal, Jval, Jwal, Janl, afil, Juul, 0

d) Morphemes with long vowels in the first syllable:
Ja al Janl, a-ill. Jay al. Jaw 0.1, Jayal, Jayul
. .
- . kiti.bosunnat.com
Morphology: Nominal Forms 38
e) Morphemes with geminat.ed second radical:
aA, Jual " Jaual, 1 Jual ,tl, Ja

0 (,
f) Morphemes with geminated third radical:
ft all, 4 Jufutt, Ja
g) Morphemes wit.h reduplication:
JvUl. J'uflal, 1
1 5 a4i.il laita l, u'ubui
h) Morphemes with infixed n:
fa'anla
N o te 1. The substantive forms fu'1-un and fu'ul-un are variants of the

same morpheme (cf. 88). jhil-un is an occasional variant of !- .
N o te 2. The substantive form fa'U-m frequently alternates with fx'1-un

(77).
N ote 3. fwayl-un is a diminutive morpheme (81).
N o te 4. fd'liun is the active participle of the basic verljal stem (223) and
is used to foirn tile ordinal numbers (133).
N o te 5. fa'al and fa'ul are Aramaic in origin. 'however, is also

formed secondarily from Arabic roots.
N o te 6. Tile morphemes listed above in e-g are termed

expanded mor-
phemes.
N o te 7. fa'anla is a verbal adjective of the XV verbal stem (173).
63. Four-radical nominal stem pattern morphemes:
a4al 4 4 4
4 4 4
\4ill 4
0,4 44
4 >4 44

Nominal Forms 39
4 1 1 4
jitfttttl J u il x l Ja&llt
a'lllal Ja'anlal 0 /ylal
Note 1. Most four-radical stem, morphemes have forms that correspond to

the expanded threeradical morphemes (62 e-g). In addition to these, the
following correspondences between four-radical and three-radical morphemes
extsV. JuTo.1 : Jcrlal = ) vial = ' 1 -
" alii =
Jual' fu.' aijVil = JutijI.
Note 2. firlal has a later variant fu'lul: jundabun, jundubun

'locust' also threeradical fu'lal: sudadun, sududun, also with clas-
sicizing su'dadun
leadership(root s-w-d).
Note 3. fat alii and fa'alii are plural morphemes (93 ff.).
Note 4. fa'anlal, corresponding to fa'anla (62.7), is a verbal adjective of

the four-radical verbal stem III (176).
Note 5. Among four-radical roots, there are very many that are derived
from threeradical root.s with lexicalized pattern morphemes. For example,
pattern categories like fa'wal, fi'wal, fi'yal, and forms with prefixed -,
'a- or suffixed -n, -an, -am, -im, -Mm, and others belong to this class.
Suffixed Patteru Morphemes
64. The feminine endings -a , -a can be added to stem pattern morphemes.

These endings are so named because in substantives they often mark the
naturally feminine (110.1), and in adjectives, the grammatically feminine
(113). The suffix -a has an inflected variant -S
U.
a) -a -un (13 )designates the "sp ecific, as opposed to the generic,

i.e.1 it is used to form the naturally feminine, nominal forms that express
the doing of an action once (nomina vicis), terms for things and individual
units (nomen unitatis) of collectives (84 a) and adjectives (73), abstract
and verbal substantives (73; 75), and abstract collectives (89).
Note 1. A vestige Of an old feminine ending - is preserved in bin-t-

un
daughter
, ' ufc- -un 'sister' (72), t ir kil-ts
both(109),
thin-t-ani
two(129).
^
w

'.kitabosunnat.cm
40 M orp h ology : N om in al F orm s
b) -10.3 ) ) is used for secondary feminine forms of adjectives

(119; 122; 127), abstract and verbal substantives (75 b), and, rarely,
occurs to indicate tilings.
N o te 2. Tradition varies occasionally between the use of -a and -an to

designate terms for things (Ill-weak nouns 69 a): , mvza, rrii'zan

goats(12).
N o te 3. Occasionally, -a combines with -(a) - to form -a -wn: svla

or si'latun 'female demon'.
c) -a
u (with lipt'otic inflection 152) forms t.he secondary adjectival
feminine fa
la 11 (119) and appears in terms for tilings, verbal substantives
(75 b), and plural morphemes (9; 100).
N o te 4. -a, -an, -atun sometimes occur as variants: sulahfd,

sulakfaii, sulahfatun 'turtle'.
N o te 5. The morplieme category Jvld

un is masculine and inflects as a
triptote (147 ff.): ( jirawi'chameleon'.
N o te 6. In Aramaic loanwords, -a, _a>w occasionally represents the original

-a of the emphatic state: >( a)th-thalatha'u 'Tuesday
.
65. Additional suffixed pattern morphemes are -an, -iy{y), and -w.
a) -an forms adjectives (119), verbal substantives: fa'alanun (229),

fi'lanun, fuclanun (74), and plural morphemes (92). Rarely, -an is also a
suffix on other stem morphemes.
N o te 1. The original individualizing function of -an is noticeably present

in insdnun
person
, which belongs to Hnsun 'humankind'. It
also figures in the origin of many personal names, such as shaybanu
( ) from shaybun 'white hair'.
white-haired
b) -iy(y), called the nisbah, or relative ending, expresses the concept

of
belonging". It forms adjectives (116 ff.) and, mostly in combina-
tion with the feminine endings: -ij,-a wn, Jj,j,-a nn, -iy-a
u, forms abstract
substantives (76),

kitabosunnat com
Nominal Forms 41
N ote 2. -iyy without the feminine ending occurs only rarely as a substan-
tive: sukhrivvun and sukhrivvatun
ridicule
. Apparently,
-iy figures in the origin of patterns like ahirakn
interior membrane
of an egg, egg white' with classicizing hamzah.
c) - is found in loanwords from Aramaic: malakutun 'king-

dom' and infrequently in adjectives: tarabutun 'navigable'. In Ara-
bic. these words are masculine.
Prefixed Pattern Morphemes
66. a) a- /ti- /tu- form verbal substantives (231) and infrequently verbal
adjectives: tinbalun, tinbalun 'small of stature, dwarf',
tibdbun, tiliaabun 'joker'.
b) ma- /mi- /mu-: ma- forms nouns of place (nomina foci) (78), ver-
bal substantives (230), and passive participles of the basic stem mafulun
(223). mi- forms nouns that indicate instrument (nomina instrumenti)
(79) and adjectives (121). mu- forms participles (224) and verbal sub-
stantives (230), and is an occasional variant of ma- or mi- (80).
c) 'a- /.i- />- form the elative >afalu (124) and its derivative adjec-
tives (119). These prefixes also figure in morpheme categories like 'if'ilun,
,
ifillun,
ufullun, ,ufa'ihin, which are derived from elatives or
represent phonetic variants of morpheme categories jvillun, fu'ullun.
d) - occurs in morpheme categories yafalun, yafulun, yafilun,

yafulun, which figure almost exclusively in animal, plant, and personal
names.
N ote 1. Morpheme categories formed with prefixes are mostly deverbal,

less often denominal, e.g.: mafulun < ma-â'I-, mi^niun < ma-
jval-un. All prefix patterns have in common the loss of the vowel in the
open syllable (51) following the prefix.
WeakR oot stem Patterns
67. a) III-> roots are often treated like Ill-weak roots. Variants with w
and y, instead of , occur especialljr after w, i, , : khabivatun or
khdbvatun
ju g
, or mwUafun 'manliness',

kitabosunnat.com
42 Morphology: Nominal Forms
huduwun or hudunin 'rest'. In order to avoid the sequence ' - ' (41),
plural morpheme fa'd
ilu (98) Is not formed from III-roots; ratlier, fa'ala.
(99) with y as the third radical appears: khatvatun 'sin', plural
khatava.
b) With Il-geminate roots, phonological rules for the treatment of gem-

inates (50) in nominal patt.erns apply only for morpheme categories with
prefixes. All other morphemes are formed according to the standard three-
radical pattern: sarirun 'bed', plural ' asirratun = afilatun
(100), but sururuTV) ' asakku 'deaf' =
afalu (119). Cf. 236.
N ote 1. In poetry there are also morpheme categories formed on t.he stan-
dard pattern: ' ahraru instead of aharru
very hot' (elative
124ff.).
68. a) In morphemes fa'l, frl, fw l and in ma-fal, m a-fil, 11-weak roots

liave stems with long vowels: suqun 'market' = fu'lun, mitatun
(< *miwtatun) 'manner of death' = fvlatun, khalun 'maternal uncle'
= fa'lun. The stem vowel also appears in morphemes fa'al, fa'll, fa'ul:
ta'atun 'obedience' = fa'alatun, ta'un 'obedient' = fa'ilun.
N ote 1. Patterns with consonantal w or y can occur in all the above

mentioned morphemes:
awajun
crookedness
, rria'yabatun

object of rebuke
. This pattern holds especially for fa'l, which, as a verbal
substantive, is always formed with w, or as root letter; cf. 248.
N ote 2. Adjectives of the category CaC = fa'ilun sometimes also have a

Ill-weak fa'ilun variant: shdkun or shakin (256 a) 'thorny'.
b) All other morphemes are formed witli consonantal w or y:

huyamun 'passion', tawilun 'long', khawunun 'disloyal',
miqyasun 'measure'.
N ote 3. In fi'dlun, ill) becomes iy, when the verbal substantive of tile bîc
stem or the plural morpheme (88) is involved (33 a). The sequence 1
(wu) can be replaced by >36) ( <) b): k h alu n .
N ote 4. There is no fa'll form of 11- roots.

Nominal Forms 43
c) Several morphemes with geminated second radical yy or ww origi-

nate in a non-classical variant of the active participle fa
ilun with y instead
of > (247): quwwamun or quyyamun, quwwamun or
quyyamun (90), plural of qanrriun (non-classical qayim) 'stand-
ing'; qayyumun 'permanent' (36.2). The adjective category CayyiC,
formed only from 11-weak roots, always has yy: mayyitun 'dead' (root
m-w-t), bayyinun 'clear' (root b-y-n).
Note 5. CayyiC is on rare occasion shortened to C a Y C : maytun

'dead'.
Note 6. The verbal substantive fa

lulatun (248.1), formed only from II-
weak roots, also always has y.
69. a) In Ill-weak roots, the third radical of onesyliable morphemes is

regularly consonantal. In morphemes with a before tlie final radical, the
stem ends in -a. In morphemes with i, w before the final radical, the stem
ends in -i (-uy > i 33 b): umyun, < umyanun 'blind' (119),
'0 man 'blindness' (stem cama = fa
alun), amin 'tilind' (stem
ami =
fa'ilun). On the inflection of and stems, see 154 If.
Note 1. In morphemes a( , fvl, fu

1, the last radical can also be represented
by stem final -a: m a n = wanyun, verbal substantive of
wand ( yam)
weaken
. Cf. 257 a.
b) In morphemes with -d in the final syllable of the stem, > appears

between the final sound of the stem and the inflectional ending miqra-
I 'hospitable' (121). Cf. 257 b. Before the feminine ending -a un, w or
y of the root appears: samawatun 'tent, celestial canopy', as opposed
to sama
un 'heaven'.
N ote 2. If the form derives directly from the masculine, is preserved before
the feminine ending: l bakkdmn, feminine bakka
atun
crying
.
c) In morpliemes with i, , ay in the final syllable of the stem, w and

y are treated as consonants. Thus, the phonological 1-ules in 33 and 34
are observed: khafivun 'hidden', * ubayyun diminutive of 'father'
(root >-b-w). c.on this 256 b and 2 5 1 . .
.
44 M o r p h o l o g y : N o m in a l F o r m s
N o t e 3. S o m e tim e s , in Ill- w e a k r o o t s c o m p e n s a t o r y fo r m s w ith th e fem i-
n in e e n d in g -atun o c c u r in s te a d o f m o r p h e m e s w ith lo n g v o w e ls in th e final
s y lla b le o f th e s te m : r u m a tu n
th r o w in g (90) = fu
cdatun in ste a d
of /)'( ! e d u c a t io n (257.2) = in ste a d o f

a rtiy a fu n
ta B li.
70. a) T w o - r a d i c a l s u b s t a n t i v e o f t h e p a t t e r n C a C -a tu n , C iC -a tu n , C u C -
a tu n a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s e i t h e r I - r o o t s o r I l l - w e a k r o o t s . T o I- w r o o t s b e l o n g ,
fo r e x a m p l e , J i h a t w n ' d i r e c t i o n ' ( r o o t w -j
-(i), h d a tw n 'con tem p ora ry '
( r o o t w-l-d). S e e 240 c. C u C - a tu n d o e s n o t e x i s t fo r I- w r o o t s . T o III-
w e a k r o o t s b e l o n g , e.g.: am a tu n f e m a l e s la v e ' ( r o o t
-m-w), lith atun
' g u m s ' ( r o o t l-th-y), lu qh atu n ' la n g u a g e ' ( r o o t l-qh-w). S tem p a ttern
d e r i v a t i o n s a r e b a s e d o n t h e t h r e e - r a d ic a l r o o t : u m a y y a tu n
= ay -
atun, d i m i n u t i v e o f >ama w .
b) S e v e r a l t w o - r a d i c a l s u b s t a n t i v e s a l s o h a v e r o o t v a r ia n t s w i t h III - * :
s a n a tu n 'year', d i m i n u t i v e su n a y y a tu n ( r o o t s-n-w), sanhani

'y e a r o f m is f o r t u n e ' ( r o o t s-n-h), sh a fa tu n 'lip', n isba h a d j e c t i v e
sh a fa w iy y u n ( r o o t sh-f-w), sh a fa h iy y u n 'la b ia l' ( r o o t sh-f-h).
N ote 2. S u b s t a n t iv e s in th e tw o - ra d ica l c a t e g o r y w ith o u t th e fe m in in e
e n d in g a re rare. A s w ith m a n y t w o r a d i c a l s u b s ta n tiv e s w ith th e fe m in in e
en d in g, th e y a re tr e a te d lik e p r im a r y s u b s ta n tiv e s w h ich h av e a s sim ila te d t o
th e th re e - ra d ica l p a t te r n (72).
Substantive
Primary Substantives
71. P r i m a r y s u b s t a n t i v e , t h a t is, t l r o s e s u b s t a n t i v e s t h a t a r e n o t d e r iv e d
f r o m v e r b a l r o o t s o r o t h e r n o m i n a l fo r m s , a r e n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n y o n e
m o r p h e m e ca teg o ry . T h e y a r e o n e - a n d t w o r a d i c a l , a s w e ll a s t h r e o a n d
m o r e - r a d ic a l, w o r d s . S u b s t a n t i v e s lik e ra
su n
h ea d
, q a m a ru n
'm o o n ' , ja b in u n ' fo r e h e a d ' a r e f o r m a l l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m d e riv a -
t.v e s o f m o r p h e m e c a t e g o r i e s /a. un, fa'alun, fa'ilu n. Y e t, t h e y a r e n o t
r e g a r d e d a s d e r iv a t iv e s o f th e c o r r e s p o n d in g ro o ts.

'
.k ibosunnat.tom
Substantive 45
N ote 1. Loanwords, especially those that entered Arabic in pre- and early
Islamic times, have been adapted for the most part to Arabic morpheme
categories, so that in form they cannot readily be distinguished from purely
Arabic words: q a sr u n 'castle, palace< Aratnaic q a str a < Latin
castra.
72. P r i m a r y s u b s t a n t iv e s w ith o n e o r t w o r a d ic a ls a re c la s s e d s e c o n d a r ily
w ith " w e a k t h r e e r a d i c a l r o o t s (70). I n t h is w a y , d e n o m i n a t i v e p a t t e r n s
b a s e d o n t h e t h r e e r a d i c a l m o r p h e m e c a t e g o r y a r e p o s s ib l e .
a) f u ' m o u t h ' ( o n ly in t h e c o n s t r u c t s t a t e 150), r o o t f-w-h, e.g.,

p lu ra l 'afw ahun (100). I n t h e d e f i n it e a n d d e f i n i t e s t a t e s , fa m u n
is used. sh d m n ' s h e e p ( c o llr c t iv e ; n o u n o f i n d iv id u a l it y , o r n o m e n

unitatis shatun), r o o t sh-w-h: p lu r a l sh iy a h u n (33 a).
m a i 'w ater', r o o t m -w -h: p l u r a l m iy a h u n (33 a).
b) abun fa t h e r , ) akhun b ro t.h e r, h a m u n fa t h e r - in - la w ,

con stru ct s ta te > akhu. h a m u (150), r o o t s >- - , l l .
h-m-w: p lu r a l
d b a m , ik h w a tu n ( 89b), ah m an in (100).
N o te l. The feminine of akhun is ft u n (64.1)

sister
; plural
,akhawatun. The feminine of h a m u n iS h a m a tu n 'mother-in-
law'.
N ote 2. T ree-radical n u n
motherhas an extended root in the
plural: u m m a h a tu n , in addition to * urmndtun.
c) (
i)smun 'n a m e ', >( i)bnun so n ', (>i)stm 'b u ttock s
(21), r o o t s s-m-y, h-n-w, p lu r a l a sm-atn, abnd*un,

>as 5/iun (100).
N ote 3. Older stem forms are preserved in ' r sim un

nam es
, bintun
(64.1) in addition to >( f)na un
daughter
, plural banatun.
N ote 4. J > hirun, h ira tu n

female genitals' is s u i generis, root h-r-h
appears in the plural ) ahrahun. Cf. 151.1.
^ ,
www.kitab.su nnat.com
Morphology: Nominal Forms
d) d a m u n 'blood', ya d u n 'hand', h a n u n , h an atu n 'tiling,

s o m e l r :
sh a fa tu n \\ , t o o l s 4-m-iu, -- h-n-h o r h.-n-i), sh-J-h.
or sh-f-w: plural d i m a i , y u d iy u n (88), sh ifa h u n or
shafawatun, diminutive hunayhatun, hunayyatun.
N ote 5. qhadun
next dayis a back-formation from ohadan (root
gh-d-w), whicli as an accusative (315 b), means
tomorrow
.
e) fmra>i n'raan' (151),

Jm raaiw n
w om an
, with the article
) a)l-maru , ( a)l-maratu. These words have no plurals. The
suppletive forms rijalun 'men' (88), nisann, niswatun,
niswanun 'women' (with no singular) are used instead.
Feminine Substantive Ending -atun
73. The feminine ending -atun (64 a) affixed to adjectives transforms

them into substantives tha.t designate individuals and things, as well as
alistracts (see also 84232 )
a) -. mi that has transformed an adjective into a substant.ive indicates
one who practices an occupation in an exemplary manner': rawin

'narrator' : rawiyatun 'narrator (of poems)', allamun 'knowing
thoroughly' :
allamatun 'distinguislied scholar'.
N ote 1. In its function of signifiying the

specific
, -atun is found in inten-
sive adjectives of the morpheme categories fwalun, fw'alun (121).
N ote 2. These forms ending in -atun, as they designate the individual, are
treated as masculines.
b) In other cases, -atwn forms words that designate things: dabba-

bun 'creeping' : dabbabatun 'besieging machine', rabin 'growing
large' : rabiyatun 'hill', hasanun 'good' : hasanatun 'good
deed', mushkilun 'obscure' : mushkilatun 'difficulty, problem'.
c) Adjectives that, have been transformed into substantives with -atun

are often abstract, in meaning: radhtlun 'low, base' : radhilatun
'vice, depravity', laimun 'accuser' : lanmatun
censure
. Very fre-
Substantive 47
quently, - transforms nisfa^-adjectives into abst.ract substantives

(116 f.): nasraniyyun 'Christian' : nasrdniyyatun 'Chris-
tianity'; cf. 76.
N ote 3. On the formation of abstract substantives ending in -afun, see

also 75 a; for abstract collectives ending in -atun, see 89.
Abstract and Verbal Substantives
74. The following m orphem e categories function as abstract and verbal

s\ist,a.ive&. Ja'luu, j v l i , (uTun. (a: a l l , fi.a ll, w a ll, Jvalun, Jwalun,
fa
In , failun, fwulun. In addition, m orphem e categories with -an suffix
fi'lanun, fwlanun, fwaldnun serve the sam e function. Cf. 225 ff.
N ote 1. fa
aim , fa'ilun occur as phonetic variants of fa
lun (38).
N ote 2. fwulun is a variant of fu

lun.
N ote 3. Morpheme categories ))fun, fvdlun, fwalan, fa'ilun, fwulun

also function as collective plurals (88).
75. a) T h e feminine ending -atun (73 c), in its function of form ing ab-
stracts, is also added to the m orphem es listed in 74: fi'latun, fwlatun,
(a'alatun. v a k i l , Jwalatuu, fanlatun, (ulu la t i, '<v\d octastoTiaW kttkt-
un, fi'alatun. These m orphem e categories are usually abstracts o f words
that denote qualities, am ong other things. As such, they also function as
verbal substantives o f verbs that refer to qualities (228 f.).
N ote 1. fa'latun is as a rule a nomen vicis (232). Sometimes, however,

especially with verbs whose action occurs once, fa'latun may also function
wishfrom raahiba
as a general verbal substantive: r a . a t u n
( yarqhabu) 'wish, desire'. The corresponding form fa'lalatun, as
verbal substantive from four-radical verbs, is always formed with -afutl.
N ote 2. fa'alatun is, lkeâ du un, /au!a un, a verbal substantive variant
ofâ.fafuu. Cf. 38 and 257 a.
Not, See 7
concemir , fvlatun, Judatun, ft olat/un, Ju'alaiun.
b) The feminine ending -a (64 b) is used with the follow ing mor-
pheme categories to form abstracts and verbal substantives: fa'la, fi'la,

^ ' lo r p h o lo g y : N o m in a l F o r m s
' ; fa
ala: da'vja 'cla im ', dhikra 'm e m o r y ' , bushra
' g o o d t id in g s ' , ja f a la e v e r y o n e w i t l i o u t d is t in c t io n ' . T h e s u ffix -a.w
o c c u r s w i t h f u ala'll, fa, u ld
u: g h u la w a ii ' e x c e s s ' datura'll
'n e c e s s ity ' .
N ote 4. -d
u is sometimes a variant of -: rahb&yu = rahba.,
ruhba
dread
.
N ote 5. -a forms verbal substantives from expanded morpheme categories,

frxl-a, JviU-a, Ju uU-a\ H a
\\ \ qhiUbba.
Qhulubba 'conquering'.
N ote 6. fu a la
ll usually functions as a plural morplieme (90).
76. O r i g i n a l l y d e r iv e d f r o m t h e f e m i n in e o f t h e Tiisbah a d j e c t i v e (73 c),
-iyyatun h a s b e c o m e a s u f fix in i t s o w n r ig lr t f o r a b s t r a c t s u b s ta r r tiv e s :
' ajrafiyyatun = ajrafatun ' p r e s u m p t i o n , a r r o g a n c e ' ,

njuhiyyatun ' a r r o g a n c e , p r id e ' . C f. 65.2. f r e q u e n t l y b o t h fuiliyyatun
a n d ) o c c u r : furiisiyyatun = furusatun 'h o r s e m a n -
s ilip , k n ig l i t h o o d ' . T h e s h o r t f o r m -iy-atun o c c u r s w i t h /a. a h hard-
hiyatun ' a n tip a th y ' , 1 <alaniyatun 'open n ess'.
N ote 1. With t.he feminine ending - in the same function is:

kibriyani 'arrogance, pride'.
Semantic Groups
77. M a n y m o r p h e m e c a t e g o r i e s c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d in g r o u p s w i t h a s s o c i a t e d
m e a n in g s . T h e s e s e m a n t i c g r o u p s a r e id e n t i f i e d in p a r t b y f o r m a n d in p a r t
b y m e a n in g . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a re:
fvlun: O b j e c t s o c c u i r i n g in p a i r s lik e
id lu n ' e itlie r o f t h e t w o b a l a n c e d
h a l v e s o f a l o a d c a r r ie d b y a b e a s t o f b u r d e n ' , q ism u n 'pa rt',

sh ibh u n ' c o u n t e r p a r t , s o m e t h i n g like'. C f. 229.
f a ' i l u n , f v l u n : P a r t s o f t h e b o d y lik e kabidun, kibdun, rahim un,
r ih m u n , fakhidhun. fikhdhun, fakhdhun 'th igh '.

w om b
l a t u n : N o u n s o f k in d o r m a n n e r ( nomina
fi speciei) l ik e mishyatun
g a it
, qiblatun ( 'th e d i r e c t i o n o n e t u r n s in p r a y e r ') 'q ib la h '.
>
-.kitabosunnat.com
Substantive 49
fwlatun: Abstracts of color and form like hudratun 'greenness',

humratun 'redness', shuwatun 'ugliness'. Cf. 119.
fvalun. Measure and size like thiqalun 'heaviness', kibarun 'big-

ness' sigharun
smallness
, izamun 'might'.
fvalun. Implements like hizamun 'belt', hijabun 'veil',

inanun 'bridle', vjvd'tin 'vessel'.
fwalun: Maladies like swdlun 'cough', sudcvun 'headache',

,utasun 'sneeze'.
fwdlatun: Rubbish, leavings like burayatun 'wood shavings',

kunasatun 'sweepings', occasionally fwalun as a collective (84): bura-
I 'wood shavings'.
fwilwu: Places of refuge like qdsvdni 'burrow of a jerboa',

'dniqdni 'rabbit warren'.
' : Occupational terms like najjOw n

carpenter
, mallahun
'sailor'. Occupations in the abstract have the morpheme categoty fvdlatun:
'nijaratun 'carpentry', milahatun
navigation
.
fw a lu n (fi'ialun), fu
[&lun: Names of attimals and plants like
hummarun 'finch', himmasun 'chick pea', tuffahun 'a.p
pie', rummdnun 'pomegranate'.
fwalun, fuala: Birds like ahurabun 'raven', uqabun 'ea.gle',

hubdrd 'bustard'.
,u fu latu n : Literary genres like w juzatun

Rajaz poem
,
yuhdufhatun 'story', 1 uqhmvatun 'song' (33 b).
Nouns of Place (N o m in a Loci) and

Nouns of Time (Afomfrca T em poris)
78. a) Morphemes with ma- prefix mafalun, mafilun are deverbal sub-
stantives of place and time. As a rule, when the verb is an -imperfect, the
pattern is mafilun; when it is a w- or a-imperfect, the pattern is mafalun
(216): manzilun 'place where one alights' from nazala (
yanzilu) 'go down, alight', mavridun 'place or time of an appointment'
'.kitl osiinn .coni
from vmHida ( yaidu) 'give a pledge', mashrabun 'drinking

place' from shariba ( yashrabu) 'drink'. Sometimes, how-
ever, mafilun occurs when the verb has an u-imperfect: masjidun
'mosque' from sajada ( yasjudu) 'bow in prayer'.
N o te 1. II" w and y roots have a and 1 as stem vowels. occurs only in

11- roots: makanun 'place' from kana ( yakunu)
to be
,
masirun
place at which one arrivesfrom Sara ( yasiru)
'become'.
b) Morpheme categories mapilatm, mafalatun, mafulatun are formed

with the feminine ending -aturv. mazinnatun 'place where one pre
sumes to find something/one' from zanna 'think' ( yazunnu),
maqbaratun, maqburatun 'grave' from qabara ( yaqburu) 'bury'.
Morpheme category maf'alatun forms denominal terms for places:
ma
sadatun 'place frequented by lions' from asadun 'lion'. S om e
times the feminine ending is used t.o establish a specialized meaning:
manzilun
place of alighting, stopping place': manzilatun 'position,
rank'.
N o te 2. Morpheme categories rriafalun, mafiilun, mafilatun, mafa/ul-

atun also function as verbal substantives (230, 248.3, 257.3).
N o te 3. In the derived verbal stems, the passive participle assumes the. role
of m,.-formations: musallan
place of prayer' from salla 'pray'
(II), munsarafun
departure, or place, time of departurefrom
(
)nsarafa
depart(VII), multaqan
meeting place, place or
time of meeting' from (
i)ltaqa
meet(VIII).
N o te 4. Sometimes, denominal mafalatun has the meaning of a noun indi-

eating cause (nomina causae) or abstract collective: mandamatun

reason for repenting' from nadima
repent
, mashyakhatun

office or dignity of a sheik, sheikdom' (89).
c) Infrequently, substantives indicating place and time are formed from

1-w roots accorrling to the mifidlun morpheme category (79): mi'a-
dun 'appointment' from I . a da 'make a promise', milddun 'time
of birth, birthdayfrom walada
give birth'.

-.kitabosunnat.com
Substantive 51
N ou n s o f In stru m en t (N o m in a In s tr u m e n ti)
79. Morpheme categories with m i- prefix m ifa lu n , m ifa la tu n , m iftfilu n

are used for terms that indicate instrument: m ik h la b u n 'claw',
m ik n asatun 'broom', m ifta h n n 'key' from fa ta h a 'open',
m iza n u n 'scales' from w a z a n a 'weigh', m ik w a tu n 'hot iron' from
fcatud 'burn'.
Note 1. T h ese m orph em e ca tegories o f 11-weak ro o ts always have conso-

nantal iw or JP m i
w a lu n 'pick', m iq y a su ii
m ea su re
.
Note 2. C on cern in g m i f dlun as a substan tive of place and time, see 78c.
C on cern in g adjectival m if a lu n , see 121.
80. The prefix mu- occurs as a variant of ma- and mi- in forms that are
legacies of the pre-classical language: m u n k h u lu n , m u n k h a lu n 'sieve',
m u n su lu n , m u n sa lu n 'sabre', m u d u q q u n , later m id a q q u n , 'pes-
tie', m ukhulatun, later m ik h ala tu n , 'kohl jar'. In some cases, various
vocalizations have come down: m unkhurun. m un k haru n . m an kh aru n.
m ankhirun, m in k h iru n , m in k h a ru n 'nostril', m iahzalun . m aah zalun .
m u gh zalu n 'spindle', m u sh a fu n , m a sh a fu n , m ish a fu n 'book, codex'.
N ote 1. m u f a lu n verbal substan tives can be in terpreted to be passive

participles o f verbal stem IV (230) or mu- variants o f m afi a im .
D im ir r u t iv e s
81. a) The morpheme f w ayl is used for diminutives of one- and two-syllable
morphemes with short vowels: kalbun 'dog' : ku la ybu n ,
ja b a lu n 'mountain' : ju baylu n . In Ill-weak roots, the third radical is
always ,: fa ta n 'youth' : fu ta y y u n I ,abun father' (root y-b-w
72 b) : yubayyun. Besides indicating smallness, the diminutive often
expresses contempt, endearment, or occasionally, even enhancement.
N ote 1. In II-/ roots, the sequ en ce ya y m ay b e dissim ilated to w ay:

ba ytu n
h ou se:

bu ya y tu n ,
buwaytun.
N ote 2. N ote bu n a yy a
m y little son!' instead o f * b u n a y y - iy a .
.kitabosunnat.com
N ote 3. f u a ylu n is t h e d i m i n u t i v e p a t t e r n f o r p e r s o n a l n a m e s e v e n fo r
m o r p h e m e s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e (81 a): H u m a y d u n fo r
A h m a du . O fte n fu
a ylu n h a s b e c o m e t h e o n l y f o r m o f a p e r e o n a l
n a m e , i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e d i m i n u t iv e : Q u raysh u n , H unaynun.
b) Derivational suffixes are added to f w a y l without modification:

'am atun 'maid' (root -m -w 70 a) : yumayyatun, h a m ra n i
red
: hum ayrani) S a lm a : S u la y m a (proper name). The
naturally and grammatically femirtine (110 ffi) take the feminine ending
-atun in the diminutive: Iim rn u n
mother: yu m aym atu n ,
a y n u n 'eye' : u y n a y n a tu n .
N ote 4. D i m i n u t i v e s o n l y r a r e ly b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t l e x i c a l e n t it ie s :
b u h a y ra tu n
la k e
. k u m a y tu n
b a y h o r s e ' is a P e r s i a n lo a n w o r d .
82. a) Diminutives o f four-radical morphemes are expanded from f u ayl to

fw a y lil. fu< a y lil is tire corresponding diminutive of a basic form with a long
vowel in the final syllable:
akdant
turbid: nikaydiru,
su n d u q u n 'trunk' : su n aydiqu n , k adhdh abun 'liar' :
k n A h c n jln
N ote 1. W i t l i s u b s t a n t i v e s e n d i n g in -an-un, -an u s u a ll y f i g u r e s a s p a r t o f
th e ste m ; sirh a n u n
w o l f : , surayhtnun.
N ote 2. N a m e s o f p l a n t s o f t h e m o r p h e m e c a t e g o r y f u a lu n (77) fre-
q u e n t l y h a v e a la t e r f o r m fu aylun: khubbazun, khubbayzun

'm a llo w '.
N ote 3. N o t e t a t yw > yy (33 c) in: a sw a d u

b l a c k :
iLsayuridlL o r * usayyidu ( p r o p e r n am e).
N ote 4. The p lu r a l o f a s m a l l n u m b e r (100) c a n h a v e a d im in u t iv e
fo r m : u f a y il u n fro m a f u lu n and
a fila tu n , b u t ,u f a y a lu n f r o m ,a fa lu n :
Iik h a v b o ru n
s e v e r a l r iv i a l a c c o u n t s ' f r o m
ak h baru n
n ew s',
s in g u la r khabarun, it h a y y a b u n ( < **u th a y w a b u n 33 c)

sev-
e r a l s m a l l p i e c e s o f c l o t h in g ' f r o m ,athuiabun
a r t i c l e s o f c lo th in g ' ,
s in g u la r thawbun.

- . k it a b o s u n n a t . c o m
Substantive 53
b) As with plural patterns (93 b), two-syllable morphemes with long

0
jwal, . 0 1 Jtal, 1 . are tfrdeA
as lowKonscmt T
tvo
T p
V ie
T c
ves
. i l l )uitfi.il, 0
.// ' Ja'u/ili.
fwayyilun, e.g.: shanrun 'poet' : shuwayirun, -
mtm 'boy' : gkulayyimun, 'ariisun 'bride' : ' urayyisun
(contrary to 81 b, without the feminine ending!).
Note 5. T h e m o r p h o lo g ic a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e : uw ay c o m e s fr o m n o m in a l
f o r m s o f 11-weak r o o t s , lik e
ba bun
d o o r :
buwaybun.
Note 6. M o r p h e m e s fa / i/ u
al, /e tc ., o f I l l - w e a k r o o t s f o r m d im in u -
t iv e s a ft e r t h e p a ttern : tlr
h e a v e n : su m ayyatu n ,
a d u m n
e n e m y :
udayyun, sa b iy u n 'b o y ' :
m b a ftv
Note 7. W o r d s c o n s i s t i n g o f m o r e t lia n fo u r c o n s o n a n t s h a v e a b b r e v i a t e d
d im in u t iv e s : '
s p i d e r : 'unaykibun.
N u m b e r o f S u b st a n t iv e s
83. Arabic has three numbers: singular, dual, and plural. Additionally,
there is a collective that is considered either singular and treated masculine,
or plural and feminine. The collective plural has, moreover, an individual
plural and a plural of a small number (p lu ra lis p a u cita tis).
The basic form of the substantive appears in the singular and the col-
lective. The dual and the so-called external plural, or inflated plural (101
ff.), are derived with suffixed inflectional morpliemes from the singular. The
collective plural and the plural of a small number have several stem pattern
morphemes that are secondarily associated with singular morphemes. As
such, these are called
internalor
brokenplurals.
Note 1. U n l e s s t h e r e is a s e m a n t i c r e a s o n t o p r e v e n t it, t h e d u a l a n d t h e
d if f e r e n t p l u r a l s c a n b e f o r m e d f r o m a n y s in g u la r : fark hu n
young
b ird ' ( s in g u la r ) : d u a l fark h a n i ' tw o y o u n g b i r d s , i n d iv i d u a l p lu r a l

firkhanun, c o l l e c t i v e p lu r a l firakhun, furukhun. plu-
ra lis p a u c ita tis ' afra k h u n . ,afrukhun. A s i n g u l a r c o l l e c t i v e c a n
r e p l a c e a c o l l e c t i v e p lu r a l: l / s h a ja r a tu n
o n e tr e e ' ( s in g u la r = n o m e n
u n ita tis 84 a) : s i n g u l a r c o l l e c t i v e / s h a ja r u n 'tr e es, t r e e (as a g e n u s) '
>
- . k i t a b o s u n n a t . c m
54 M o r p h o lo g y : N o m in a l F o r m s
( = c o lle c t iv e plural), in d iv id u a l p lu ral

tr e e s (as individ-
uals), p lu r a lis p a u c ita tis

a sh ja r u n
(several) tr e e s
. A s a resu lt o f
n u m e r o u s a n a lo g ic a l fo r m a tio n s th a t have o c c u r r e d in th e s y s t e m o f plurals,
in u s a g e c la ss ic a l A r a b ic h as g iv e n u p th e d is t in c t io n a m o n g p lu r a ls largely
in fa v or o f a g e n e r a l p lu ral c a te g o r y : c o lle c t iv e p lu r a ls ca n r e p la c e individ-
ual p lu ra ls: th e p lu ra l o f a s m a ll n u m b e r ca n fu n c tio n a s a g en era l plural.
N e v erth eless, th e d is t in c t iv e p lu r a ls ca n a lw a y s b e c o m e p r o d u c t iv e features
again.
N o t e 2. T h e te r m " b r o k e n p lu ral c o m e s fr o m A r a b ic al-jam'

al-m uk assar. I t I'efers t o all p lu ral m o r p h e m e c a t e g o r ie s th a t a r e n o t form ed
w ith in fle c tio n a l e n d in g s (101 ff.). T h e s e are c a lle d
as-sa h lh o r al-jam,a s s a l i m
s o u n d p lu r a l. A ll b rok en
p lu r a ls a re tr e a te d g r a m m a t ic a lly as fem in in es.
S in g u la r C o lle c t iv e s
84. a) G e n e r i c c o l l e c t i v e s a s a r u le h a v e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m s w it h th e
f e m i n i n e e n d i n g -a M t o i n d i c a t e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s in a c l a s s o r o f a
s p e c i e s ( n o m e n u n it a t is ): dam
u n 'tea rs' : d am 'atun 'a tear',
h a m a m u n ' p ig e o n ( s ) ' : h a m a m a tu n 'a ( p a r t ic u la r ) p ig e o n ' . For
su b s ta n c e s , t h e in d iv id u a l n o u n in d ic a t e s a p ie c e o f t h a t su b s ta n c e :
h a d id u n 'iron ' : h a d id a tu n 'a p i e c e o f iron '.
N ote 1. A c o lle c t iv e fo r w h ich a n o m e n u n ita tis is fo r m e d is masculine.
O n ly rarely, if th e r e la tio n s h ip o f th e n o m e n u n ita tis t o th e c o lle c t iv e is con-
s t r u e d as a sin g u la r t o c o lle c t iv e plu ral, is th e c o lle c t iv e tr e a te d as fem inine
(91).
b ) O n c e in a w h ile , g e n e r i c c o l l e c t i v e s t h a t h a v e n o n o m e n unitatis
o c c u r . T h e c o l l e c t i v e is t h e n u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h e i n d i v i d u a l n o u n a s well:
ta y ru n 'b ird , b irrls' ( c o l le c t iv e a n d s in g u la r ) , 1)1 u r a l tu y u ru n 'birds,

f l o c k s o f b ir d s ' , dhu babun 'fly, flies'.
N ote 2. In p o s t- c la s sic a l A ra b ic, th e se c o lle c t iv e s s o m e t im e s h av e individual
n ou n s: d h u babatu n
a fly' ( bu t n o t s o for ) .

- . k iti. b o s u n n a t. c o m
S u b s t a n t iv e 55
85. C o l l e c t i v e s r e f e r r in g t o a m u l t i t u d e o r m a s s e s h a v e n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g
form i n d i c a t i n g t h e in d iv id u a l . I n t h i s c a t e g o r y b e l o n g s u c h w o r d s as:
'a sk a ru n
a rm y (cam p)' Hbilun , H blun ' h e r d o f c a m e l , c a m e ls ' .
At g h a n a m u n '( h e rd o f) s m a l l liv e s t o c k ' , ju m h u r u n ' m u l t i t u d e o f
people'. D e p e n d i n g u p o n w h e t h e r t h e q u a n t i t y is r e g a r d e d a s i n d i c a t i n g a
p lu ra lity o r a u n it, s u c h w o r d s a r e t r e a t e d , r e s p e c t iv e ly , a s f e m i n in e o r, le s s
frequently , m a s c u lin e .
N o t e 1. In p o s t- c la s sic a l A ra b ic,
a s k a riy y u n
s o ld ie r is th e
in d iv id u a l n o u n 0 ' a sk a ru n (86 b).
86. C o l l e c t i v e s r e f e r r in g t o p e r s o n s a r e m a s c u lin e . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t,
how ever, t h e y a r e t r e a t e d g r a m m a t i c a l l y a c c o r d i n g t o t l ie ir m e a n i n g a s
m a sc u lin e p lu r a ls . C o u n t e d a m o n g t h e m a r e m a n y w o r d s o f t h e m o r p h e m e
c a te g o r y fa 'lu n (228), w i t h v a r ia n t s o f t h e p a t t e r n fa 'a lu n : qa w m u n

( 'sta n d in g t o g e t h e r ' = ) ' p e o p le , tr ib e ' , sh a rb u n ( ' d r in k in g p a r t y ' = )
'binge, d r i n k in g c r o w d ' , sa h b u n (
c o m p a n y = ) ' c o m p a n io n s ' ,
harasun ( ' g u a r d in g ' =) 'gu ard , g u a rd s', k h a d a m u n 'se r v a n ts', a n d
oth ers lik e m a'sh a ru n 'cla n , k in fo lk '.
N o t e 1. W h e n fa 'lu n is u se d a s a p e r so n a l c o lle c tiv e , it.s u se a s a v erb a l
s u b sta n tiv e o f th e b a s ic s t e m is n o r m a lly a v oid ed . Cf., fo r e x a m p le ,

shurbun , q iy d m u n
d r in k in g s t a n d in g
.
N o t e 2. fa 'ilu n ( a ctiv e p a r tic ip le ) fr e q u e n tly fu n c tio n s a s a s u p p le t iv e
in d iv id u a l n o u n t o th e p e r so n a l c o lle c tiv e : sh a r ib u n ,
d rin k e r
sahibu n 'com p a n ion ', h a r isu n

gu ard
.
N o t e 3. A p e r so n a l c o lle c t iv e ca n h av e a f a l u n (100) as a p lu r a lis p a u c i -

tatis form : n a s r u n 'helpers', p lu ra l a n s d r u n
(several) h e lp e r s
(N am e o f th e M e d in a n fo llo w e r s o f M u h a m m a d ).
b) C o l l e c t i v e n a m e s o f t r i b e s a n d p e o p l e a r e t r e a t e d a s f e m in in e s :
yahudun 'Jew s', h in d u n ' In d ia n s ' a n d 'In d ia ', Q u r a y sh u n ( th e
p r in c ip a l M e c c a n tr ib e ) . T h e r e l a t e d n isba h a d j e c t i v e (116 f.) f u n c t i o n s
at th e s a m e t i m e a s a n i n d i v i d u a l n o u n : ya h iid iy y u n '.lew',
hindiyyun 'In d ia n ', q u ra sh iy y u n Q u r a y s h it e ' .

w w w . k it a b o s u n n a t. c o m
56 M o r p h o l o g y : N o m in a l F o r m s
N o te 4. O cca sion a lly there are special form s for individual nouns:
in s u n
hum an ra ce: in s a n u n (65.1)
human being', alon g with
in s iy y u n
human, human b ein g
,
jin n u n
jinn, dem ons' :

ja n n u n
d em on
, and jin n iy y u n
dem onic, demon'.
B r o k e n P l u r a l s
87. P l u r a l i n f l e c t i o n a l e n d i n g s (101) a r e u s e d f o r o n l y a p o r t i o n o f n o u n s
t o f o r m p lu r a ls . T i l e m a j o r i t y o f s u b s t a n t i v e s , a s w e l l a s a d j e c t i v e s (122
f.), l ia v e a n u m b e r o f s t e m p a t t e r n m o r p h e m e s in t h e pltrra l, w h ic h c a n n o t
b e d e r iv e d fr o m t h e s in g u la r m o r p h e m e . O n ly fo u r - c o n so n a n t m o rp h e m e s
h a v e a c o n s i s t e n t p lu r a l f o r m a t i o n t h a t is b a s e d o n a s i n g u l a r m o r p h e m e
t h a t t y p i c a l l y h a s t h e m o r p l ie r n i c v o w e l s e q u e n c e a-a-i (93 ff.). The
m o s t l ik e l y o r u s u a l p l u r a l f o r m s m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d i n d i v i d u a l l y fr o m th e
le x ic o n .
88. M o r p h e m e c a t e g o r i e s fw u lu n , fva lu n , f w u lu n a r e u s e d v e r y fr e q u e n t ly
ifa ' ilu n r a r e ly ) (74) a s p l u r a l m o r p h e m e s , fu 'u lu n o c c u r s m o s t l y a s p lu r a l
o f s i n g u l a r m o r p h e n r e s t l i a t h a v e l o n g v o w e l s in t h e s e c o n d s t e m s y lla b le .
fv a lu n , f w u lu n o f t e n o c c u r a s p l u r a l s o f s i n g u l a r m o r p h e m e s t h a t h a v e o n e
o r t w o s y l l a b l e s w i t l i s h o r t v o w e ls .
N o t e 1. S ee 122 con cern in g fw u lu n , fva lu n , f w u lu n as plurals o f adjec-
tives.
f u i l u n , o f t e n s h o r t e n d t o fw lu n : kitabun ' b o o k ' : kutubun,

kutbun, s a r ir u n 'b e d ' : sururun , sa q fu n 'r o o f, c e ilin g ' :
suqufun, n a q a tu n ' c a m e l' : n u qu n (36 a).
N o t e 2. f w l u n is avoided in ll-gem in a te roots. In 11- roots, uy in fw lu n
b e co m e s 33) b): n a b u n
old ca m e l: nibun.
fvalun. ra ju lu n 'm a n ' : r ija lu n (72 e), kalbun

d o g :
< kilabun. C f. 33 a.
fw u lu n : ,a y n u n 'eye' : u y u n u n , m a lik u n
k i n g :
m ulukun, ' asan 'stick ' :

usiyun,
isty u n (34 a; 37). N o t i c e
q a w su n ' b o w ' : qusiyun, q isiy u n ( --) .

Substantive 57
/.
I n : (infrequently as a plural morpheme): abdu n 'slave' :
abidun, h im a r u n 'ass' : h am irun.
89. a) Abstract substantive formed with the feminine ending

- ! from substantivized adjective (73 c) that refer to persons often
function as plural collectives: J i > h a m m a lu n 'porter' : h a m m a la tu n
'carrier, porters', su fiy y u n 'mystic, sufi' : su fiy y a tu n 'Sufism,
Sufis', m u s lim u n 'Muslim' : m u s lim a tu n 'Muslims in general,
Muslims'.
N ote 1. T h e individual plural is form ed w ith the inflectional en din g -una

(102): h am m a lu n a , sufiyyfm a, Tnuslimuna.
b) -un in combination with the morphemes f t l, f t a l, /', f t a l and

fulul forms abstract collective that function as plurals:
ftlatu n : g h u la m u n
lad: ohilm atu n, f a ta n
youth:
/I j,a un, * akhun 'brother' (72 b) : Hkhwatun.
fta latu n , predominantly with names of animals: q ird u n 'ape' :
qiradatun, dubbun 'bear' : dibabatun.
fa 'ala tu n , fa'ilu n, fa 'ilu n as terms referring to persons: ta lib u n

'student' : talabatun, d a ifu n 'weakling' : da'afatun.
N ote 2. W ith 11-weak roots, fa 'a la tu n is form ed w ith stem vow el as well
as w ith con son an tal w or y: sa y y id u n
m a ster: sadatun,
k h d in u n
tra itor: khaw anatun.
fta la tu n : / h a ja r u n 'stone' : h ija ra tu n , ja m a lu n 'camel' :

jim a la tu n (see also 106 b).
N ote 3. /a.
a un o ccu rs as a variant: sa h ib u n 'co m p a n io n :
sa h a batu n
co m p a n io n s
, specifically the
C o m p a n io n s o f the Prophet'.
fw u la tu n with terms of relationship, etc.: ' a m m u n 'paternal uncle:

'um um atun,
j i f a h l u n
male animal, stallion: fuhulatun.
N ote 4. ma/a a wn, ma/wla , n (230) also o ccu r on o cca sio n as a bstra ct
collectives: m u k y a ^ a fw n
office or d ign ity o f a sheik, sheikdom ,
com m un ity o f sheiks' from shaykh un 'elder, master, religious scholar'.

- .k ita b o s u n n a t. c . m
58 M o r p h o lo g y : N o m in a l F o r m s
90. P lu r a l m o r p h e m e c a t e g o r ie s d e r iv e d fr o m th e e x p a n d e d m o r p h e m e
c a t a g o r y fw a l/ fu ' a l o c c u r a lm o s t e x c lu s iv e ly a s b r o k e n p lu r a ls o f fa'ilun,
fa ' ilu n w h ic h refer t-0 p erso n s. In a d d itio n , th e y a re u se d o n o c c a s io n as

p lu r a ls o f t h e ac.tive p a r t ic ip le fa'ilu n.
N o te 1. M orph em e ca tegories ?' : a, fvilla 'u , fv illa tu n , fi'illa n u n , which

are derived from tile expan ded fi'ill, and m a f u lw u , w hich is form ed from the
passive participle, are cited by the A rab gram m arian s as plural m orphem es
w ithout, however, b ein g attested.
f u ' d l u n (rare): 'sh eph erd' : ru'dnin, 'human'

: ,u n d su n (49 d), aw.amuu'twin' : tu'amun.
f u ' d l a t u n (69.3), fa 'ilu n o f Ill- w e a k r o o ts : r a m in 'th row in g, archer' :
r u m a tu n , qa d in 'Judge' : qudatun.
fu ' a ld
u: sh a'iru n 'p oet' : shu'ar& u, w a ziru n 'minister,
vizier' : wuzarayu, kh a lifa tu n (73 a) 'su ccessor, ca lip h ' :

k h ulafdii. S e e 152 f. o n th e in flection .
N o te 2. See 122 on fu'ala, plural o f .
N o te 3. T h e plural o f b a r k n 'innocent' : bura'd'u is shortened to

b u r d u or b u ra
u n to avoid the sequence
fu " a lu n : s a jid u n ' b o w in g in prayer' : su jja d u n ,

bahilun

'free' :
buhhalun.
f u ' ' d lu n \
ka tibun 'scribe' : kuttabun, k a firu n 'unbeliever' :
k.ujja, i .
N o te 4. T h e secon d radical in fu "a lu n , f u " a l u n o f II-W ro ots as a plural

o f fa ' ilu n can b e w or 68) c):
n ciim u n sleep in g: plural
n u w w am u n , n u w w a m u n or n u yyam un , n uyyam un.
91. In a n a lo g y w ith th e g e n e r ic c o lle c t iv e th a t ta k es th e n o m e n unitatis
e n d in g -a n (84 a), th e c o lle c t iv e p lu r a l o f s in g u la r

' â
afa n,
fv la tu n , fu 'la tu n is fo r m e d c o n v e r s e ly b y th e d r o p p in g o f -a tu n : fa 'a im
p lu r a l ofâ(fa w? a n d fa'alatu n , fi'a lu n p lu r a l o f fv la tu n , fu 'a lu n plural of
fu fla tu n .
.
- .k ita b o su n n a t.c m
Substantive 59
halqatun, halaqatun 'ring' : halaqun, bakratun

f a ' a lu n :
'reel' : bakarun, ia m a tu n 'mole' : shamun, < alatun
'anvil' : alan.
jvalun: hikmatun 'wisdom' : hikamun, lirrimatun 'lock of

hair' : limamun, qimatun 'valUe' : f j qiyamun.
f w a lu n : rukbatun 'knee' : rukabun, ffitatun 'apron' :

fuwatun, kulyatun 'kidney' : kulan.
N ote 1, In the plural of fa'latun of 11-weak roots, the vowel of the first
syllable is determined by the radical w or ,: nawbatun
change:
nuwabun, khavmatm khivamun.
tent:
N ote 2. The vocalization of the plural of qaryatun

village:
quran is exceptional.
N ote 3. fu'alu, with diptotic inflection (152), occurs as plural of fwld

(127): ntkhra
another: * ukharu (127 b).
N ote 4. Individual plurals ending in -atun retain in these words the plural
morpheme pattern: fa'alatun, fi( alatun, fu'alatun. See 105 a.
92. Plural morphemes formed with the suffix -On, fi'lanun and fu'lanun,
function primarily as individual plurals for animate beings. Through nu-
merous analogical formations, however, the use o f this plural form ation has
become widespread.
qhazalun 'gazelle' : ahizlanun. fatan

fi' la n u n : youth:
fityanun, jOrun'neighbor' : jiranun; fi'lanun is above all the
plural of 11-weak root substantives: .'wn'crown' : tfjanun,
kii'un 'wrist bones' : ki'anun, haitun 'wall' : hitanun.
N ote 1. The collective plural of fi'lanun is ^

a M7i (89 b): ahizlatun.
fityatun. Hkhwatun is the usual plural of akhun, with the
meaning
(natural) brothers
. ,ikhwanun is used in the sense of
'brethren' or
members of an order
.

w w v . k it a b o s u n n a t . c o m
fwlanun. farisun
r id e r , k n i g h t : fursanun, sabiyun
boy
: subydnun or sibydnun. fwlanun is f r e q u e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d w it h fwulun

(fu'lun). ghadirun
p o n d : ahudurun (88), ahudranun.
N o te 2. fwlanun is a ls o a n e x t e n d e d f o r m o f a d je c t i v a l p lu r a l (119).
Plural o f Four-Consonant M orphem e C ategories
93. a) All four-consonant: morpheme categories have as

broken" plurals
a lengthened stem that is morphologically marked by the vowel sequence
a-a-i/i. A basic rule applies, namely, that singular stems with short vowels
in the final syllables have i in the plural, wltile those with long vowels in
the final syllables liave irr the plural. Morpheme categories formed with
a-a-i/i, except; for fa'dlilatun (96), are diptotically inflected (152).
b) With regard to their plural formation, four-consonant morpheme

categories are: 1. four-radical and threeradical (four-consonant) mor-
phemes (62 e g ) ; 2. morplieme categories 'ormed witl prefixes (66); 3.
morplieme categories formed with long vowels or aw, ay in initial syllables
(62 d); 4. morpheme categories with long vowels in the second syllable of
the stem (62 c); 5. threeradical morpheme categories formed with suf-
fixes -0, -d
u, -an and endings -atun, iyatun, -uwatun that are treated like
IV-weak roots.
N o te 1. T h e b a s ic c a t e g o r ie s fa'dlilu, fa'dlilu h a v e v a r ia n t s w it h pre-
k e d n rpkrrre categories a-/ta-/ma-Ja.

ilu arrd a-/ta-/ma-/'ya-Janlu
a n d w it h m o r p h e m e c a t e g o r i e s w i t h d o u b l e d s e c o n d r a d i c a l fa
0.1ilu, fa'd
ilu.
N o te 2. S t e m fin a l in fa'dlilu o f III- a n d I V - w e a k r o o t s is t r e a t e d trip-
t o t i c a l l j, (-ill) in t h e n o m i n a t i v e a n d g e n it iv e , b u t d i p t o t i c a l l y (- iya )in th e
a c c u s a t i v e (156).
N o te 3. T h e p lu ra l o f laylatun
n i g h t is f o r m e d f r o m fo u r - r a d ic a l r o o t
l-y-l-y: layalin ( stem layall).
94. fa 'dlilu i
a-/ta-/ma-fd
ilu, etc.): dirhamun 'drachma' : !
dirahimu, kawkabun 'star' : kawakibu, tajribatun 'trial'
: tajaribu, nsba'un 'finger' : ) asabi'w, (Il-geminate roots)
mahallun 'st-ation' : mahallu; (III- and IV-weak roots) afan
)
-.kitabosunnat.com
Substantive 61
'viper' : > afain, marthiyatun 'elegy': marathin,

siiatun 'female demon' : sa
alin, tarquwatun 'collarbone' :
taraqm.
N ote 1. In 11-weak roots, w or y, insofar as it is a root element, regularly

appears as a consonant: maldmun, malamatun,
rebuke:
malawimu, ma'O&un
fault: ma'ayibu. Sometimes, however,
its usual plural is formed on the pattern fa' a'ilu (98): musibatun

misfortune: masdi.hu, manaratun 'minaret' : mana-
iru.
N ote 2. Root 1- words of the pattern mifaiun form plurals with the w
of the root or with y: r misamun
branding iron' : mawasimu,
mayasimu.
N ote 3. Some words of the pattern mafcbilu, like mahasinu 'good

qualities
, masawim (often masawin)
bad qualitiesare
encountered only in the plural.
95. fa<alilu (>a-/ a-/ma-/j/a-âf u, etc.):

shaytanun 'devil' :
shayatmu, tasrifun 'change' : tasarTfu 'vicissi-
tudes', mizanun (< *mivizanun) 'scales' : mawdzinu,

yanbucun 'spring, well' : yandbvu; (III- and iv-weak roots)
vghniyatun 'song' (33 b): aghamyu, kursfyun 'throne' :
karasiyu.
N ote 1. The /a' alilu pattern of III- and IV-weak roots can be abbreviated
to fa'alilu (93.2): 1 aahanin, / karasin.
N o te 2. Nisbah formations are infrequently treated like IV-weak roots:

. bukhtiyyun
Bactrian (two-humped) camel' : bakhatim.

bakKatm.
N ote 3. map (dun (passive participle, 223) has the plural mafd'ilu only
as a substantive: marsumun
decree: marasimu.
>
N ote 4. Words with in the first syllable frequently form their plurals by
repeating the second radical: dlwanun
divan' : , ^
dinarun
dinar: danamru, similarly dibajun
brocade,
qiratun : regular, however, nishanun
inch, unit of measure
sign: nayashmu.

N ote 5. Contrary to the basic rule in 93, sometimes fa' dlilu occurs in
place of /'alilu: h su lla m u n
leader: salalim u , salalimu,
m u tfilu n 'mother animal: m atafilu, m atafilu. In
poetry, the use of fa.( a lilu or /a' d lilu is largely determined by metre.
N ote 6. Words with more than four consonants are abbreviated in the plttral
fa 'd lt/ ilu : m a n ja m q u n
catapult: m aja n iqu ,
a n k a bu tu n
spider:
anakibu.
96. f a ' d l i l a t u n functions as a collective plural of forms that refer to

people (89 a): ja b b a r u n 'despot' : ja b a b ira tu n , t i l m i u n
'student' : ta la m id h a tu n , fa y la su fu n 'philosopher' :
fa ld sifa tu n , m u lh id u n 'heretic' : m alah idatu n .
N ote 1. This morpheme category can also occur in nisbah forms:

baqhdadiyyun
Baghdadi: baghadidatun. muhallabiyyun
'follower of Muhallab: mahalibatun; similarly in genitive construct,
names: (Abdu
llah : 'Abadilah, Im ru
u
1-Qays
: Mardqisah.
N ote 2. The plural m a la n k a tu n 'angel' of m a la k u n comes

from an older form m abakun.
97. fa w a 'ilu / fa w d ilu is a plural morpheme of words that have a, infre

quently , in the first syllable of tlie stem. The regular plural of substantive
J a n l a t i \s fda'-'tlu.
faw a'ilu: 'direction' : nawahin, qaim atm

leg
: qawanmu, farisun 'horsemair': fawarisu, qdlabun
'mold' : qawalibu, (Il-geminate root) khassatun
peculiarity:
khawassu. tuniyatun
tunic
: tawanin.
-.kitabosunnat.com
Substantive 63
N o te 1. fa w a 'ila tu n is also formed on the pattern fa'alilatun.

tu n isiy y u n 'Tunisian' : taw an isatun .
fa w a ' ilu : ta rik h u n (< rikhun)

history: taw arik h u .
tviin u n
plague: ta w d in u , tu m a r u n
scroll: tawavniru.
N o te 2. Singular forms with long vowels in the first or second syllable orig-
inate secondarily in post-classical plurals like
a w a m id u
columns
,
k h a w a tim u
seals
:
a m u d u n instead of
am udu n,
k h a ta m m instead of khatam un.
J d f\
98. /a'd il u occurs in morpheme categories that liave long vowels in the
second syllable of the stem, especially those formed with the feminine end-
ing -atun: sa h a b a tu n 'cloud': sahadbu, d h w a b a tu n 'lock'
(of hair): d h a w a ib u (< *d h cra
ib u 41 a), 'miracle'
:
a ja ib u , d a lilu n 'indication': d a la n lu ,
a ru su n
'bride':
aradsu.
N o te 1. j \ j > /l a ra d r u (without a singular) occurs suppletively as a femi-

nine plural of singular h u rru n
noble, free'.
99. a) The plural of ' , fvla, f w l d and substantive fa 'la u can be regular
fa'd im (stem f a all), on the pattern fw a lilu , or fa'ala,, which retains the -a
suffix: fa tw a (legal opinion' : fatauiin, fataw a, d h ifr a
'camel's sweat gland behind the ear' : d h a fa rin . d h a fd ra ,
u 'virgin'
'adkrd :
a d h a rin .
adhara.
N o te 1. By analogy with the formation described in 95.1, /a' a lilu forms

also occur, but infrequently: a d h a r iy u . dh a fariyu .
N o te 2. Occasionally, n isba h formations also have tile fa' ala plural pattern
(cf. 95.2): bu kh tiyyun
Bactrian camel' : bakhata.
m a h riy y u n
Mahra camel' : m ah arin, m ah ara, /-
r iy u ; n a s r a n iy y u n
Christian: n a sa rin , nascira,
n asariyu.

-.kitabosunnat.com
64 M orphology: Nominal Forms
N ote 3. The adjective pattern ( singular feminine or plural, 119; 122)

mostly has the plural f a ala, variant fu cala. In several cases, the primary
singular morpheme has become obsolete: y a ta m a 'orphans', plural of
( _yatim un .
b) faala occurs with Ill-weak roots in place o f faa'lilt (98) and

infrequently instead o f f a
il a t m : h a d iy a tu n 'gift' : hadaya,
h ira w a tu n 'club' : hardwa, z a w iy a tu n 'corner, angle' :
zaiuayh.
N ote 4. Note kh atvatu n 'sin' : k h atay a (67 a).
Plural o f Paucity, or a Small Number
100. The plural of a small number (3-10) p lu r a lis p a u c ita tis is indicated by
p i e k e < h - . ' t t h d u n l o t J m i k a , a f ' a k a l o t f ta lu u , 'a fT la h m for Jw alatuu
or J v a la t i, a j'ila u lo t J u . a l a i
,a f u l u n : n a h ru n 'river' : ,anhurun, aynun 'eye' :

>a
yunun, (Ill-weak root 34 a) 7'bucket' : > a d lin , am atun
'maid' (70a): amin (40).
N ote 1. Witli a II- root, ! a d w u ru n , plural of d a m n

dwelling
,
has the variants > a>arm,
adw run (41 b). n a q a tu n
female
camel' has additionally an alternative plural a y n u qu n .
a fa lu n . qadam un 'foot' : a q d a m u n , babun 'gate' :

abw abun, yaw m un 'day' : a y y a m u n (33 c), ' abun 'father' :
1aban in (40 and 72 b), b i n n
well' : ab'antn, a b a m n (41 b).
N ote 2. The ,a f a l pattern of sh a y n m

thingis treated as a diptote
under influence of the ending -aU (64 c): a s h y a i
a fila tu n . ja n a h u n 'wing' :
' ajnihatun, da w a m n remedy
: a d w iy a tu n ,
ila h u n (8) 'deity' : > aha wn(40), (Il-geminate
root) im a m u n 'model' : -ay im m a tu n (41 a).
a f i l a
u : qa rib u n 'relative' : aqriban, g h a n iy u n 'wealthy'
: ,a g h n i y a t

.I0tab.sunnat.com
Substantive 65
N o te 3. A small number is also expressed by the plural diminutive:

sunayyatun , from sanatun
several years year(70 b), 7

-

atun
several women', from niswatun
women(72 e).
Sound (Inflected) Plural
101. The inflected plural endings, masculine -unaf-ina. feminine -atun/

-are used only to a limited extent for substantives. Adjectives (par-
ticiples) used as substantives frequently take inflected plurals. As such,
-una may be used for masculines referring to people, and -atun for femi-
nines referring to prople and things: sariqun
stealing, thief
,
sariqatun 'thief' (fern.) : sdriquna 'thieves', sariqatun
'thieves' (fern.); masruqun 'stolen, loot' : r * masruqatun;
tdlibiyyun 'descended from AbQ Talib, Talibite' : talibiyyu-
na. Generally, corresponding
brokenplurals also occur for such
sound
plurals: saraqatun, surraqun 'thieves', sawariqu (fem.).
102. The pattern fa,ldlun, nisbah-forms (216), and diminutives form in-
fleeted plurals exclusively and, as a rule, have no corresponding
broken
plurals: shuway'irun 'lesser poet' : shuwayiruna,
shuwayim 'trifle' : iu w a y
atun. Exceptions are rare; cf. 95.2:
96.1; 99.2. In addition, verbal substantives and participles of the derived
verbal stems, as well as the passive participle maf'iilun, usually have only
inflected plurals: taghayyurun 'change' : taghayyuratun,
musirun 'mentor' : musiruna. tafasilu and m afa'i/ilu (95) can oc-
cur on occasion as plurals for morpheme categories taf'ilun and mufii/alun,
mafulun. Occasionally, 'afd'ilu occurs as plural of
ifalun: imla'un
'dictation': ,amalin (95.1).
N ote 1. Personal names can take the inflected plural: (
a)I-

umardna
the Umars a)t-talahatatu
, ( the Talhas(masc.),
>( a)l-a&ala w (105)
women named A bla
; the names of months
may have -un: ( ..)(-mu(tarma w, rarely >( tt)l-ma(id-
rimu,
the months of Muharram
. The plural of four-consonant names is
usually ) a)[-yardbl'u
the people of Ban. YarbU
.
. >
kitabosunnat '-*
103. a) The following primary substantives form plurals with -una:

a rd u n 'earth' : a rd u n a ,
a ra d u n a (also >.aradatuTV) cf,
105),
ah lun *people, inhabitants' :
ahluna, )i) b n u n 'son'
(72 c): banuna. In preclassical Arabic, -una is sometimes used for
the individual plural of living beings: abdu n *slave' : ab d iin a.
N ote 1. See 131 concerning the use of -Una with numerals.
N ote 2. illiy y u n a
highest spheresis treated as a plural, even
though its origin is Hebrew e j,0n.
b) Substantives of tile pattern C a / i/ u C - a tu n (70 a) mainly have -Una and

-atun plural forms: k u ra tu n ball: k u ru n a (37.1), kuratun ;
ri'atun 'lung' : r iiin a , r i atu n ; sa n a tu n *year: sinu-
na (37.1), san aw a tu n ; h an u n
something(72 d) : hanatun,
h a n a w a tu n 'things, whatnot
, h a n u n a 'this one and that one'.
N ote 3. The following words do not have -Una plurals: hum atun

sting: hum atun, lith a tu n *gum' : lithatun, lithan.
104. a) _U wn forms individual pjurals of feminine living beings: n u n

'mother' : m m a t u n , u m m a h a tu n ; bintun, >( f)&na un
'daughter' : banatun,
ukhtun 'sister' : >akhawdtun.
a m m a tu n (paternal) 'aunt' : ' am m atun.
b) Unless usage favors a

brokenplural (102), all abstracts, verbal
substantives, and nouns referring to inanimate objects may form plurals
with -atun: jih a t u n *direction' : jih a tu n , lib a su n 'clothing'
: libasatun.
N ote 1. In foreign words of recent origin, -atun occurs also as a plural

of forms referring to masculine individuals; ba sh a
Pasha:
b a sh ta tu n .
105. a) In singulars which have the feminine ending -atun, -atun re-
places the singular ending, and in tile process morpheme categories â'latuu,
jv la tu n , u l a b m \\\\ \: varvakUyn the s i n t o 0 0,- ta b .: -

- k i t a b o s u nat.cm
Substantive 67
Iju'uly. d a rb a tu n
. d a ia bd tu u , " k isra tu n
.tagr
ment' : kisaratu n , kisira tu n , zu lm a tu n 'darkness' :
zu lam atu n , zu lu m a tu n . The stem variation may be suppressed in fi/ u la tu n
kisratun, zu lm atu n .
N ote 1. There is no such change in the stem in Il-geminate and 11-weak

roots: shaddatun 'assault' : shaddatun, hay'atun 'form' :
.
N ote 2. The feminine plural of adjectival fa'lun is fa'latun (115).
b) -atun is suffixed to - - and, as a result, the phonological rules

in 35 b take effect: dhikra 'memory' : dhikravdtun,
hubla 'pregnant' : / khadram 'herb' :
âdrduiatuu.
N ote 3. Exceptionally, stem final - behaves in tile same way in

samanin
heaven: 8) ).
N ote 4. w or j, appears before - in Ill-weak roots with stem-final

- salatun
prayer: 1
salawatun, qanatun
tube:
qanaydtun; rriultaqan
meeting:
multaqayatun (35 a).
Com bined Plural M orphem es
106. a) Since the plural of a small number (100) is interpreted as a collec-

tive, its plural is formed accordingljr as ,afa'i/U u: ra h tu n 'one's people'
: arh u tu n 'several of such groups of people' = 'tribe' : > a ra h itu
'tribes qa w lu n 'saying, doctrine' : a q w a lu n 'doctrines, sayings'
: a q a w ilu 'groups of (common) doctrines, sayings', ya d u n 'hand'
: ' aydin 'several hands, assistance' : a y a d in 'acts of assistance'.
Note 1. The /a' a lilu plural pattern for plurals ending in - figures in:
,a r d m
earth: a ra d u n a : a r a d in
grounds
,
,ahlun
people, inhabitants: > ah lun a :
a h d lin 'population'.
N ote 2. baladun
place: biladun
places' =
country:
buldanun
countriesis unique.

b) Occasionally -7 forms individual plurals of

broken" plurals:
sa h ib a tu n 'companion' (fern.) : sa w a h ib u : sawa-
hibdtun, ja m a lu n 'camel' : jim a lu n : jimalatun,
ba ytu n 'tent, house, family' : bu yu tu n : bu yu tatu n 'noble
families'.
Dual
107. The dual indicates two individuals or examples of t.he same. It is

formed by adding to the singular the endings - a n if- a y n i (147) where the
case suffixes would be: ' a m u n 'year' : a m a n i 'two years
,
s a n a tu n 'year': s a n a ta n i 'two years'.
N ote 1. When the dual endings are added to -a,

', the phonological rules
in 35 a and b are in effect: f a ta n
youth: fata y a n i,

a sa n
stick: a sa w a n i , shak w a 'complaint' :
shak w ayan i, h irb a m n
chameleon: hirbaw ani.
108. a) Two paired persons or things can be expressed by the dual of

one of them: >( a)[-abavmni
the parents', dual of abun 'father',
>( a ) l- H a sa n a n i 'Hasan and Husayn', ' ( .) ffm a ra m 'sun and
moon', dual of q a m a ru n 'moon'.
N ote 1. Adjectives and elatives have substantive duals with enigmatic

meanings: <) )l-a b y a d a n i
the two whites', i.e.,
water and milk
,
(
.) -
ahradani
the two colds', i.e., evening and morning
.
N ote 2. When pairs are distinguished by different attributes, the attributes

are in the singular: k isa
d m ,ab ya d u w a-
akhdaru

two piec^ of clothing, one white and one green', i.e.,
a white and a green
garment
.
b) The dual of collectives or of collective plurals indicates duality of

the example or ()uantity: o h a n a m u n 'small livestock' : ghanam a-
Tii 'two small livestock herds', r im d h u n (sing. rum hun)
lances:
r im a h a n i 'two groups of lances'.
N ote 3. A n o m e n u n ita tis (84 a) may form an individual dual:

h a m a m a ta n i 'two doves'.

Substantive 69
109. a) The dual particle kila,, fern. kilta (64.1) is followed by a

genitive or personal pronoun suffix: kila, hadhavni 'both of these',
kilta
l-jannatayni 'both gardens', or kilana 'both of U S ',
kilakuma 'both of you'.
N o te 1. Instead of a genitive dual, two genitives in the singular may occur:

kila
s-sayfi TO-
r-rumhi
both, the sword and the lance'.
b) kila, kilta, are indeclinable in combination wi .h substantives in the

genitive: f i kila
l-baladayni 'in both places'. With personal
suffixes, the oblique forms are: kilay, kiltay: bi-kilayna
with us both',
ft
l-wadiyayni kilayhima 'in both wadis'.
N o te 2. Expressions with kila, kilta are treated grammatically as singu-

lars: kila,
l-abdayni ra
aha
both slaves saw her'. Dual
constructions ad sensum occasionally occur.
Gender o f Substantives
110. Substantives are classified into two grammatical genders: masculine

and feminine. Masculine substantives are those that are not distinguished
by the feminine ending or are not treated as feminine because of meaning.
Feminines by morphological form are those substantives with the feminine
ending -atm, -a, -
(64): muddatun 'period of time', dhikra
'memory', fusayfisaai 'mosaic'.
N o te 1. As a feminine ending -atun forms feminines that refer to persons:

khdlun
maternal uncle' : khalatun
maternal aunt
, fatan

youth: fatatun
young woman
.
N o te 2. Masculines ending in -atun that refer to persons (73 a) are treated

grammatically as mascirlines. Usually, > hayyatun
snakeis masculine,
but also occasionallj, feminine.
111. Because of their meanings, the following substantives are grammati-

cally feminine:
a) Words that indicate feminine beings: m m u n

mother
,
ajuzun 'old woman'. Cf. for th i

s 113.1, adjectives.
.
N o te 1. The names of animals are treated as feminines, if the female

is intended: thaialmn fox, as feminine vixen
. Conversely,
farasun
mare
, when it means
horse
, is masculine.
b) The names of countries, cities, etc., if they are diptotes (153):

misru 'Egypt', jahannamu 'Hell'.
c) Collectives and
broken plurals" (84 ff.).
N o t e 2. Generic collectives are as a rule masculine (84.1). All collec-

tives and collective plurals may be treated, contrary to the basic rule, as ad
sensum plurals, if they are intended as individual plurals of living beings,
especially people.
d) A series of words, such as nafsun 'soul' (273),

ardun
'earth', rihun 'wind', narun 'fire', shamsun 'sun', birun
'well', darun 'dwelling', harbun 'war', as well as the names of
body parts tlrat appar in pairs, such as Jo rjadun 'hand', rijlun 'foot',
aynun 'eye', 1 udhnun 'ear', and still others details about wliich can
be found in the lexicons.
112. a) In analogy to the words enumerated in 111, many semantically

related words are optionally treated as feminines, e. g.: ruhun 'spirit',
jahimun 'hellfire', sulhun 'peace', the names of winds like
saban 'east wind', the names of body parts like sinnun 'tooth', the
names of substances like dhahabun 'gold', milhun 'salt' or
markabun 'silip', by association with sajinatun 'ship', etc. For gender,
usage fluctuates in su :h cases from period to period, occasionally from
author to author, so t.hat no consistent rule can be laid down.
b) With reference to general concepts like U T kalimatun 'word',

harfun 'letter, particle', when cited in a text, words, particles, morphemes,
etc., are .rsually feminine, less frequently masculine: ma
1-hija-
ziyyatu the hijazi
m a
, (
a)l-a,Hfu
l-maqsuratu (see 10.3).

Adjective 71
Adjective
113. a) As attribute and predicate, the adjective agrees in gender with
the substantive it modifies. The masculine is unmarked. The feminine is
indicated by -atun (cf. 110.1) on primary adjectives that agree in gender:
yaw rnun b a rid u n 'a cold day', la y la tu n b a rid a tu n 'a cold
night'. Primary adjectives can form plurals with the - I I I (masc.), -atun
(fem.) endings.
N o te 1. Adjectives that specifically refer to feminine qualities, as a rule,

do not take the feminine ending: )) m r a a tu n ta liq u n 'divorced
women
; nevertheless, there are rare exceptions: m u r d i
atun, rarely
m u rd i'u n
nursing, wet nurse'.
b) Adjectives that agree secondarily have suppletive feminine and plu-

ral morpheme patterns (119). Adjectives that do not, agree have no dis-
tinguishing feminine or plural morpheme (121).
N o t e 2. Adjectives can become substantives: k h a d im u n

serving
and
servant, maid-servant
, ba tilu n nulland nothingness, prattle'.
Cf. also 73.
114. a) The ending of the inflected plural -una may refer only to mas-
culine individuals, and -atun to feminine individuals and to the names
of things: m u s lim u n a sa lih u n a 'pious Muslims',
m u s lim a tu n sa lih a tu n 'pious Muslim women',
ada-
tun sa lih a tu n 'pious practices'. In analogy to

brokenplurals, the names of
tilings are usually treated in the plural as feminine singulars:
a d a t i salihatun.
b) The plural adjective forms may function independently of the gram-

matical gender of the modified substantive. Thus, these adjectival forms
may modify
broken" plurals and collectives ad sen su m , even if grammat-
ically the substantives are singulars (masc. or fern.): rija -
lun sa lih u n a 'pious men', n i s a i sa lih a tu n 'pious women',

d u m i h n d h a rifa tu n and d u in u cu n d h a rifa tu n
flow-
.
www.kitab.sunnat.com
72 M orphology: Nominal Forms
ing tears', " nakhlun basiqatun and " nakhlnn &0sJwnor

towering datepalm s'(84 a), qawmun salihuna
5& si tt wn
'pious people, pious nation' (86 a).
N o te 1. With substantives that refer to people, grammatical agreement

occurs infrequently : qawmun salihun, nisa
un
saUhatun.
N o te 2. The
tirokenplural is frequently preferred in adjectives (122 f.)
over the inflecte '! plural.
c) Strict agreement is t.he rule in the dual: rajulani sa-

lihani 'two pious men', ) laylatani baridatani 'two cold nights'.
115. Prim ary adjectives tliat agree include: 1. Participles (223 2 ;(..
nisbah adjectives (116 3 ;(.. verbal adjectives in the m orpheme cate-
gories fa
alun, fa'ilun (fa'ulun), fa
lun (105.2), fu<lun like: hasanun
'good, handsome', 'difficult', murrun'bitter'; 4. intensive
adjectives in the m orphem e categories faalun, fv'ilun like ba k k a i
'weepy', siddiqun 'upright'; 5. adjectives in the m orphem e category
fwlanun like curydnun 'naked'; cf. also 119.1.
N o te 1. fanlun of 11-weak roots is always formed with yy (68 c).
N o te 2. A verbal sulistantive in the role of adjective does not agree:

adlun : shahidun 'a i m
probity an honest witness ,
hulumun 'dream': dhikratun hulumun
a dreamlike m em ory.
116. Th e so-callerl nisbah-ending -iyyun forms denominal adjectives that

indicate belon gin g or re-lationship ( nisbatun): aqlun 'reason' :
'rational', mfsrw 'Egypt' :
Egyptian
,
asadun (name o f a tribe) :
asadiyyun 'belonging to Asad, a
m em ber o f the Asad tribe'. The feminine -iyyatun frequently forms abstract
substantives (73 c; 76).
,
Adjective 73
N ote 1. The short form -iy-un > -in (-155)occurs ill ta h a m in from
tih a m a tu n
Tihamah(West Arabian coastal plan), y a m a n in
from )
) -Y am an u 'Yemen', . a m i n from ( ,a)sh-Sham u

Syria. The regular n isbah's yarrian iyyun anil s h a n y y u n also
occur.
N ote 2. -ij,j,-na (oblique plural 147) is occasionally abbreviated to -in a :

a 'ja m ln a from a y a m iy y u n
non-Arab
.
N ote 3. See 95.2 and 99.2 concerning the plural fa 'a liy u {fa:dll, f a
ala)
of the nisbah-ending.
N ote 4. See 86.4; 119.4 concerning -ij,j,n in the formation of terms

indicating individuals.
N ote 5. N isbah -adjectives can also be formed from adjectives: <

w a jiy y u n (pedigree of horses) from a'w aju
a crooked
.
N ote 6. N isbah -adjectives formed from plurals that signify objects serve as
names of occupations: ku tu biyyu n 'book dealer' from kutubun

books(sing, u t r kitabun), sd
d ij,j,nn
clock maker' from
sa
atun
clocks(sing. s a
a tu n
hour, clock
).
117. When the msta/i-ending is affixed, the feminine ending -atun is

dropped: basriyyun 'coming from Basrah' from ) a)l-Basratu,

dmmiyyun
popularfrom
ammatun
common p eop le
. On the
other hand, it is added to - (-
: dunyci 'this world: dun-
yawiyyun 'earthly', sahraii 'desert' : sahratviyyun 'desert-
like' (35.3). In the same way, w comes between st.em final - of Ill-weak
noun forms and the nisfcah-ending: ma
nan 'meaning, idea' :
ma
nawiyyun 'pertaining to meaning, conceptual'. Two-radical substantive
(Ill-weak roots; 72 a) are treated analogically: luyhatun 'language' :
lughawiyyun
, lexic(ographic)al, linguistic, philological
.
N ote 1. A post-classical nisbah-ending in -aw iyyu n is added to place

names with the feminine ending -atun. i M a kk atun
Mecca:
m akkaw iyyun, instead of classical m akkiyyun. On occasion, -an iy yu n
occurs instead: S a n a
u
S a n a : s a n
aniyyun.
>
7-1 Morphology: Nominal Forms
N ote 2. In several cases, --, replaces -iy y u n : fa w qd n iy yu n

upperfrom fa w q u
up(317), rfih a n iyy u n
spiritualfrom
ru h u n 'spirit'.
118. When the ni,5&a/i-ending is affixed to the morphemes fa'il, fa'll, they
cliange to fa'al, wliile fu 'a y l cltanges to 'al: 'm m ir u n (name of a
tribe) : ' n a m a riy y u n , ' & prophet' : nabaw iyyun ,
q u ra y sk u n (name of a tribe) : qu rashiyyun . There is no such cliange
witli Il-geminate roots: h a qiqa tu n 'reality' : h a qiqiyyu n 'real'.
N ote 1. y a th ra b iy y u n , in addition to yathribiyyun, are formed

analogously from Y athribu (the former name of Medina). Note also
td
iy y u n f.-om ta y yvu n (name of a tribe).
N ote 2. Frequently there is no change in the stem in post-classical Ara-

bic: m a d in iy y u n for classical m a d a n iy y u n from ) a) -
M a d in a tu
Medina
. Nevertheless, such formations are attested early:
ru d a y n iy y u n
well-straightened spear, spear of Rudaynah
.
N ote 3. N isb a h forms of compound names and names that belong to no

particular morplieme category are shortened: h a d r tm iy y u n from
h a d r a m a w tu
Hadramaut(province in South Arabia), ta-
lib iy y u n
from I'.he family of Abu Talib'.
119. Adjectives tliat agree secondarily are: fa'lan u , fern, fa'Id, pi. fa'did,
fw a la like k a sld n u 'lazy', fern. kasla, plural kasa-
la, kusald, as well as adjectival a f a l u that indicates colors and physi-

cal defects:
a f a lv , fern, fa'l& > a r a ju ,
u, pi. fu 'lu n (f w l a n u n ) like
fern. arjani, ' lame'; a b y a d u , fen. bayda'u,
pi.
pi. b ld u n (33 b) 'wliite'; a d a m u (40), fern. adm d'u , pi.
lid m u n , udmdnun 'liglit-colored'.

N ote 1. fa 'la n u anti 'a fa lu , fa'ld'u are diptotically inflected (152). Oc-
casionally, fa 'ld n u n occurs as a triptote, from wliich a feminine with -a un
is formed: n a d m a n u or n adm an u n , fern. nadm anatun
. < _
- . k it a b o s u n n a t . c o m
Adjective 75
N ote 2. C o n t r a r y t o t h e r u le s o f a g r e e m e n t (113 f.), fa'lrvu m ay occu r
o n ly f o r f e m i n i n e s in g u la r s , b u t n o t f o r p l u r a l s a n d c o l l e c t i v e s , fu'lun m u st

a lw a y s b e u s e d i n s t e a d : hamarnun wurqun
a s h - c o l o r d o v e s' ,
buyutun sufrun y e l l o w h ou ses

.
N ote 3. kumaytun ja m u n
b a y ( h o rse ) a n d
c o l o r f u l , d a rk '
ta k e fwlun a s p lu r a l: kumtun, ,.
N ote 4. kudriyyun ' Q a t a - b ir d o f t h e kudr-t y p e a n d -

niyyun ' Q a t a - b ir o f th e j'W n - ty p e ' o c c u r a s i n d iv i d u a l n o u n s o f kudrun
d r a b ( s in g .
akdaru) and junun
c o l o r f u l ( N o t e 3), a s t h e y a r e
u s e d a s t h e n a m e s o f b ir d s .
120. Adjectives in the morpheme categories fa'ilun and fa' ulun agree
gra.mmatically to a limited extent. As a basic rule, fa'ilun with a passive
sense and Ulun with an active sense do not agree: ,aynun kahilun
eye darkened with kohl(1lid ) , kadhubun

false vision
.
Usage, however, is frequently at odds with the basic, rule, and fa'ulun is t,he
form tliat usually does not agree.
N ote 1. kathirun
m a n y a n d qalilun
f e w s o m e t i m e s d o n o t
a g r e e in t h e p lu r a l: ) (rijdlun (nisaiin) kathirun

m any
m e n (w o m e n )'.
N o te 2. A n i n f le c t e d p lu r a l c a n b e f o r m e d o n fa'ilun w h e n it d o e s a g r e e :
qaliluna 'few ', fa'ulun h a s o n l y a b r o k e n p lu r a l, u s u a ll y fwulun.
121. Adjectives in the expanded morpheme categories fu'alun, fwalun,

fwalun, fa'alun, fi' alun and mifalun, mifdlun, mifilun do not agree. Tliey
do not vary as they modify masculines, feminines, and plurals:
bintun mulahun (mullahun) 'an exceptionally beautiful girl',
fatdtun miksalun 'a lady who does not need to work', nuqun
hijdnun
well-bred camels (fern.)'.
N ote 1. mifalun, mifilun can have mafd'ilu (95) a s )lural. B r o k e n
p l u r a l s a ls o o c c u r f o r o t h e r m o r p h e m e c a t e g o r i e s : 1 hijanun: p lu r a l
hajaHnu.

BrokenPlurals o f A djectives
122. The following morpheme categories are used as plural masculines and
feminines o f adjectives:
fa
Id : h a m iq u n stupid: h a m q a , h aliku n 'perishing' :
halka, qa tilu n 'killed' : . la.
fa 'a id , f u ' d la (for

99(: samjun, samijun, samijun 'ugly'
: samaja , sumaja, cf. also 119.
fu 'u lu n (fu'lun 88): kadhubun 'lying': kudhubun, 6 a

dinun, badinun 'corpulent': budunun, budnun.
fi' d lu n (88): k h afifun 'light' (of weight) : khifdfun,

ja y y id u n 'good' : jiy a d u n .
)a f a l u n (100): hum 'free, noble' : ,ahrarun, sifrun,

safrun, safirun 'empty' : ,asfarun.
fu ' u lu n (88): qd'idun 'sitting' : qu'udun.
f w a lu n , f u d l u n see 90.
123. a) The morplteme categories fw a la 'u (of Ill-weak roots, fw a la tu n

90) and ' a fila ' u (100) function as masculine plurals: ja b an u n
cowardly, coward' : ju b a n a n t , Ja qiru n 'poor, poor person' :

fuqarayu, k a sin 'clothed' : k u sa tu n , g h a n iy u n 'wealthy,
wealthy person' : aqhniyd
u.
b) fawa'ilu (97) is used as a feminine plural, but also as a common plu-

ral: ntsa>wn 0 ' unbelieving women'. Occasionally, '
1
occurs as a feminine plural of adjectives (98; 121.1).
Quantity
Elative
a fa lu
124. The morpheme category 'afalu designates an attribute or thing as

preeminent: ' akramu
especially oble, very noble, more noble, most
n oble
. It functions as an elative of all nominal derivatives, whatever tire

Quantity 77
root m ig h t be: alhanu 'm o re m e lo d io u s ' fr o m lahnun 'm elod y',
' a'qadu m o r e k n o t t e d fr o m mumqqadun , ,aqallu

k n ot,ted
'fewer' fr o m qalilun 'few', > aqsa ve r y far' fro m qasiyun 'far'.
Often, sev era l d e r iv a tio n s a re p o s s ib le : akramu. 1. I n o r e n o b l e fr o m
kartmun
n o b le
: 2.
b e s t o w in g m o r e h o n o r fr o m mukrimm
'bestow in g honor'.
N o te 1. In 11-weak roots, w or y is always consonantal: ,a tw a

u
'more obedientfrom td i'u n or m u tv u n

obedient(root t-w-i),
'akhwafu. 1.
more fearfulfrom khaHfun 'fearful': 2.
more
dreaded' from m ak h ufu n
dreaded(root kh-w -f ), ,a ty a bu

betterfrom ta y y ib u n
good(root t-y-b).
N o te 2. khayrun
goodand sharrun 'evil, badalso function as
elatives without any change in form:
better, bestand
worse, worst'. Only
in post-classical Arabic do
akhyaru,
asharru occasionally occur
as elatives.
N o t e 3. Adjectival afcalu (119) is not used in classical Arabic as an

elative. Paraphrases, like jashaddu bayadan
even whiter(Note
4), are used instead. The comparative use (125) occurs not infrequently in
post-classical Arabic: abyadu min
whiter, brighter than . ..
N o te 4. In combination with the indefinite accusative (384), elatives

are used in a general sense to paraphrase an otherwise ambiguous elative:
asra'u ,adwan
swifter in runningrather than , to
distinguish it from > r fa 'more hostile' from
aduwun 'enemy'.
125. a) The elative is inflected as a diptote (152). As a rule, it may not

take the article (exception 127) and does not, therefore, agree grammat,-
cally with the substantive that it modifies. Besides indicating a quality of
preeminence, the elative also functions as a comparative. When followed
by the genitive (126), it expresses the superlative.
b) To express the comparative, the elative is paired with m in
(299 d) ('than'): . 'atw alu m in n a k h la tin 'taller than a d a te

palm', ) a)n -n aqatu 'a sm a n u m in n a q a tin a 'that camel
(fern.) is fatt.er than ours'. The comparative usage can also be determined
*
w '.ki abosunna .com
by context: ta y n a h u m d ir h a m a n ,aw ,akthara 'we

,a
gave them one dirham or more', ' ayyu
l-m a la yn i )aqarru
lir
a y n ik a 'which of these two possesions gives you more pleasure?'.
N o te 1. I n a c o m p a r a t i v e s e n t e n c e , t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e c o n t r a s t e d p h r a s e fol-
l o w s a n d is d e p e n d e n t o n m in, i f it is a n o m i n a l p h r a s e :
m a laka 'ashrafu m in k a l i
I a m m o r e r e s p e c t f u l o f y o u th a n y o u
a re o f m e
. A verbal p h ra se b e g in s w it h s u b o r d in a t in g m a (416):
kuntu 1ak hw afa

alayka m im m a
(45) k u n tu ;n a f s i
I w a s m o r e fe a r fu l f o r y o u t h a n I w a s f o r m y self'.
c) The elative without the article and rvith or without m in can appear
in all positions in whiclr a.n indefinite noun can occur, i.e., especially as pred-
icate or in apposition to an indefinite governing form {regens): 1 -
la h u >afc ru 'God is (incomparably) great', la stu m bi-'akdhaba
'you are no more dec.eitful (than anyone else)', m a
la q itu n a s a n
a q bah a m in h u m 'Never have I met worse people than them'.
The elative also O C C U I'S as an object: fa - in n a h ii y a ia m u
s - s ir r a w a-
akhfa (Koran 20:7) 'for He knows all that is secret (in man) and
what is more deeply liiflden'.

126. The elative has tile superlative meaning wlren followed by the geni-
tive:
a) When the genitive is indefinite (387), the superlative has an abso-

lute sense: a fd a lu ra ju lin 'the most excellent man (there is)',
a ' ld jib a lin 'the highest (known) mountains'. Often, a restrictive
complement follows: k u n tu
ah dath a r a ju lin fih im
I
was the youngest man anrong them'.
N o t e 1. N o t e e x p r e s s io n s w ith th e e la tiv e s u c h as: kana

1a sh a d d a sh a y d n 1a la y h i
he w a s extl"em e)y v io le n t a g a in s t im',
ya ktubu >a q a lla m a ya k u n u

he wtes litlC 3S ,possible
,.
. \ _ \ \ a bah.u m a yakunu
s-sid q u Jx
s-svayati,
s i n c e r i t y i s w o r s t in s l a n d e r (
fi
s- sv a y a ti is t h e p red ica te! ).

-'.kitabosu n n at.c.m
Quantity 79
'The more . . .the more

is expressed by using this phrase two times:
*'akhw afu m a tak un u
l-'am m atu ,a-
m a n u ma, tak un u
l- w u z a r a n 'the more fearful are the people, the more
sure are the viziers(cf. also 463).
b) In the same way, the elative has a superlative meaning with the
(always definite) partitive genitive (387 b). It is always substantivized:
'a'ia
1 - jib i 'the highest of the mountains', bi-
a'la
sa w tih i
with his loudest voice'.
N o t e 2. k h a v ru n and s h a r r u n (124.2) are treated like elatives

that do not agree grammatically: ft k h a y ri d a r in 'in the best
home', >antum k h a v ru
l-'arabi
you are the best of the
Arabs'.
127. a) With the article, the definite elative (

a f a k is used for the
a)l-
masculine singular. As its feminine counterpart, the suppletive form / 'is

used, ,a fia lu n a or ,a fa 'ilu (94) is used for the masculine plural, fw la y d t u n
or fu alu is used for the feminine plural. In this form, the ela.tive is used
as a substantive or adjective modifying a definite substantive: - (")
asgharu 'the younger, the youngest', '( a)s-su ah ra 'the younger,
, ) a )l-akdbiru 'the oldest ones', bi-
the youngest (fern.)
saw tih i 'with his loudest voice', ) a ) d - d a ra ja tu 'l-<ulya
'the upper (highest) steps'.
N ote 1. In post-classical Arabic, f u la also appears with indefinite substan-

tives: d a ra ja tu n ulya 'a higher (highest) step
.
b) The suppletive forms f w l a and f w a lu also occur with ,a w w a lu

'first' and ,akharu (< *
ak h aru ) 'other': fern. sing.
a la,
Ir a , masc. pi. ,aw w aluna, 1 ak h a ru n a and ' aw dilu,
fern. pi. ,uwalu, i h a r u and nikhrayatun. ,awwalu,
as an elative that does not agree grammatically, also appears in construe-
tions with the genitive: aw w a lu k ita b in ,
'the rst book
awwalu ,l-
am ri 'the beginning of the matter', ,a w w a lu 'm ra
a tin
or 1a l- m a r a tu
1-yfda 'the first woman'.

kitab.sunnat.com
N ote 2. Tlie construction of

ak h iru n follows that of ,awwalu.
It can occur in combination with a following indefinite genitive:

ak h iru y a w in in
the last (possible) day', as opposed to () )-
yawrrm ,l-
ak h iru
the last day (of a series of days)
, 1< * dkh ira mar-
ra tin 'for the last time(315 b),
ak h iru
l-layli
the end of tire
night'.
Formulas o f Astonishment m a ,a f i a l a
128. In combination with m a 'what', ,a fia la forms the so-called formula

of astonishment. The subject follows in the accusative or as a pronom-
inal suffi :
ma ,ak rarna 'l-Yimira Irow noble is the prince!',
ma
abah a da ka n layya '!row loathsome are you to me!',
ma
a d a m a n t li-dh alik a 'how well do I know that!'. Indeclinable
kana com'ing before
a fia la indicates the preterite (190): ma
k d n a a sb a ra h u 'lrow patient was he!'.
N ote 1. Infrequently, and only itr poetry, the formula occurs without the
following accrrsative: ma >0krama
how noble!'.
N ote 2. The formula

a fiil hi- has tire same meaning: V ahiuin bihi

how disdainful is he!
. Often it appears with the accusative of specificity
(384) or with m in (299 c): > a k rim bih a a a an or
m in fa t a t in
what a noble woman is she!
.
Numerals
129. a) Tire cardinal numbers from 1 to 10 are:

For masculine For feminine
1 wahidun W)a(ifd wi
2 >( i)hnani (
i)thnatani, thintani (64.1)
3 t h a l l a t i thalathun
4 1 arbafatun > arba'un
khamsatun khamsun
6 s itt a ti sittun
7 sab'atun , sablun
8 thamaniyatun thamdnin (155)
9 t is ' a t i e tis i
10 < asharati
ashrun
>
w w w . k it a b o s u n n a t . c o m
Q u a n t it y 81
N ote 1. w a h id u n is a n a d je c t i v e : q a ry a tu n w a h id a tu n a
s i n g l e v i l l a g e (141 b). W h e n u s e d a s a s u b s t a n t i v e , 'on e' is a h a d u n ,

fem . Hhda: ,ah a d u h u m
o n e o f th e m
. C f. a ls o 131.1.
N ote 2. (>i)th n dni h a s t h e d u a l i n f le c t i o n (147). It c a n a p p e a r w it h th e
d u a l fo r e m p h a s is: q a ry a ta n i
th n a ta n i
tw o v illa g e s
.
b) T h e n u m b e r s 3 -1 0 h a v e f o r m s w i t h - a fu n in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h m a s-
c u lin e c o u n t e d s u b s t a n t i v e s , t h e b a s i c f o r m w it h f e m in in e s . T h i s a l s o h o l d s
tru e w h e n t h e c o u n t e d is u n n a m e d : h a iila n
tli-thalathatu
th e se
th r e e ( m en )
, m a d a t >ar a ?m
f o u r ( n ig h ts ) p a s s e d
. T h esu b sta n -
tiv e f o l l o w s t h e n u m e r a l in t h e g e n i t i v e p lu r a l: sab'u s a r iq d tin

'seven t h ie v e s (fern.)'. W it h b r o k e n p lu r a ls , t h e g e n d e r o f t h e s i n g u l a r
g o v e rn s: k h a m sa tu r ija lin 'fiv e m e n ', k h a m su n i s a i n

'five w o m e n ' . A p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s u f f ix m a y a p p e a r in st.e a d o f a s u b s t a n -
tive: th a ld th a tu h u m
t h e t h r e e o f th e m
. T h e n u m b e r s ca n fo llo w
as a t t r i b u t i v e s : r ija lu n th a m d n iy a tu n
e ig h t m en
,
(>a)n-nisd
u
th -th am an i 'th e e i g h t w o m e n ' . O n t h e a g r e e m e n t in s u c h co n -
tr u c tio n s , s e e 354399 .
N ote 3. C o l l e c t i v e s c a n o c c u r in t h e g e n i t i v e s in g u la r : ' ash a ratu

ra h tin te n p e r s o n s .
Note 4. T o m a k e n u m e r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s d e fin it e , t i l e art.icle is p l a c e d e it h e r
b e fo r e th e su b s ta n tiv e , b e f o r e th e n u m b er, o r e v e n b e f o r e b o th :
tis'atu
l-kutubi, o r ( - 5 kutubin,
) or
(a) - is'a u ,l-kutubi ' th e n in e b o o k s
.
Note 5. F o r m s o f t h e n u m e r a l s e n d i n g in - a t m a r e u s e d t o e x p r e s s ab-
s t r a c t n u m b e r s a n d , lik e p r o p e r n a m e s , a r e i n f le c t e d d i p t o t i c a l l y (152):
sitta tu . a f c . r u m in k h a m sa ta
s i x is m o r e t h a n fiv e
.
N ote 6. S im ila r ly , bid'un

s e v e r a l o c c u r s w it h t h e g e n i t i v e :
) (bicbu r ija lin (n isd
in)
s e v e r a l m e n ( w o m e n ) '. S e e a l s o 130.2.

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hlorphology: Nomina Forms
130 . a) T h e cardinal numbers from 11 to 19 are:

For masculine For
For fei
feminine
11 ' ahada a sh a r a !' ashrata

12 <),:( ?a sh a ra I J s [ H)thnata
ashrata
\ th a la th a ta ,a sh a ra thalatha 'ashrata
14 arba a ta ca sh a ra )a rb a
a
ash rata
15 k h a m sa ta *a sh a ra k h a n s a,
ashrata
16 a s itta ta ^ .ra sttta ,ash rata
sa h tita ,a sh a ra C r s a h a ,a sh ra ta
18 th a m a n iy a ta
a sh a r a a^ra a th a m a n iy a
e

19 tis
a ta 'a sh a ra tis'a 'ash ata
N ote 1. The oblique of 12is (<) 7 ,ashara,

) ( ashrata. The rest of the numbers, 11 and 13-19, do not ary
.with case
N ote 2. b id
un (129.6) is treated analogously; bid'ata
a ^ a r a ', .'b id
a a sh r a ta
ten plus several
b) The counted follows the number in the indefinite accusative singular:

.si a a ,ashara ra ju la n 'sixteen men'. The article always pre
cedes the number in this construction : ) Ja)s-sa6a ashrata
la y la ta n 'the seventeen nights'.
131. Th e plural ending -u n a/-in a (101) indicates the tens:

'ish ru n a 20, th a la th u n a 30, a rb a H n a 40,

kh arn sun a 50, sittu n a 60, sabn ln a 70, th a m an u n a 80,
tis'una 90. Th e units com e before the tens, and the counted fol-
lows in the indefinite accusative singular: w ahidun wa
is h r u n a ra ju la n 'twenty-one men',
th a m a n in wa-
ishru-
n a la y la ta n 'twenty-eiglit night.s'. T h e article precedes the units and tens:
d a ' - is>a j w a -
ba t - t is in a y a w m a n 'after ninety-
nine days'.
N ote 1. In c o m b in a t io n w itlr la rg e r n u m b ers,

o n e is a lw a y s ex p ressed by
w ahidun. S e e 399 c o n c e r n in g a g r e e m e n t in n u m erica l expressions.
>
w w r v .k ita b osu n n a t.co m
Quantity 83
132. a) Hundreds: , m i
atm
100 )15.4( mvatani 200,
thalathu m i arba;u m i
. in 300, aiin 400, et . (also
written , , etc.). Thousands:
alfun 1,000,
alfani
2.000, th a la th a tu 3,000 (100), < ' ,a la fin
4.000, ,alia d a *a sh a ra alfan 11,000.
b) The counted follows the hundreds and the thousands in the genitive
singular: sitta tu a la fi d ir h a m in '6,000 dirhams'. In com-
pound numerals, the hundreds and the thousands usually, but not always,
precede the lower numerals. The case and number o f the counted is d e
termined by the im m ediately preceding numeral: w a h id u n
w a-m vatu r a j i n '101 men', alfu n w a-tharnam
m va tin u,a-
r a'w sinina '1,804 years'.
N o te 1. The plural forms m vatun, m i l a (103 b)

hundreds',
nilufun
thousandsoccur with the genitive plural: m v u
sin tn a
hundreds of years
.
N o t e 2. To make these numerical expressions definite, as with the ones

(129.4), the article is placed either before the substantive, before the num-
ber, or before both: m i
a w
n-naqati, or ) a) -mi>a w
naqatin, or >( n) -mi u u 'n-naqati 'the hundred cam els .
133. a) T h e ordinal numbers fronr 2-10 are in the adjectival m orphem e

category fa'ilu n , fern, fw ilatun'. >awwalu, fern. ilia 'first' (127
b), thanin, fern.

i a n i y a t u n 'second', thalithu n 'third',
rabi'un 'fourth', k h a m isu n 'fifth', s a d i s m 'sixtli', sabi'un
'seventh', hdm inun'eighth', asi'wn'ninth', d sh iru n tenth .
b) T h e ordinal numbers 11-19 correspond to the cardinals inasmuch

as they are indeclinable: a sh a ra , fem.
h a d iy a ha-
Jj,a a(a a a'eleventh', th a n iy a 'a sh a r a , fem. n j,a a

ashrata 'tw e lfth ',^
th a lith a a sh a ra , fem. th a lith a ta
a a'thirteenth', etc.: (
a) -aj, a w
t- td sv a ta (ashrata
'the nineteenth night'.

c) R om 20 up, the ones are in tlie morpheme category fi'ilu n ,

-aiuri, while the tens, hundreds, thousands liave the form of the cardinal:
h a d in w a - ish r u n a 'twenty-first', >( a,)th-thani
w a - l.a m stfn a 'th e fifty-second', (
n)l-laj,-
la tu
l-h ad iyatu w a -
s-sa b
l a wa-
th -th a m d rii-m v a tin 'the eight-hundred
and seventy-first night'.
N ote 1. As is typical of all large numbers, cardinal numbers replace the

ordinal when referring to dates. In such constructions, tire cardinal is in the
genitive after the counted substantive: fi
s a iti ' alfin U)a-mia ta ijn i r u a - la la t h m u i s i m ' .
N ote 2. The adverbial accusative of ordinal numbers (315):

' awwalan, th a n iy a n , thalithan, etc., has the meaning 'firstly,
first
,secondly
,tlrirdly
, etc.
134. R actions have tire morpheme category 1( if w u lu n ), pi.

afialun:
iu lt h u n 'a third', r u b t i 'a quarter', s u d su n 'a sixth',
th u m n u n 'an eightlr', etc. th u lth a n i
two-thirds', thalathatu
'arba
in 'three-quarters'.
135. The distributive numbers have the morpheme category f u calu or

m a fi alu witlr diptotic inflection (152): t h u n k , rriathna 'two at
a time', thulathu, m a th la th u 'three at a time', etc.
Alone
is expressed by wahda-, always witli a personal jrronominal suffix,
and it generally follows in apposition in the accusative: ' abu-
ka w a h d a h u 'your father alone', ba qin a w a h d a n a 'we remained
alone'.
N ote 1. Distributive adjectives are frequently expressed by repeating the

number:
th n a y n i
thn ayn i 'aw
th a la th a ta n th a la th a ta n
they came two or three at a tim e
.
N ote 2. Adjectival f u d liy y u n (116) is formed from : thula-

th iy y u n
three-part
, r u b a 'iy y m
four-part, quadriliteral
.
-
w w kitabosu n.at.com
Quantity 85
T o t a lit y
136. kullun 'each, every, all': Jr kullun qa d dh a h a b a 'everyone

has left'; usually w ith the genitive: Jr kullu in s a n i n 'every hu m a n ' ,
Jr kullu l-H nsani 'the entire liuman being', Jr kullu n -n a si

'all mankind'. In e m p h a t i c apposition: (
a)l-qa w m u ku llu
al-qaw m i 'the o n e a n d only people'. A s a permutative in apposition (395)

kullu often follows with a personal p r o n o u n suffix: ) a)l-ya w m u
kulluhu 'the w h o l e day'. See 353 for gender agreement.
N o t e 1. Post-classical k u llun is occasionally a substantive: kullun

a
whole
, >( a)l-kullu
the whole' (144.2).
N o t e 2. In combination with numbers, ku llu n has a distributive sense:

ly> a ti
ft kulli sa b a y y d m in m a r r a ta n
once every seven
days'. In preclassical Arabic, it sometimes has the meaning
every, all,
possible
:
a la kulli f a r a s in
on all kinds of horses
.
137. ja m t'u n 'totality' usually occurs in constructions with the d e f
inite genitive: ja m v u
n - n a si all m a n k i n d , ja m i
u
a m rih i 'his entire affair'. T h e conditional accusative ja m i

an 'alto-
gether, completely c a n follow in apposition: ;
ah lu n a jd in
ja m i
an 'the people of the Najd, altogether', a m r u n a ja m i
an
'our affair, all of U S '.
N o t e 1. Similarly, and k a ffatu n 'encompassing,

a m m a tu n
totality' are used like ja m v u n : ) 0 ' a m m a tu (k a ffa tu )

n-
n a si
the totality of mankind
, ( d o ( a )n -n a su a m m a ta n
(kaffatan)
mankind in its entirety'.
138. u , fern.
>a jm a janvant, pi. ' a j m a i a entire,
whole, all' occurs in apposition to substantives but never takes the ar-
ticle: y a w m u n ,a jm a
u a w h o l e d a y , )<)/-
m alaH katu k u llu h u m ,a jm a 'u n a ( K o r a n 15:30, 38:73) 'all the angels alto-
gether.. In appositi.on to a personal pronom i n a l suffix: hada-
kum ,a jm a i n a 'he rightly guided y o u all'.
N o t e 1. The synonyms of a jm a
U, ak ta
U,
a b ta
u, .6'
are treated similarly. Occasionally, they appear with a jm a u for emphassis.

Note 2. In combination with the preposition hi- (294.8) and with a per-
u may follow in apposition:
sonal pronominal suffix, 'ajma
)a)n-na,su bi-yajma'ihim
mankind in its entirety
. Expressions like
bi-jain'ihim, bi~>asrihim, and others (394.8) also occur in this type
of construction.
139. ba'dun ('part') with the definite genitive indicates a part or any
number of something: ba'du 'one of the unbelievers'
or 'some unbelievers', ba'du rndlihi 'some (part) of his wealth'
(146 b), ba'du 'some'or'a certain kind of suffering'.
Often ba'dun is used to show reciprocity. In this paired const.ruction, the
first member has t.he personal pronominal suffix, while the second is always
indefinite: raqaba ba'duna ba'dan 'some of US watched the
others', or 'we watched each other', rafa'na ba'dahum
fawqa ba'din (Koran 43:32) 'we raised some of them above the ot.hers'.
Note 1. Note expressions like: ba'da

l-lawmi
only some
blame!
, i.e.,
do not blame so much!
.
Nominal Inflection
140. All nouns have tliree caseform s tha.t express syntactic relationsilips:
nominative (352; 362 f.), genitive (385 ff.), accusative (372 ff.). In the
dual anti plural, the genitive and accusative are formally indistinguishable
(oblique case). There are three different states: the indefinite (or indeter-
mined), the definil.e (or determined), and the construct. In the singular, the
definite and const.ruct. states, with a few exceptions (150), are identical.
In the dual and plural, they are morphologically distinguished.
141. Indefinite sl.ate: a) The indefinite state indicates something unspec-

ified int.roduced into the context. It is marked by -n (tanwin 11 f.) in
triptotic inflection and is unmarked in diptotic inflection.: rajulun
a
man', fawarisu '(any, some) horsemen'.
Note 1. Personal names that are inflected as triptotes lose the sign of
indefiniteness (n) in genealogical citations before ( H)bnu (22 b) 'son of
... maliku bnu sa'di bni muhammadin (but not
M a l m , So dm).

-kitab.su.nat.com
N o m i n a l Inflection 87
N ote 2. Expressions of time that specify the future are usually indefinite:
gh a da n 'tomorrow', ba'da g h a d in
the day after tomorrow',
qa bilan
next year'.
N ote 3. In poetrj,, the indefinite state occurs not infrequently where one
would expect the definite: f a z z i 'an ka qalban m us-
tah am an 'I console over you a (. e., my) love-sick heart', ".
kulla-m a d h a r r a s h a r ig u n
whenever a (i.e., the) rising sun flares
up'.
N ote 4. Explicit indefiniteness is often indicated by m a (285 c) following

a noun: ,a m r u n m a
a certain affair
, Hid y a w m in or

Hid y a w m in m a
until some day'.
b) T h e indefinite state also indicates numerical singularity:

kulluhum li-n im m in 'all of t h e m c o m e f r o m o n e a n d the s a m e motlier',
y a q d ir u a id dh a lika ra ju lu n 'one m a n is capable of this',

ya w m a n 'one d a y long'. In this case, w a h id u n (129) can b e
added for clarity: li-n im m in w ahidatin.
c) T h e indefinite state often simply indicates the genus, namely, in the
predicate (363 a), with accusatives (384), with genitives (387 a), a n d in
combination with m in (299 a): f kam d ir h a m a n ' h o w m a n y

dirhams', h a bb a d h a
a n ta m in r a ju lin 'what a likeable
m a n y o u are!' (263).
142. Definite state: a) T h e definite state in the singular triptotic inflection
does not have -TI. T h e definite state occurs w h e n a n o m i n a l f o r m is m a r k e d
definite b y the article, ml-, b y the vocative after yd (157 a), a n d b y
general negation after la (318 c).
b) T h e article is (>)(- (21; 22 a; 54): (>a)l-kitabu 'the book',
hadha
l-kitabu 'this book' (274 ff.), hi-
l-kitdbi 'with
the book'. See 1 8 4 4 concerning the assimilation of the l to the following
consonant.
143. T h e definiteness indicated b y the article is occasioned b y the context,
by the situation at hand, or b y generally understood conditions.

88 M o rphology: N o m i n a l F o r m s
a) W h e n context expresses definiteness, the article often appears in
place of the personal p r o n o u n suffix, w h i c h otherwise w o u l d express defi-
niteness: < bayta

l-waziri fa-kharaja
l-khadimu ilayya '! c a m e to the vizier's house, a n d out c a m e the (i.e., his)
servant t o w a r d me'. Frequently, if n o defining agent is specified, definiteness
has a distributive meaning: jw a r-rajulu ba'da 'r-

rajuli 'they c a m e o n e after the other',
\(\ n i a ,T-Tajula ya'kulu

l-majUsi,
l-auaHidi m3, to, ,akulu 't-ma 'a-
tu 'the m a n eats at a single sitting a n a m o u n t the w o m a n cannot',
{
a)r-rajulu min-a
l-muslimina 'every single o n e of the M u s l i m s .
b) Definiteness expressed by the situation occurs in cases like:

man-i
r-rajulu ' w h o is the man?', i.e., "you there, w h o are you?' (in direct
discourse), ) a)l-yawmu 'the present day', ila 's-saaJ 'until
now'.
c) N o u n s that refer to the generic, abstract, substance, etc., are definite
if they are thought of as unique in kind: m ath aluh u ka-
m a th a li 'l-kalbi 'with Ilim it is like it is with the dog', min-a
l-kibari out of arrogance'.
N o t e 1. Uniqueness defines words like (,a )sh-shamsu the sun,
) a)l-khalifatu 'the Caliph' and all proper names, even if they appear
formally in tlie indefinite state: Muhammadun (Muliammad),

Rajabun 'the m o n t h of Rajab.
144. T h e article .-.ransforms n o u n s tliat refer to individuals into generic
n o u n s b y defining t h e m in a generic sense: khuliqa

l-
insanu daifan ( K o r a n 4:28) ' m a n w a s created weak', ( a)l-'ulama
u
'scholars'.
N o t e 1. W h e n expressing quantity, this general kind of definiteness indi-
cates individual parts: { ,aM -kathiru m in h u m the majority of

them', >( a)l-'adadu
l-qalilu m in h u a small number of it.
la m n a z id a la j- m v a t i w e did not exceed (the number)
100'.

wwiitabosunaat.com
N o t e 2. Non-substantive nominal forms (113-139) are m a d e substantives
by the the definite article or the lack of it: jahilun, ) a)l-jahilu

an ignorant person, the ignorant.
N o t e 3. Concerning the definiteness of predicate nouns, see 363 b.
145. C o n s t r u c t state: a) W o r d s in the singular construct state are identical
to those in the definite state. In the plural, -na, a n d in the dual, -ni,
are d r o p p e d . A w o r d in the construct state is followed i m m e d i a t e l y b y
a d e p e n d e n t substantive in t h e genitive or b y a personal p r o n o u n suffix:
malu tajirin 'the w e a l t h of a merchant', rrialuhu 'his wealth',

jannata SabaHn b o t h g a r d e n s of S h e b a , jannatahum b o t h
of their gardens'.
b) A n y t h i n g else qualifying the w o r d in the construct state m u s t c o m e
after the genitive or p r o n o m i n a l suffix: sayfu 'l-farisi

battaru the s h a r p s w o r d of the h o r s e m a n , rabbuka l-
akram u
'your i n c o m p a r a b l y n o b l e lord'.
N o t e 1. O n c e in a while, interjections a n d the like c o m e be t w e e n the w o r d
in the construct state a n d the genitive: harru wa-

1-lahi

z-zahirati the heat - by God! of m i d - d a y . See also 285 c.
c) If there are t w o substantives in the construct state b u t o n e d e p e n d e n t
genitive, t h e genitive m u s t b e represented b y a personal p r o n o u n suffix o n
the s e c o n d m e m b e r of the construct: suyufu 7-

wa-
amahhhum the s w o r d s a n d spears of t he enemies', "
qasiru ,1-qam.ati nahifuha short a n d thin in stature' (388).
N o t e 2. Contrary to this rule, genitives m a y with increasing frequency de-
p e n d on t w o substantives in post-classical Arabic:

turuqu wa-
aradi tilka
l-buldani 'the roads a n d lands of those countries'.
146. a) B y itself, t h e construct state is neither definite n o r indefinite. A
definite genitive or a personal p r o n o u n suffix m a k e s tlie construction def-
inite. If t h e genitive is indefinite, the construction is indefi

kalbu darin ndbihun 'a barking dog of a dwelling',
kalbu
d-dari 'n-nabihu 'the b a r k i n g d o g of the dwelling'.
.
Morph o l o g y : N o m i n a l F o r m s
N o t e 1. Tile indefinite state is combined with a dependent genitive by
li- (295 b). If the sense is partitive, it is combined with the dependent
genitive by m in (299.1): kalbun li- d a r ih im a dog belonging
to their dwelling, r r X kalbun m in k ila b ih im one of their dogs'

= 'ahadu k ila b ih im (129.1) or ba'du kilabihim
one of their dogs' (139).
b) T h e construct state of w o r d s like ' ahadun (129.1), ba'dun

(139) or of woi'ds indicating comparison like m ith lu n 'one like ....
sometlring like (297 c), qhavru- "ot.her t h a n (325), nazirun,
sh ibh u n 'similar to', a n d the like are considered indefinit.e, even w h e n

c o m b i n e d with a definite genitive or a personal p r o n o u n suffix:
Ja tan m it h li 'a y o u t h like me', r ija lu n qh a y ru k u m ' m e n other
t h a n you'.
c) T h e construct state of adjectives a n d participles is not m a d e def-
inite b y the definit.e specifying genitive (388) or the genitive expressing
a n object (386 b): ra ju lu n k a rim u

n -n a sa b i 'a m a n
of noble lineage', d a rib u 'akhlhi = d a rib u n akhd-
hu 'one w h o strikes his brotlrer'. T h e adjective can b e m a d e definite by
the article: '( a)r-rajulu

l-k a rim u
n -n asabi. In such
constructions, niakiirg the participle definite is avoided, but it occasionally
occurs: )a ) t- td b v i 'he w h o follows me', >( a)d-ddribu

a w la d ih im 'those wlio strike their children'.
N o t e 2. Tile perfective participle (201) is considered a substantive in the
construct state and is m a d e definite by the genitive: qatilu >1a

khi
the one w h o killed m y brother, m y brothers murderer'.
N o t e 3. Cases like k a r im u 'n-nasabi, (a )l-k arim u

n -n a sa bi are called
the improper annexation . al-idafah g h a y r al-haqiqiy-
yah by tire A r a b grammarians, because the genitive can be joined witli a

substantive in the definite state.

N o m i n a l I n f le c t io n 91
T riptotic Inflection
147. I n d e f i n it e s t a t e : s a r iq u n 'th ief', s a r iq a tu n (fem .).
Sg. n o m . masc. sam q-un fem. s a r i -at-un
gen. s a n q - in sa riq -a t-in
acc. s a r iq - i sa riq-a t-a n
Du. nom. sa riq - a n i sa rirq-a t-a n i
obi. sarxq a ym sariq-at-atju i
PI. nom.
^ sa riq - u n a sd riq -a t-w t
obi. sd riq - in a sa riq-a t-in
N ote 1. O n th e o r th o g r a p h y o f th e e n d in gs, s e e 11 a n d 13.
N ote 2. O n th e fo r m a tio n o f th e plu ral, s e e 101 ff ; fo r th e dual, s e e
107ff.
148. D e f in i t e s t a t e
Sg. n om . 1)< (5-0 - fe m .

( a s-sdriq-a t-u
gen. <)a) s - sU r i -i
) s-saTiq-at-i
a cc. i} p \ {
a )s-sa riq -a )' s-sa riq-at-a
Du. nom . )0 ( 5-.5?-- )a s-sd riq-a t-a n i
o b i. 0 ) 5 p \ ( ' a ) s - s a r iq - a y n i )
a s-sa n q - at- a"ym
PI. nom . dy*p\{

a )s-sd riq -u n a
( a s- sa iq-at-u
o b i. 0 ^p \{
a ) s- sa riq - m a )'âs- sa iq-at i
149. C o n stru ct sta te
Sg. nom . sa riq-u fe m . sdriq-at-u
gen . sa riq-i sd riq-a t-i
acc. sa riq -a sd riq -a t-a

D u. nom . sa riq-a sd riq -a t-a
o b i. sa riq - a y s a r iq - t-a
PI. n om . sa riq-ii sdriq-at-u
o b i. s a r iq - i sd riq-a t-i
N ote 1. O n th e a tta c h m e n t o f p e r so n a l p r o n o m in a l su ffix es t o th e c o n s t r u c t
sta te, s e e 269.

v.ki abosunnat.com
92 Morphology: N o m i n a l F o r m s
150. abun father (definite >( a)I->aw), akhun 'brother'

(definite ( ,a )l-'akhu), hamun (definite { a)l-ham.u), 'father-in-
law' (72 b) liave alternative f o r m s in t h e construct state (as also the w o r d s
that exist o n l y in the construct state, fu ' m o u t h ' (72 a) a n d dhu

(283)):
Nom. ,abu )gkhfi H am u dhu

Gen. >abi 'akhi h am t
dhi.
Acc. ,aba ,akhd ham a fa dha
N o t e 1. O n the attachment of the personal p r o n o u n suffixes, see 269.3.
N o t e 2. Dual: .a&a w u n i (108 a), akhawani.
151. In ' { i ) m r u m ' m a n ' (72 e) a n d the infrequently occurring )

)i) b n u m u n 'son' (37 b), the v o w e l of the s t e m assimilates to the vowel of
inflectional ending:
Nom. '( Vjmrwm ) i)bnumun

Gen. ) )mrvin (
i)bnimin
Acc. '( i)mraan )<) bnaman
{'i)m ru>un in t h e definite state w i t h the article is ) a)l-m ar>u , in the
construct state )" )mnfii.
N o t e 1. Occasionally, uninflected forms of w o r d s and expressions that are
semantically identified with non-standard language enter classical Arabic
poetic texts, e.g., h ir for h iru n vulva, h an for h nnun with the
s a m e m e a n i n g as h ir (72).
D iptotic Inflection
152. Diptotically inflected n o m i n a l f o r m s d o n o t h a v e the sign of indef-
initeness -n in tile indefinite state, a n d the genitive h a s -a instead of -i.
W h e n s u c h w o r d s f o r m d uals a n d inflected plurals, tliey d o not differ from
triptotes.
Sg. nom. > aswadu b l a c k (.a)-, aswadu
gen. * aswada - asuiadi,

acc. ' a s i d a (>a)l-
aswada

Diptotes in the definite a n d construct states are inflected like triptotic n o m -
inal forms.
153. T h e following groups of n o m i n a l forms have the diptotic inflection in
the indefinite state:
a) N o m i n a l forms in m o r p h e m e category af
alu (119: 124; 138),
fu'alu (127), /a.anti (119), fw d lu , a n d m a f a l u (135).
b) M o r p h e m e categories with the feminine ending -a. (64 c) like f a ' l& u
(75 b: 119; 138), fv liy a ' u , f w a lw u , / '0 u (75 b; 90), a n d ,a f ila ' u
(100).
N o t e 1. T h e indeclinable feminine ending -a (64 b) is also diptotic. It
does not take the sign of indefiniteness See 100.2 on the diptotic plural
,ashya'u of shay'un thing.
c) Plural m o r p h e m e categories fa' alilu, fa' alilu, etc. (93 ff.).
d) If they consist of m o r e than three consonants, all proper n a m e s that
have the feminine ending -a- or are of foreign origin, like D im a sh q u ,

'Damascus, Z a y n a b u (fern, persona name), M akkatu M e c c a ,
T a lh a tu (masc. personal name), A h w a zu (place name).
e) All proper n a m e s that are feminine in meaning, like M is r u

'Egypt', H a la b u 'Aleppo', H in d u (fern, personal name).
f) Masculine personal names, if they d o not belong to m o r p h e m e cat-
egories fa'lun, fvlun , fu'lun, f a

alun, f a
ilu n or are not participles (223
f.). C o m p a r e ' U m a ru 'Omar', ' u th m a n u 'Uthman', Y iisufu
'Joseph' to ' A m r u n (11.1), N u hun 'Noali', M u h a m m a d u n
'Muhammad'.
Note 2. Proper nam e s with diminutive forms /ay lu n and fw a y y ilu n

(81 f.) are inflected as triptotes: Zu h a y ru n , K u th ayy iru n . The
diminutive is diptotic, however, if it lias the feminine ending -at-:

Futaym atu.
N o t e 3. All diptotic nominal forms can be treated as triptotes in poetry.
T h e opposite also occurs sometimes in poetry (though m u c h m o r e rarely).

94 Morph o l o g y : N o m i n a l F o r m s
Inflection of III- a n d I V - W e a k N o m i n a l F o r m s
154. a) N o m i n a l forms ending in stem-final - are indeclinable in the
singular (34 b). When the sign of indefiniteness is affixed, -a-n is
abbreviated > -an (52): -U-u w is shortened to - i n . W h e n the dual
a n d plural endings are affixed, tlie phonological rules in 35 a are observed.
Sg. masc. m u lq a n 'thrown' fern. m u lqa tu n (gen, -in,

(256 c) acc. -aw)
Du. nom. mulqa'yani. m u lq a li,

obi. mulqa'ya'yni m u lq a ta y m
PI. nom. m u lq a m a mulqa'yatun
obi. m u lq c fM i m u lq c fy i,
b) T h e definite a n d construct states are for m e d according to the rules
m e n t i o n e d a b o v e (142 ff.): Definite ( a)l-ma, plural nominative

{>a)l-m ulqaw na, feminine >( a )l-m ulqatu, etc.; construct state
m ulqa, pl'iral nominative m ulqaw , oblique TTiulqay, dual

n ominative m ulqaya, oblique rriulqayay, feminine mulqatu,
etc.
N o t e 1. S e e 10 o n t h e o r t h o g r a p h y .
N o t e 2. A s t h e y d o in t h e d e f in i t e a n d c o n s t r u c t s t a t e s , d i p t o t e s in the
i n d e f i n it e s t a t e h a v e i n d e c l i n a b l e s t e m - n a l -a in t h e s in g u la r : > a'a

h i g h e s t = .a/a/u/a o f r o o t i-l-w, )<(-<'la
t h e h i g h e s t = (>(;
a alu/i/a.
N o t e 3. T l i e f e m i n i n e e n d i n g -a (64 b) is t r e a t e d lik e d i p t o t i c stem -fin al
-a: 'p r e g n a n t ', p lu r a l hublayatun, d u a l hublaya-

n i (35 b).
155. a) N o m i n a l forms with stem-final - h ave the ending =( *-iyu, 1-iyi
34 b) in the n ominative a n d genitive. In the accusative, it is -iya. W h e n
the sign of indefiniteness is affixed, i-n is shortened to -in (52). W h e n
the dual a n d plural endings a e affixed, the rules in 35 a are followed.
T h e r e are n o peculiarities with the feminine ending in -iy-atun.
.
'.ktabosunna .com
Sg. nom. da'n 'calling' (256 a) , -Air
gen. da
in )' -
acc. d a 'iya n V a A-dai/ya
Du. nom. dauijaTO i- d a r ' y a m ) v ,a
obi. Aai'ya/yni 1 - 10 1
PI nom. Aanlna 0, -)1 1
obi. rfa'fna {
a)d-da
tm
b) T h e construct state resembles the forms in 149: da

1, ac-
cusative d d iy a , dual
d a iy a , danyay, plural

dan.
N o t e 1. T h e short form of the n S a -endng -iy is treated like stem-final
-t: - y a m a n in Yemenite', accusative yarnaniyan, etc. (116.1).
156. Diptotic n o m i n a l forms with stem-final i are distinctive in that they
take the sign of indefiniteness -n in the nominative a n d genitive of the
indefinite state: a f a i n 'vipers', plural of 'a fa n (94).
Sg. nom. >a/d

in 0 -'
gen. >a/am V a l-'aJaT

acc.
a fd 'iya ; 1 0;
Vocative
157. a) In vocative expressions, such as appeals or exliortations, the sub-
stantive is in the definite state, as a rule introduced b y the particle yd

or ) ) iy a ) 'ayyuha. T h e definite state follows yd without the article,
'ayyuha with the article ("(-:
yd qh u la m u '0 lad!', yd fa t a

'0 y o u n g man!',
yd 'ayyu h a '-a m f r w ' o prince!'.

N o t e 1. In pre-classical Arabic, 'ayyatuhd occurs occasionally along
with ayyuh a with feminine substantives.
b) T h e construct state m u s t b e in the accusative in vocative expres-
sions: yd
bn a yd 'A bda
am rrii 0 son of m y uncle!',
'-aid(0 A b d Allah!'.
N o t e 2. T h e vocative particle yd m a y be lacking: Z a y d u O Zayd!,

> a bd 'A m ir in A b u Amir!', ra b b a n a our lord!'.

96 Morphology: V e r b
N o t e 3. T h e personal pronominal suffix -f'my' is sometimes shortened and
thus not w r tten: , ra b b i o m y Lord (God)l. There are alternative
forms of 'abun father, Itm m u n mother: yd ,ab a ti 0 m y

father!, yd yum m ati O m y mother!'.
N o t e 4. Poetry has vocative constructions with the accusative in the in-
definite state following the particles < , yd, ,aya. T h e indefinite

accusative must be followed by an additional element: "a-rd-
kiban k a m fy a n you heroic horseman!', yd m u q id a n naran
'0 you w h o would kindle a fire!
158. T h e vocative can b e m a r k e d b y the ending -a, -ah (pausal form), -ah
usually occurs after the particle wd: ( ( , a m m a ( . a m m a h ) '
( m y ) uncle!', yd
a ja b a , w d (aâ&ah ' (wh a t a) miracle!',
y d h a sr a ta ' pity!', w d sa ba h a h ' 0 ( h o w b a d is) t.he
morning!'.
N o t e 1. - is often interpreted as an indefinite accusative -an (157.4):
yd 'ajaban miracle!, yd r a ju la n hey, any man!'. Cf.

53.3.
N o t e 2. fn expressions referring to family relatives, -a is often abbreviated
to -a: ( ( yd 'hna a m m a ('a m m a h ) (my) cousn!'. These
vocatives of 157.3) , )are a b a ta , >aa ah and um m a ,

um m a ta , ,um m atah.
159. After the vocative particles >a a n d yd, persona-l n a m e s a n d words
frequently e m p l o y e d in exhortat.ions are often shortened. Abbreviation
( tarkhim ) affects the inflectional endings a n d tire preceding conso-

nants: yd s a h i ( = sahibu) '0 companion!',
yd adhila
(== a d h ila tu ) '0 bla m e r (fem.)!', y d fatirria ( = Fatimatu)
' 0 F a t i m a ' , yd
u th m a (= U thm anu) '0 Uthman!'.
Verb
160. Preliminary remarks: T h e A r a b g r a m m a r i a n s considered the third
person singular masculine to b e the simplest f o r m of the verb, in that it
e m b o d i e s orthographically the s t e m u n e n c u m b e r e d b y a n y m o r p h e m e :
'he did' f r o m tire root /--. Therefore, it is c u s t o m a r y for grammars

kitabosunnat '-,'
Verbal Stem Formation 97
and dictionaries to present tlie 3rd pers. sg. masc. as the basic form of
the verb. Every verb has a perfect and an imperfect primary form. These
are usually distinguished from each otlier by the stem vowel. Since in the
basic stem (163) there is no predictable distribution of vowel classes in the
perf. and imperf. base, dictionaries give the stem vowel of the imperf. base:
qatala (w) 'kill', i.e., perf. base qatal-a, imperf. base ya-qtul-u.
F o r m a tio n o f th e s t e m
161. Most verbs by far are three-radical (58 f.). A smaller number
consists of four-radical verbs. The basic stem and the derived verbal stems
are classified in 15 threeradical morpheme categories and 4 four-radical
categories, excluding a few alternative formations (178). In grammars
and dictionaries, verbal stems are usually identified by roman numerals
(1-XV), beginning with the basic stem as stem I.
162. The derived verbal stems are formed in the following ways:
a) Doubling of tlie middle or final consonantal radical: three-radical

verbs: f a " a l a (II), { H ) fa lia (IX); four-radical (
)/a h a l k a (IV).
b) Vowel lengthening a > a: in three-radical verbs:f a a la (III),

('{)falla (XI) b e t ! ( alia.
c) au>(w) infixed into the stem: threeradical verbs: (

)/'a v r a la (XII),
{){)faw w ala (XIII).
N o t e 1. M o r p h e m e categories f a w a la and f a y
ala are classified as in the
basic stem 0 3 40 '( I) of the four-radical verb.
d) Causative prefix >-: in threeradical verbs: >a f a l a (IV).
N o t e 2. O n vestiges of the ha- causative prefix, see 178 b.
e) Causative prefix so-: only in combination with the -infix in three

radical verbs (
i ) s t a f a l a (X).
N o t e 3. Evidence of the sa-prefix is also found in ..he basic stem of three-
and four-radical verbs: sa ba qa leave behind from ba qiya remain, sa lq a
'throw d o w n on the back' from la q iy a m e e t .

ww.kitabosunnat.com
98 Morphology: Verb
f) Reflexive ])refix -: three-radical verbs: t a fa " a la (V) from fa ala,

ta fa
a la (VI) from four-radical verbs: tafa13 a k a (II) from 3 4.
g) Reflexive iufix three-radical verbs: {}{)ftaala (VIII), (,i) s t a fa la

(X) from *50-/ ala (162 e).
N o t e 4. Pre-classical Arabic had a -prefix: (0 (0 0 = ( V), ({)tfaala

(= VI). See 47.
h) Reflexive-passive prefix threeradical verbs: (

i)nfa'(ila (VII).
i) Infix -n-: three-radical verbs: ( H ) fa n la la (XIV), ( ' i) fa n la (XV);

four-radical verbs: (> )/a n k a k a (III).
Note 5. Other derivations, like morpheme categories originating in (0(0

(XI), namely, (>i)/a>a a, (>)/ahalla, (>)/alia, and similar forms, or
denominal formations, fa'lnla, and others, correspond formally to verbal
stems I through IV of four-radical verbs. They are therefore classed there
(174ff.).
V e r b a l S t e m s o f T h r e & R a d ic a l V e r b s
163. I. (Basic stem): The basic stem occurs in three vowel classes of the
perfect base: 1. fa'ala (imperfect; yafa/i/alu), 2. fa'ila (imperfect yafalu),
3. fa'ula (imperfect yafulu). fa
ala includes transitive and intransitive
action verbs like a a a ( yaqtulu) 'kill', daraba (
yadribu) 'beat', dhahaba ( vadhhabu) 'go away
. /a'i a includes
mostly non-action verbs and verbs expressing attributes such as
aliqa
( yadaqu) 'hang', baliha(tiu yablahu) 'be simpl&minded'. fa
ula in-
eludes exclusively verbs expressing qualities or attributes like hasuna
( . yahsunu) 'be handsome, good', 'amuqa ( yaiuqu) 'be
deep'.
N ote 1. In poetry, /a' a occurs occasionally in place of /a' a.
N ote 2. In the following description, only the most important of the typical
semantic groups of the derived verbs are included.
,
Verbal S t e m F o r m a t i o n 99
164. II. f a " a l a (imperf. y u fa " ilu forms intensives like qa tta
a 'cut to
pieces' f r o m a.aa *cut off; transitives like th a bbata ' m a k e firm'
from ih a b a ta 'be firm', t a lla m a 'teach' f r o m a lim a 'know';
sometimes declaratives like ka dh dh aba 'call a liar' f r o m k adhaba

'lie'. Transitive d e n o m i n a l verbs are frequently in this m o r p h e m e category:
sa lla m a 'to offer greetings ( sa la m u n )

.
165. III. fa,

a la (imperf. y u fa filu ) has the sense of 'intend, try to d o som e -
thing' or 'intend, try, to d o s o m ething to someone': qa ta la 'fight'
('intend, try, to kill'), la y a n a 'treat with kindness' f r o m la n a (im-
perf. y im ) 'be soft, gentle'. T h e s e kinds of m e a n i n g s of verbal s t e m
III occur with the accusative. In combination wit.h ba yn a 'between',
verbal s t e m III is frequently a transitive of s t e m VI. See 308.1.
166. IV. a f a l a (imperf. y u filu ) forms causatives like ad h haba
'cause to g o away' f r o m d h a h aba 'go away', 'ahsana 'do right,
good' f r o m h a su n a 'be good': s o m e t i m e s decla.rative: ,a n k a ra

'consider objectionable, censure'. T h e r e are other characteristic meanings,
e.g., akhta'a ' m a k e a n error', >a sba h a 'begin a n e w day' (190.1),
a r a q a 'march to Iraq',
a tla ba 'acquiesce to a d emand'.
N o t e 1. T h e causative is usually not used if an action is carried out by an
agent: qa ta la h u he killed h i m or he had h i m killed.
N o t e 2. O n the formulaic expressions m a ' a f a l a and ' a f i l bi -, see 128.
167. V. t a f a " a la (imperf. y a ta fa "a lu ) is the reflexive of s t e m II:

twallarria 'teach o n e self, learn', tath abbata 'ascertain'; occasion-
ally with the m e a n i n g of pretending: tanabba'a 'pretend, claim to b e a
prophet', tak allafa 'force oneself, pretend to d o something'.
N o t e 1. Concerning (>i) t f a " a la (y a t fa " a lu > y a ffa "a lu ), see 47.
168. VI. ta fa fa la (imperf. ya tafdfalu ) is the reflexive of s t e m III a n d often
has a reciprocal meaning: ta'alaja und e r g o treatment f r o m (a-
laja 'treat someone', tandza'a 'contend with o n e another' f r o m

naza'a 'fight'; occasionally, like s t e m V, it has the m e a n i n g of pret.ending:
ta n a w a m a to feign sleep'.
. .
100 Morpho l o g y : V e r b
N ote 1. Concerning ((/a la (yatfa'alu > yaffa'alu) see 47.
169. VII. (>i)n^tt'a (imperf. yanfarilu) is reflexiv&passive of the basic

stem: ) i) n h a z a m a 'be put to flight' f rom h a z a m a 'put to flight'.
N ote 1. The prefixed n- :an be assimilated to a following m (45). Of I n

roots, only n-m -s has a stem VII: ))n n a m a s a
conceal on eself
. As
a rule, stem VIII occurs instead for these roots.
170. VIII. (i)/a'aia (imperf. yafta'ilu) is reflexive-intransitive of the basic

stem: ) ) rtafa'CL 'rise' f rom ra/a.a 'lift' frequently with tlie mean-
ing 'do so m e t h i n g for oneself': ) ) ttakh adh a (238) 'take for oneself'
from
akh adh a 'take', a n d the m e a n i n g 'do so m e t h i n g witli someone
else': >( i) an m u 'fightwith each other' f rom k h a s a m a ' fight'.
N o t e 1. Concerning the assimilation of the infix to the first radical, see

46.
171. IX. (.)/alia (imperf. yajkallu) a n d XI. ((a lia (imperf. yafallu),
with lengthening of the s t e m vowel, belong almost without exception to
adjectives of the m o r p h e m e category 'afain. (119): )i) sfa r r a and
( i) sfcirra 'turn yellow, Irecome pale' fro m a sfa ru 'yellow',
) i) z w a r r a a n d ( i) z w a r r a b e c o m e crooked, turn aside' from

a z w a r u 'oblique, crooked'.
172. X. {>i)sta.f
ala (imperf. y a s t a f i l u ) is reflexive of extinct ..a/.a/a (162
e): ) i) sta w h a sh a 'feel lonely' f rom $sa w h a sh a = ,awhasha
' m a k e lonely', )( i) sta g h fa r a 'apologize', i.e.j 'ask for forgiveness'; fre-
quently reflexive of the causative-declarative: (i)sta k ba ra 'consider
oneself great, important, b e haughty' f rom a f c i a u ' d e e m great, impor-
tant'.
173. Verbal stems X I I - X V are rare: XII. )f'avrala (imperf. yaf'CLW'ilu):

(
( H)hdawdaba 'be hunchback' f r o m 1 ahdabu 'hunchback',
)<)hlauda 'be sweet' f rom hulwun 'sweet'. XIII. ( )/ auiwala
(imperf. yafawwilu): '( iyiawwada 'be strong' f r o m

alida 'be
strong'. X I V . ('i)hnlala (imperf. yaf'anlilu): ))hlankaka 'bepitch-
black' f r o m halika 'be pitch-black'. X V . )/ anla (imperf. yafanli):

(

) iyianda 'be strong' f r o m alida 'be strong'.
.
System of Verb Forms 101
V e r b a l S t e m s o f F o u r - R a d ic a l V e r b s
174. I. f a ' k a k a (imperf. yu fah ik u ) includes roots of diverse origin: four-

radical roots like / gather
ja m h a r a , reduplicated roots like

'glisten', denominals like maut.. 'gird' from miu. aa wn'belt',
ja lb a b a 'clothe in a jilb a b u n , formulaic expressions like
basmala 'to utter the formula b i-sm i
1-laht(22 c), and others.
175. II. /'

34( imperf. y a ta fa 'h a U ?) is reflexive-intransitive of the
basic stem (I.): ta ja m h a r a 'congregate', ta m a n ta q a 'gird o n e
self'.
176. III. (
i) p a n h a k a (imperf. y a p a n h ik u ) is exceptionally rare:
)i)khrantam a 't.urn up one's nose' from k h u rtu m u n 'elephant trunk'.
N o t e 1. Infixed -n- can be assimilated to the following m ; see 45.
177. IV. (( / a k a lk a (imperf. y a p a k i lk u : (

i) sh m a k h a rr a 'be lofty,
arrogant' from sh a m k h a ra 'be lofty, proud'; cf. 162.5.
178. a) Instead of {
i) p a lla (IX), (> )/ala (imperf. ya p alt) is formed from
Ill-weak roots: '(<) be dark-colored' from
ah w a
dark-
colored', (
.)raw s 'pay attention'.
b) The causative prefix ha- (162 d) is still preserved in h a ra q a

'spill' and in several other rarely used words. On the inflection, see 249.
N o t e 1. Variant verbal stems of these m o r p h e m e categories occur with
exceeding rarity and mostly only in one attestation.
System of Verb Forms

179. The verb lias a suffix conjugation and a prefix conjugation. The suffix
conjugation is used to form the perfect. The prefix conjugat.ion is used to
form the imperfect, subjunctive, jussive, and energetic. Both conjugations
have active and passive forms. The passive is distinguished from the active
by stem vowels and prefix vowels. The imperative, whicli is formed from
the imperfect base, occurs in the active only. Active and passive participles
and verbal substantives (infinitive) are inflected nominal forms of the verb.
>
102 Morphology: Verb
180. T h e perfect a n d imperfect and, u n d e r special circumstances, the
jussive a n d active participle serve as finite v e r b forms. T h e verbal system
is b a s e d o n the o p p o s i n g aspects inherent in the perfect a n d the imperfect:
T h e perfect indicates c o m p l e t e d action (perfective aspect).
T h e imperfect indicates i n c o m p l e t e action in process (imperfective aspect).
W h e n the perfect a n d inrperfect refer to time:
the perfect is u s e d to express the past,
t h e imperfect is u s e d to express the present,
a n d the imperfect c o m b i n e d w i t h sawfa, sa- is use d to express the future.
N o t e 1. T o distinguish m ore precisely different a sp ects and tenses, the

pa rticles a d and sawfa (sa-) and verb form s com bin ed witlr kana iyakunu)
'to be', ja
ala
make, d o
, a m on g oth ers (190) are used.
U s e of the Perfect
181. Tlie perfect indicates c o m p l e t e d action. It is use d to:
a) refer to event.s tliat h a v e already t a k e n place (preterite):

'
da'aniyawman fa-dakhaltu
m e , a n d I w e n t in before khalaqa
h i m , 1-lahu '
-
s a m a t i i . wa-' ->arda ( K o r a n 29:44; 30:8) G o d created h e a v e n a n d earth'.
b) establislr fac,s: ( i)k h ta lafa t-i l-<ulama,'u Scholars are

of differing opinions', ' a lim a ,an n ah fi ' H e k n o w s t h a t
(a ) lla d h m a k a fa ru ( K o r a n 2:6, 26, 89, etc.) 'those w h o are unbelievers'.
T h i s use of the perfect is limited primarily to pre-classical Arabic, nev-
ertheless it is preserved in m a x i m s a n d f o r m u l a s in the classical period:
a n ja z a h u m m a w a
a d a ' A free m a n fulfills w h a t he
promises'.
N o t e 1. If the action is con ceived o f as a con tin uing process, the imperfect
m ay be used: ,aiamu
annahu
I know that .
N o t e 2. T h e perfect kana
he was' (cf. 190 ff.) is also used in
the K oran an d infrequently in oth er p r e C a ssfca , texts to estabhsfi facts:

kana
1-la.hu dhafuran rahiman (Koran 4:96, 100,
152; 25:70, etc.) 'God is merciful'.

-.kitabosunni t.cm
c) verify an action that is completed at the same time as the estab-

lishment of a fact (coincidental occurrence): ba'athtu ila y k a
bi-hadha 'I herewith (hereby) send this to you', h a la ftu 'I hereby
swear...'.
N o t e 3. The perfect which establishes facts or verifies completed action

is negated with m a (321). The jussive in combination with the negative
particle la m is used as a negative preterite (194). Concerning the negative
particle la in combination with the perfect, see 182 b; 318 b; 335 b.
N o t e 4. Note that many verbs can be interpreted as expressing both du-

rative and punctual-ingressive actions: q a m a 'He stood upright' or
He
stood up', rak iba 'He rode' or
He mounted'.
182. a) The perfect Is used to express

wished for" or
conceived of"
actions: r a h im a h u '1-lahu 'May God have mercy on him!', 'May
God be merciful to him!', bu rik ta 'May you be blessed!'.
N o t e 1. In post-classical Arabic the imperfect is frequently used to express

wish: y a rh a m u k a
1-lahu 'God will bless you
,May God bless
you'.
b) The perfect that expresses wish is negated by la (318):

la qatalaka ,1-lahu
May God not condemn you (fight against you)!'. This use
also occurs in oaths: h a la ftu ma-
1-lahi la f a la ltu ha-
dha 'I herebj, swear, by God! May I never have done this!
, i.e. 'I would never
do this'.
183. In a subordinate clause, t.he action or event that is indicated by the

perfect is dependent on the situation in the main clause:
ja l a s a haythu ja l a s a ,abuhu 'He sat where his father ha.d sat',
\ \ la m m a
jta m a 'a
n-Tiasu l < r f qultu lahurn
A lte r th e
people had assembled around me, I said to them ...'.
N o te 1. Concerning the use of the perfect without reference to time in

generally valid conditional clauses and clauses with conditional implication,
see 446 a.

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104 M o rphology: V e r b

N o t e 2. In pre-classical Arabic, the perfect was sometimes used to represent

a hypothetical occurrence: m s a r r a k a an >ak h ru ja Would
you really rejoice over m y departure?, w a d id tu 'annahu
rcp a n i' I wished that he had seen m e

. In classical prose usage, the imperfect
(185 d) or ka n a witli the imperfect (192.3) has replaced the perfect here.
U s e of the Imperfect
184. T h e imperfect indicates a continuing or possibly continuing process
independent of the time in wliich the event takes place. It can b e a single
continuing process, a repeatedly occurring event, or a n act that occurs over
a n d over (habitual action). If the context does not refer to the past, the
imperfect indicates the present or future.
N o t e 1. The imperfect is as a rule negated with la (318).
N o t e 2. Note that only verbs of durative aspect can be interpreted as ex-

pressing a single continuing process: y a ta h a r ra k u
He is just moving,
he is in movement'. The imperfect of verbs of punctual aspect refers to ei-
ther immcdiatelj, impending action or a continuously occurring process:
y a jid u
He is about to find' or 'He finds again and again
, j
f
He is
about to comeor
He comes again and again (every day, etc.)
.
185. For present-time actions, the imperfect is used:
a) to portray a n act occurring in the present:

ardk a tabki
'I see y o u crying (literally, that y o u are crying)', m a d h a taf'alu

' W h a t are y o u doing?'.
b) to relate a repeatedly occurring act:

'/< an-i
l- ja h ili w a - t t i ,s - s a ila 'I always forgive fools a n d give to those
w h o ask'.
c) to describe a universally occurring act (not limited to a n y time):
) a)t-tim sa h u ya 'ish u f i
l-m a.)i 'Crocodiles live in the
water'.-

ww.kitabosunnat.coni
System o f Verb Forms 105
d) to introduce an act that is about to occur or m ight occur: )"

n an zu ru 'We are watching (waiting for what will happen)
,
' ulaHka 1-lahi (Koran 2:218) 'These should hope
y a r ju n a ra h m a ta
for the mercy o f God', t a s ir u n a i l a 'l-jibali 'Now they will
go into the mountains!'.
186. If the context refers to the past, that wliich occurred in the past may
be described w it the imperfect: - <
< !
asbaha 'Amrun qala man
add 'ala. ,ilahina
thumma wqhdu yaltamtsahu hatta n | a inajadaHu ghasalahn 1 morn-
ing came, Amr said, who blasphemed against our G od? Then he set out
(imperf.) very early to look for him. W hen he finally found him, he purged
him'. Not infrequently, it describes a process that is repeated or contin-
ues: lima taqtuluna anbiya
a
1-lahi min qablu
(Koran 2:91) 'Why did you keep killing the prophets o f G od before?',
baka wa-yabki ma sha
a
1-lahu
He cried and kept
crying, as long as G od willed it'. In this case, the im perfect is usually
combined with kdna (192).
Note 1. Dreams and eyewitness reports are frequently rendered in the

imperfect: qa la
l-m alik u i n n i >ar sab'a
b a q a ra tin (Koran 12:43)
The king said, I saw (in a dream) seven cow s
.
187. a) Th e reported action can also b e rendered in the future:

. Id y a m u tu ft
n - n a ri w a-la ya h y a
He will not die n hell-fire
and will not live'.
b) sawfa or 5 - may b e used to indicate the future tense:

Hnnahu sawfa yazuruka He will (certainly) visit you',
sawfa astaahfiru lakum rabbi I shall ask my Lord
r giv e you(Koran 12:98), la-qad alimna an
to fo
sa-yakunu dhalika 'We already knew that this will be (so)'.
Note 1. saw fa, sa- are not combined with negative particles. lan with
the subjunctive (196) is used instead.

ww v k i t a b o s u n n a t . c o m
188. A s , d e p e n d s o n a perfect in the m a i n clause, the imperfect is used
to:
a) describe a n action occurring at, the s a m e time: m arra
'He w e n t b y m e while I w a s sitting (407 If.),

b a y n a 'ana a m s h i
id h 'aqbala ra ju lu n W h i l e I w a s going there,
a m a n (suddenly) approaclied' (444).
b) describe a n action that, occurs in the i m m e d i a t e future with respect
to a perfect in the m a i n clause: > ea

l-a y m y a sh ra b u 'He
c a m e to the spring to drink', baca th a n i f i ja la b in 1

'uhiJ 'He sent m e with cattle that I w a s s upposed to sell'.
T h e Verbal Particle ad
189. a d occurs immediately before the perfect a n d imperfect.
a) In c o mbination wit.h ad, the perfect indicates a n action completed
already or ],revious to a certain time. T h e perfect cannot b e used in its
narrative function (181 a) w h e n ad appears: ad m a ta 'He had
(at a certain t ime already) died', a d ' I have b e c o m e (am
already) hungry'.
b) In combination with ad, the imperfect indicates a n action that
possibly or probably w o u l d occur: 'sometimes, perhaps, m i g h t occur .
'it could b e that, it will occur': ad 'aktubu 'It could b e that I sliall
write', 'sometimes I write', a d y a n d m iin a wa-qad
ya'kuluna 'They m i g h t sleep, t.liey miglit eat'.
N o t e 1. Only the negative particle la or short interjections like

wa-
1-la.hi by God' can c o m e between a d and the verb.
N o t e 2. In preclassical Arabic, a d before the imperfect is sometimes
used to indicate the past: ad >an g h a w a y a ta h u m Then
I noticed their error', ad

adk hulu
1-khiba
a 'Then I went
(sometimes, would always go) into tlieir tent'.
. >
-.kitabosunnat.com
S y s t e m of V e r b F o r m s 107
Use of Compound Verb Forms
190. T h e perfect of ka n a 'he was' is used in combination with the
perfect a n d imperfect to indicate the past. T h e imperfect ya k u n u 'he

will be' is used with the perfect to indicate the future. A n o m i n a l subject;
comes b etween k a n a / yakun u a n d the following verb: k a n a

r - r a ju lu fa 'a la
V
yo.J'a.lu) yakui T-rajulu ja a l a .
N ote 1. There are also other verbs that are used to define the tenses
with m ore precision. These verbs specify m o d e s of action (A k t io n s a r t e n )
appropriate to their meanings. T h e most important verbs of this type are:
a sba h a , a m s a meaning to be.come, zalla, ba-
ta meaning keep (doing), ja'ala, ,akh adh a meaning begin

(192.1), and 'ddffl meaning do again'. See 432.
N ote 2. ka na is also used to indicate the past in relation to a nominal

clause that describes a condition (360): akhuhu ah an bun His
brother is missing: k a n a *akhuhu dhanban His brother was
missing' (382 a).
191. a) ka n a with the perfect refers to actions that h ave occurred

in the past (pluperfect): h a d h ih i a tan u k i
lla ti ku n ti k h a ra jti <alayha 'This, is your (fern.) she-ass o n w h i c h y o u h a d

gone out'.
b) qa d c o m e s either before ka na or before the following per-
feet: qa d ka n a ra.a rninka rriithla m a r a

ay n a
= ka n a qa d r w a ... 'he h a d already noticed the s a m e (qualities)

in y o u that w e noticed'.
N ote 1. Concerning ka n a referring to the past in conditional clauses, see

446 b.
192. W h e n used with the imperfect, k a n a describes a n action that is

occurring, is continuing, or occurs repeatedly in the past: kd-
na
l-m a lik u y a m u r r u biht T h e king w a s passing b y h i m then',
y a w m a n k h ara iat k a m a kanat ta sn a 'u ' O n e d a y she w e n t out,
just as she used to do', ka na ya kun u f i
l- b a y ti 'He always
(usually, continually) w a s in the house'.
>
www^tabosunnat.com
108 M orphol.gy: Verb
N . t e 1. ja
a la or ik h a d h a is used to express an action begun
in the past: -'ya sta b tin i
-mmra.From now on,
he found (began to find) that the matter was proceeding too slow ly
. See
also 432.
N o te 2. The negative equivalent of ka na is la m ya kun (194.1).
N o te 3. Sometimes ka n a is used with the imperfect to express an action

tliat could have occurred in the past or should have: -
n a ya k u n u sri'a )a d a b in
It would have been a misbehavior
,
fa - k a y fa k a n a y a qu lu
How should he have said it?
.
N o te 4. If it occurs in combination with more than one imperfect form

joined by wa- 'and', ka n a is used only once.
193. ya k u n u in com bination with the perfect indicates that the ac-
tion is conceived o f as having been com pleted in the future (future perfect):
fal-nkh/udhliu fa-nakunu qad 'akhadho.
'iw a d a n
Let US take him, for then we should have taken a substitute'.
N o te 1. Concerning the subjunctive ya ku n a in this construction,

see 197; see 222.2 on the imperative kun.
Use o f the Jussive
194. T h e jussive is used as a perfect: a) in com bination with lam

not
and la m m a 'not yet': ( am J,a> i 'He did not come', lam m a
y a i i 'He has not yet come'.
N o te 1. am ya k u n is the negative equivalent of k a n a in verbal

constructions: > a-u,a- am ,akun h a d h d h a rtu k a
Had I not
warned you?
, iam ya kun ya sm a 'u
As usual, he heard nothing
then
.
b) In conditional clauses (446 a) and in the ap odosis after imperatives

(412).
195. T h e jussive im plies an order: a) It is com bined with the particle li-
in the positive: li-ya'ti 'Let him come!'.

.kitabounnat.com
Note 1. After wa- and fa- (328 f), li is abbreviated to /-: fal-
n a ih u d h 'So let us take!.
b) In combination with the negative la, the jussive implies a. negative

order (prohibition): la 'You shall not kill, do not kill!',
yu h zin k u m -u
1-ldhu 'May God not cause you grief!'.
Use o f the Subjunctive
196. a) The subjunctive indicates an action as intended or expected; it

occurs only in a subordinate clause: >( i)ghfir It ya
rabbi fa-'adkhula
l-jannata 'Forgive me, my Lord, so that I might ent.er Par-
adise!', m a m an a'ak a
alia ta s ju d a id h
a m a r tu k a
(Koran 7:12) 'What prevented you from prostrating yourself when I had
given you the command?'. The subjunctive is negated with la.
b) The subjunctive comes after the particles: ,an 'that' and alia
(< 'an-a 45) 'that not, lest' (414), kay and 1 li- 'that, in order that'
(438), fa-
so that(410), ,aiu
Unless(411), and ] > h a tta
u n til
(that)' (439 b): see also 345.
N ote 1. T h e subjunctive follows an and hatta, only if an intention or
possible result is expressed. Otherwise, the perfect or imperfect is used:
( (1 a d a m u a n n a m a (yanarriu) I k n o w that he slept

(sleeps)', m a r id a h a tta la y a rju n a h u H e is so sick
that they have no hope for him'. In post-classical Arabic, however, the
subjunctive is used most of the time indiscriminately after a n and hatta.
N o t e 2. In pre-classical Arabic, the subjunctive is attestefl on occasion even
after ,id h a n then, ' th u m m a then, and wa- 'and then.
c) la n wit the subjunctive (< * la ,an) is used to negate future

actions (187): lan y a zu ra k u m a b a d a n 'He will never visit
you'.
N ote 3. T h e subjunctive is not used after the future particles saw fa, sa-.
197. An action that might have occurred is expressed after a subjunctive

particle with ya k u n a and a following perfect: c T
'asa ,a n ya k u n a s a m v a m in n i 'Perhaps he has heard about m e(342.2),

khafa art ya k u n a qa d 'ak htgig 'He feared that lie

could h ave c o m m i t t e d a n error',
\ 1 tatluh-i
1-Ja.sada
d-duTvya Ja-takuna qad i s t t a nasi-
baka m in - a 'l-
dk h ira ti ' D o not seek evil in this world, lest y o u w o u l d have
forgotten your share in the hereafter' (410).
Use o f the Energetic
198. T h e energet.ic is rrsed to introduce a n action that is certain to occur

(e.g.j in a n oath). In the positive, it occurs with the prefixed particle la-
(334): la-ttibayvun n a aw la - n h a r riq a n n a k u m 'You will
absolutely p a y h o m a g e , or I slrall certainly b u r n y o u up', halafa
la -ya qtu la n n a 'He swore he will certainly kill'. Tire energetic is negated
with la.
N o t e 1. T h e second person frequently has the sense of an order:

la taqulama D o not indeed say anything.
N o t e 2. In pre-classical Arabic, the energetic also occurs in conditional
sentences (450.1; 451) and in interrogative sentences (without -).
Use of the Passive
199. a) T h e passive is the f orm of the verb in w h i c h the agent, is not

named. T h e agent', eitl'rer is u n k n o w n or is intentionallj, not i
q u tila
akhuka 'Your brother w a s killed',
u m irta 'you were
ordered, instructed'; cf. 405 b.
Note 1. Divine or supernatural powers (God, fate, etc.) are often left
unmentioned: tu w u ffiy a 'He was taken (by God)', i.e.j 'he died'.
N o t e 2. T h e cause, origin, and instrument of passive action are occasionally
rendered by li-, min, and hi (294 ff.): ; tura'u lahu'We was terrified
of him', Vuskira min-a

l-khamri 'He was m a d e drunk by
the wine', iLrdvna biha w e were suckled by her.
b) Intransitive reflexive verbs d o not h ave a subject in the passive. As
a rule, they then h a v e liave a. prepositional c o m p l e m e n t : yusaru

*ilayha 'ft w a s traveled to, o n e travels to it', (
u)khtulifa ji
dhalika 'There w a s disagreement over that'.

S y s t e m of V e r b F o r m s 111
N o t e 3. Transitive verbs too can be used in the passive without subject, if
they have a complement: ah u sh iva 'ala y h i It was covered over

him', i.e., 'He bec a m e unconscious.
200. In passive constructions with transitive verbs, the direct object (373)
becomes the subject. All additional complements, w h e t h e r accusatives or
prepositions, r e m a i n unchanged.
a) Verbs with accusatives: iita

l-kitaba 'Yo u were
brought the book', y u sa m m a A liy a n 'He is called Ali',

tubbiru ta tb ira n 'Th e y w ere completely mangled' (376)
b) Verbs with prepositions: W a f e - i a& n'He w a s brought
a book', yu la qqa b bi-

l- ja h iz i 'He is called b y the laqab
"goggleeyed"'.
N o t e 1. T h e passive participle is treated the s a m e way: ) )!-

m u s a m m a 'A liy a n 'the one n a m e d Ali', - {>a)l-ma
ru fu
bi-
l- J a h izi T h e one k n o w n as al-Jah?. See also 204.
U s e of the Participle
201. Participles are adjectives that represent the m e a n i n g of the verb
as an attribute. Active a n d passive participles can h ave b o t h perfect a n d
imperfwt (180) meanings: d a r ib u n 'one w h o has hit' a n d 'one w h o

hits, will hit, can hit', m a sh r u b u n 'drunk' a n d 'something that
is drunk, can b e drunk; drinkable'. T h e imperfect m e a n i n g is associated
m o r e often with the active participle, perfect m e a n i n g m o r e often with the
passive participle.
N o t e 1. Other verbal adjectives, especially those of the m o r p h e m e cate
gories fa'ilun, a' u lun (120), fa t'a lu n (115), m a y also assume participle-
like functions. Participles are ususally not formed from verbs that refer to
qualities (163): rather, verbal adjectives in m o r p h e m e categories fat a l l ,
fa'ilun, fat u lu n (115) are used.
202. T h e active participle as a n o m i n a l predicate (361) functions very
m u c h like a n imperfect. It is used:

a) as a perfect participle, to represent an action that has begun and

still continues: . qhadawtu nlayhi fgjjdhd huwa
qanrrwn yusalli
I went in the early morning to him. Just as he was en-
gaged in prayer' ('having stood up'), ' bayna nahnu
mutawaqqifuna ndh nudiya 'As we stood there ('having stopped'), lie was
called'.
b) as an imperfect participle, to represent an action that has not

yet been realized but is expected to be taken: huwa katibun
He is in a position to, just about to write' or simply 'He is a writer',

' ana raji'un nlayhim fa-daihim nld
1-nsla-
mi '! was about (have already decided) t,o ret.urn to them and call t.hem
to Islam'. Frequently, it occurs aft.er the negative particles ma and
laysa (321; 323): (> (lastu bi-fwilin {fafilan) or
ma ,ana hi-failin (I will not (cannot) do it'.
N ote 1. Infrequently, there is no subject: a-fa-hadimun

ma qad banaytu Will you destroy w hat I have built?.
c) as a circumstantial accusative (380 ff.), the participle functions

much like tlie imperfect (188): (ra'ahu bdkiyan (yabkt) 'He
saw him crying (cry)', ( (kharaia hariban (yahrubu) 'He
went out to flee'. The perfect participle can be used in place of qad with
the perfect (189 a): ( a dtika mujriman (wa-qad
ajramtu) 'I shall not come to you as oire wlro has committed a crime'.
203. The active participle can behave like a verb in construct'ions witlr an
accusative object and like a -noun in constructions with a genitive object
(386b).
a) The perfec.t participle as a rule is found in constructions witli the

genitive and tlius functions as a subst,antive: al-lahu khaliqu
,l-
ardi 'God is th creator of the earth
. Cf. 146.2.
b) The imperfect participle occurs ir constructions with the accusative

or the genitive: daribu 1akhlhi = daribun
akhahu
'striking his brother', kullu nafsin dhaigatu ' -mow
(Koran 3:185: 21:35: 29:57) 'Every soul will taste death
. The accusative
-
may also follow when the participle functions as a substantive:

talibun-i
th-thara, )
(.-.
th-thcrra 'one who seeks blood
revenge', 'the one who seeks blood revenge'. See 146 coitcerning the defi-
niteness of the construct' state.
N ote 1. Personal pronominal suffixes on participles are usually interpreted

as genitives: daribuhu 'hitting him', daribi 'hitting me',
rarely daribuni
hitting me(268).
N o te 2. The accusative can be replaced by li- (295 a):

) lil-
( - ilmi
the one who seeks knowledge.. Tliis construction is
obligatory when the object precedes the participle: lid-dayfi
mukrimun
honoring the guest'.
N o te 3. Verbal adjectives (201.1) and elatives occur in constructions sim-

ilar to those of the corresponding participles: huvja
,atlabu lil-ilmi minkum
He seeks knowledge more eagerly than you
.
N ote 4. Concerning the active participle in the role of indeterminate sub-

ject, see 358 b.
204. The prepositional complement (199 b) associated with a participle

of a passive without subject takes a personal pronominal suffix that refers
to the thing or person mentioned: maghshiyun 'alayhi 'covered
over him', 'unconscious
, parallel to ahushiva
alayhi 'It was cov-
ered over him', mawthuqun bihi 'someone on whom one relies',
i.e.i 'reliable', parallel to wuthiqa bihi 'It is relied on him, he is
relied on'. Alt.hough the passive participle without subject does not agree
grammatically, the personal suffix does agree with tile substantive to which
it is subordinate: anta mawthuqun bika 'You are reliable',
sahifatun makhtumun ala asfaliha 'a leaf the verso
of which bears a seal', rijalun maqhdubun alayhim
'men at whom they are annoyed, annoying men'.
N o te 1. The prepositional complement is lacking in passive participles

of the derived verbal stems, if they are used as nomen loci or as verbal
substantives (78.3): mustanqa'un
where water collects, b og
.

ww.kitabosunnat.com
U s e of Verbal Substantives
205. Verbal substantives embody tire meaning of the verb without any of
its functional properties: qa tlun 'killing, having killed, being killed'.
They are used to rephrase a verb as a noun: in n a
k h u ru ja h u k a n a o h a d a b a n 'His exit was undertaken in airger'; to cliange a
verb into a nominal subordinate: J,a a. t'u b i g h a ha-
ja t i h i 'He is able t.o attain what lie needs'; as an inner object (376 f.):
d a ra b a h u d a rb a n 'He struck him a blow, i.e., Ilit him liard'.
206. A verbal substantive can be combined, like a noun, with a genitive

or, like a verb, with an accusative or preposition:
a) The genitiv'e takes the place of the subject or object (or "passive
subject) o f the verb: qa tlu )akhthi 'the fact that his brother has
killed' and 'the fact that someone has killed his brother, or the fact that
his brother has been killed
.
N ote 1. A verbal substantive of a verb that takes a prepositional com-

plement also appears with the same complement: <) )-
ittild'u <aid a ik u t u b i 'studying books'.
b) The accusative occurs for the object when the genitive position is
occupied by a subject genitive, wlien the verbal substantive is made definite
by tlie article, or when the substantive is indefinite:
qatluka >akha-
hu 'your having killed tiis brother', d a ifu n-nikayati
0,
ddah u 'weak in injuring his enemies', darbun bi-
's-suyufi r u iis a h u m 'cutting off their heads with the swords'.
N ote 2. See 271.1 on the adding of personal pronominal suffixes to tlie

verbal substantive.
N ote 3. Tlie accusative can be replaced by the preposition li- (295 a):
mundfasati lahu'm y rivalry with h i m , bi-

akhdhin
li- d in a r in
by taking a dinar'.

wwnv.kitabosunnat.com
c) The subject can be in the nominative: { a)d-darbu

,abuka waladahii 'the act of your father having struck his child'. More often,
the agent of the action is introduced with min (299 c): <) ) -
hubbu minrn Hlayka 'the love of me (I have) for you'.
Inflection of the Verb
Suffix Conjugation (Perfect)
207. Tlie following morphemes suffixed to the perfect base (163 ff.)
constitute the personal inflectional forms:
Sg. 3rd m. - f. - 2nd m. - a f. 'ti 1st -tu

Du. -a -ata -turna -tuma
PI. -u -na -turn -tunna -na
Cf. the tables of paradigms, pp. 237-258.
N o t e 1. On the orthography of the 3rd pi. masc. qatalu, see 7.2.
N o t e 2. If a suffix beginning with or n attaches to stem-final - or

only one or is written: thabat-tu
I stood firm
, aman-na

We believed(17.3).
Note 3. On the assimilation of suffixes beginning with to stem-final

consonants, see 48.
N o t e 4. In poetry, -tumu (7.5) occurs besides - m,
208. As a rule, the perfect bases end in single consonants: qatal-a, 'He
killed' a al- u 'I killed'. In verb-stems IX and XI, as well as stem IV
of four-radical verbs, the final double consonant must be broken up be-
fore a suffix that begins with a consonant (50.2): ( H)hmarr-a 'He
turned red', 3rd fern. >( J)^mar-a , 3rd pi. >( i)hmarrUi etc.,
but 1st sg. >( i)hmarartu, 1st pi. ( ,{)hmararna, etc. Also,
{ :{)sfdrra 'He turned yellow', but 3rd pi. fem. >( i)sfararna,
etc. ) )tma anna 'He became quiet', but 2nd pi. masc.
(>{)tmamantum, etc.
- ,
- . k it a b o s iin n a t. c o m
116 M o r p h o lo g y : V erb
N o te 1. S te m XV is i n f le c t e d lik e 111-weak v e r b s (250 ff.):

( 7)
fie w as s tr o n g
, 3 rd sg. fem . ) iy l a n d a t , 1 st sg.
V iY k u ( ia 1.u
j etc.
209. T h e in fle c tio n o f n e g a t iv e la y sa ' lie i s n o t ' ( 323) f o l l o w s t.hat

laysa, fern . laysat, 2 n d
o f t h e s u ffix c o n ju g a t io n : sg. 3 rd m a sc.
n i a s c . lasta, fern . lasti, 1 s t ) dua.1 3 r d m a s c . laysa ,
f e m . laysata, 2 n d la s tu m a , p i. 3 r d m a s c . la y su , fe m .
lasna, 2 n d m a s c . lastum , f e m . l a s t u m a , 1 s t lasna. C f. 52.
210. P a s s i v e : R a t h e r t h a n t h e p e r f e c t s t e m - v o w e l s a - a, a n d , i n t h e b a s i c
ste m , a ls o a i, t h e p a s s i v e l i a s t h e v o w e l s e q u e n c e u - i.
a) P a s s iv e p e r fe c t : fu 'ila f r o m / a ' a / a (I), f u aila f r o m fa "a la

( II), f u i l a f r o m fas a la ( III) , < / 1 f r o m
a fia la ( IV ) , 4 )<
f r o m f a ' k a k a ( f o u r - r a d i c a l I).
b ) I n v e r b s t e m s f o r m e d w i t h -, t h e v o w e l o f t h e p r e f i x i s a s s i m i l a t e d
to th e w o f th e ste m : tufuila f r o m aâ.'ala (V ), tufm ila f r o m

tt/ tta ( V I) , tu fu ' h ik a f r o m t a jw k a k a ( f o u r - r a d i c a l II) .
c) A u x il i a r y v o w e ls in s t e m s b e g in n in g w it h d o u b l e c o n s o n a n t s a re
l i k e w i s e a s s i m i l a t e d (54 b ) : ) ) n fw ila fro m (>)n fa 'a la ( V II) ,

i l l R o m (n M a a k (\
\\\), \ >stuJTla lto r \lu V t a j' a la (
( <) / 3 ?:4 f r o m ( )/ a n k a k a ( f o u r - r a d ic a l III) , ( ) / 3 4
f r o m ( )/ a k a l k a ( f o u r - r a d i c a l IV ) .
N o te 1. In p o e t r y , fu'la, fem . fu
lat o c c u r o c c a s i o n a l l y for
fu
il a , fe m . funiat.. C f. 163.1.
Prefix Conjugation
211. Tlie imperfect b a s e is inflected 'ith prefixed m o r p h e m e s 1.0 indicate
p e r s o n a n d suffixes t o indicate plural a n d dual. T h e Jirefixes ajrpear in two
series:

'.ktabsunnat.com
a) .-series:
3rd m. f. 2nd m. f. 1st
Sg. ya- la- tala- .. . .
Du. i a - . . -a la- ...L-a ta- .. . - a la- . . -a

PI. ya-. . .-u ya- . .- 1 ta- ... -u la- .. . - 1 na-
The a-series occurs in the active of the basic stem, stems V--XV, and stems
11-IV of four-radical stems.
N ote 1. I f a- a p p e a r s b e f o r e a- w h e n it is p a r t o f t h e s t e m in f o r m s V ,
V I, o r I I ( fo u r- r a d ic a l) , t h e s e q u e n c e n- a- o f t h e p r e f i x c a n b e s i m p l i f i e d
t o a- (49 a): ta'allam u f o r ta ta

a lla m u ' y o u lea r n , s h e lea rn s'.
b) a-series:
3rd m. f. 2nd m. f. 1st,
Sg. yu- ta- ta- - .
Du. yu- ., tu- .. .-a ta- ...-a fw- . -ft --
PI. yu- . .. -u yu- ... -na ta- ... -a ta- .. . -na na-
The M-series occurs in the active of stems II, III, and IV, as well as in the
basic stem of four-radical verbs. In addition, it occurs iir tire passive of all
the verlr stems. See the paradigms, pp. 237-258 ff.
N ote 2. A s a d i a l e c t v a r ia n t, a n i- s e r ie s is a t t e s t e d in tire a - c l a s s o f t h e
i m p e r f e c t b a s i s (216): alima
k n o w : n o n - c l a s s ic a l im p e i- fe c t ti'lamu (C f.
241.3; 244.3).
212. A distinctive feature of the imperfect in all forms tlrat do not have
supplementary suffixes is the - morpheme: ya-qtul-u 'lie kills', a-
-' She kills', 'you (masc.) kill', < - -' I kill', --( We
kill'. The supplementary suffixes -I, -0, - are extended in the imperfect
by the addition of -na/ni to -ina, -ani, -: ta-qtul-ina 'You (fern,
sg.) kill', ya-qtul-ani 'Both of them kill', ta-qtul-ani 'Both of
them (fem.) kill', both of you kill', ya-qtul-una 'They (masc.) kill,
- )-' You (masc. pi.) kill'. The plural feminine forms are:
J,n- w(-na 'They (fern.) kill', - )-' You (fem.) kill'.
'

Morph o l o g y : V e r b 118
213. T h e subjunctive is distinguished b y the - m o r p h e m e . The sup
plementary suffixes are not e x t ended : ya-qtul-a , ta-qtul-a ,

0 --< a -ul-a, /-- ta-qtul-a , ya-qtul-u,
ya -qtu l-n a , -- .n a-qtul-a
T h e jussive is distinguished b y the absence of endings. T h e supple .2 1 4
y a -q tu l , a -ul, a-u-i,
m e n t a r y suffixes are not e x t ended :
< a -ui ya -qtul-a , a -wl-u, ya-qtul-u , j,a-M-wa,

ta-qtu l-u , ta-qtu l-n a , .n a -qtu l
T h e enf.rgetic is distinguished b y the -an n a m o r p h e m e (energetic .2 1 5
I) or b y the -an m o r p h e m e (energetic II(: y a -w -an(na(, - 0
w!-an(na)i ( a -w -an(na (, n a -n-an(na). T h e supplementary
suffixes - , are shortened before - n ( n a (: a -w -in(na(, ya-

w -un(na (, a -ul-un(na). In the dual, .-a-ann(a) becomes -onm
without the shortening of a; a n d in t.he fern, pi., *-na-ann(a) b e c o m e
n a n n i -: J,a-ul-anni , ta -qtu l-a n n i ,

ya-qtul-nanni,
.ta - qtu l- n a n n i
N o t e 1. O n the spelling of or J,uuun, see 11.3. The pausal
form is y a q tu la .
Imperfect B ase
216. Tlie imperfect base in the active of the basic ste m has three vowel
classes: -/a/, -f'il, - f u ll A m o n g the vowel classes of the perfect base (163)
a n d the imperfect base, six combinations are possible:
1st Perf. /a. ala Imperf. y a f u lu 4. Perf. fa 'ila Imperf. yafalu
2nd Ilia '0 ) 5. )r u in ,
3rd a ala y a f a lu c. f c f i la yaH lu
M o s t verbs of the pattern fa 'a la belong to classes 1 a n d 2 (see 163).
T h e a oftlie imperfect b a e of those in class 3 is conditioned by a laryngeal
or pharyngal: ara>a ( y a q ra ii) 'read, recite', dhahaba (

ya d h h a bu ) 'go iway'. T h e perfect base f a
ila regularly has the imperfect
y a fia lu (class 4): sh a r ib a ( yashrabu) 'drink'. Likewise the
imperfect y a f u l u (class 5) consistently belongs to perfect fa'tda. Class 6 is
represented solely b y h a sib a ( yahsibu, yahsabu) consider.

Idtabosunnat c o m
Inflection of the V e r b 119
Note 1. T h e imperfect base can belong to m o r e than one vowel class
without any variation in meaning: 6 ) vadbuahu. vadbiohu,

yadbaghu) 'tan' (hide), nasaja ( yansuju, yansiju) w e a v e .
S o m e t i m e s variation in the vowel class m a k e s a distinction in meaning:
fasala ( yafsilu) separate, fasala ( yafsulu) depart.
N o t e 2. Frequently with attributive verbs, the imperfect base w-class can be
conjoined with both fa

ula and fa
ala. shahaba or shahuba (
yashhubu) look sickly'.
Note 3. N o t all verbs with a laryngeal or pharyngal as second or third
radical belong in the imperfect to the a-class: raja.a ( yarjvu)

return, tala'a ( yatlu'u) rise.
217. a) V e r b s t e m s f o r m e d w i t h a-, n a m e l y , V , VI, a n d four-radical II,
have the s a m e s t e m f o r m w i t h the v o w e l s e q u e n c e a - a in b o t h perfect a.nd
imperfect: Perf. a/a a!a : Imperf. J,a-a/a'a-u. S e e 1 6 7 f.1 7 5 .
b) All other derived s t e m s h a v e the v o w e l s e q u e n c e a - f in the imperfect
base: yu-fa'
il-iL (II), ya-nfa
il-u (VII), ya-fcanlil-u (four-radical III), etc.
S t e m I V d r o p s >a- f r o m the s t e m after the inflectional prefix: 1arsala 'send':
u-'arsilu> yursilu. a . \4 ,
218. The final d o u b l e c o n s o n a n t in s t e m s IX, XI, a n d four-radical I V
m u s t b e b r o k e n u p before the s u p p l e m e n t a r y suffix -na, b e g i n n i n g w i t h
a consonant, a n d in f o r m s of the jussive w i t h o u t a n e n d i n g (208). The
imperfect b a s e is then: I X -falil, XI -fialil, four-radical I V -falzkik' > _
yahmarru 'he b e c o m e s red' : yahmarirna, yasfarru h e turns
yellow' : yasfarirna, 'yatmainnu 'he b e c o m e s quiet' :

yatma
nin-na. In thejussive f o r m s w i t h o u t a n ending, the c o n s o n a n t cluster
can b e preserved w i t h a n auxiliary v o w e l (53): yahmarir or

yahmarr-i, etc.
N o t e 1. S t e m X V imperfect yafanli follows the category of Ill-weak verbs
with s t e m final i (250 ff.).
_
( M o r p h o lo g y : V erb 20
P a s siv e
In stea d o f i/u, a o c c u r s u n ifo r m ly in th e im p e r fe c t b a s e o f a ll p a s siv e .219

^ v e r b form s. A ll p a s s iv e fo r m s a re in fle cte d w ith th e M-series o f p re fix
b 211((: yafa/i/ulu : p a s siv e yuf'alu (I (, yufa

ilu : p a s siv e
yufaalu (II (, J,a a^ttu u : p a s s iv e

"
V ( 1(, : yastafilu
.p a s s i v e yustafalu (X), e t c
N o t e 1. A s a r e s u lt o f th e d r o p p in g o f p re fix e d >- in s te m IV, tire p a ssiv e

o f tile b a s ic s t e m an d s t e m IV m e r g e : y ,.'a m 'H e w a s eaten', from
.a . a m a (I) 'e a t, o r 'H e w a s fed', fr o m < a.
a ra n 'feed' (IV (.
Im perative
220. a) Tire imjrerfect b a s e w i t h o u t prefix functions as the iirrperative of
tire nrasculine singular. T h e f e minine is m a r k e d b y -I, the du a l Iry -a, the
jrlural b y -, the fe m i n i n e plural b y -na : qatala ( yu-q&tU-u)

'figlrt': qatil 'Fight', fenr. qatilt, m a s c . pi. qatilii, fern. qa-
t i l l ; tafakkara ( ya-tafakkar-u) 'think' : tafakkar 'Tlrink!', fern.
tafakkari, ntasc. pi. tafakkara,

tafakkarna. T h e
fern.
],rrefix -,a of stm I V is retained irr the imperative: arsala 'send' (

yursilu) : .arsiOSend!', fenr. arsili. nrasc. pi. arsilu, fem.

arsilna.
b) A n arrxiliary v o w e l (54 b) is insert,ed before s t e m s b e g i n n i n g w i t h
d o u b l c o n s o n a n t clusters. W i t h i n a phrase, the auxiliary is d r o p p e d (19
ff.). T h e auxiliary is u in w-series of the basic s t e m a n d i in all other stems;
(u)ktub 'Write' from fcaia&a ( yaktubu), {

i)fta h
'()pen 'f r o m fa ta h a ( yaftahu), ( H )nzil ' C o m e d o w i r 'f r o m
n a z a la ( yanzilu), ( i y t a r i f C o n f e s s fronr , (<)

(i) s t a (lhin ' A s k for permission!' f r o m ( i) s t a dhana.
N o t e 1. In stems IX, XI, and four-radical IV, stem-final double-consonant
clusters in tile imperative behave as they do in jussives (218).
221. a) T h e i m p e r a t i v e c a n additionally take the energetic e n d i n g -an
(215): (>i) fta h a n ' O p e n u p ', fern. {'i)ftahin, m a s c . pi.

V'iM tah.1.
- . k <bosunnat.cm
b) The imperative cannot be negated. The jussive negated with la

(195 b) functions as a negative imperative (prohibition): Id taftah
'Do not open!'.
N o te 1. Sometimes the particle yd occurs before the imperative:

yd
n fir U p and into battle!'
222. In combination with bi-na 'with US', the imperative calls for an
action: qu m bin d 'Stand up with us!', i.e., 'Let's stand up!',
)u)k hru ju bin d 'Go out with us!', i.e., 'Let's get out of here!'
N o te 1. T h e jussive appears in the apodosis of an imperative phrase (412).
N o te 2. Occasionally the imperative is expressed with the imperative of

k a n a be (190 ff.) in combination with the imperfect:
fa-k u n "an, tu k a llim u h u m So you speak to them!.
N o te 3. In pre-classical Arabic, the imperative is linked to a preceding

emphatic clause with -)329 (: . bal-i
1-laha fa- ,
bu d (Koran
39:66) 'Rather worship God!', . w a - fi m a lin a f a -
lita k im
A n d with our property, proceed as you will!.
Participles
223. The active participle of the thrw radical basic stem belongs to the
morpheme category failun, fern, fa fila tu n . The corresponding passive par-
ticiple has tlie morpheme category m a fu lu n , fern, m a fu la t u n : qdtilun,
fern. qa tila tu n 'killing, having killed', rriaqtulun, fern.
m aqtu la tu n 'killed, one who can (should) be killed'. Participles as a rule
form inflected plurals (101 f.).
Note 1. See 97 on the plural fa w a 'ilu of fa'il(at)u n, and 95.3 on the

plural m a fd iilu n of m a fu lu n .
224. The participles of the derived and four-radical stems are formed
from the imperfect base by the addition of the prefix m il.. They are in-
fleeted as triptotes (147 ff.). All stems in the active have the vowel
sequence a - i, in the passive a - a: II. .active m u fa ^ ilu n , passive
mw/a'.a/wn; III. active m u fd n lu n , passive m u fd alun; IV. ac-
tive m u filu n , passive m u f a l u n ; V. active m u ta fa i l m (!), passive

..kitibosunnit.com
m u ta fa "a lu n \ VI.
active m u ta fd ilun, passive m u ta fd alun) VII.
active m u n fa ilun, passive m u n fa alun) VIII. active m u fta lilun, pas-
sive m u fta alun] X. active m u s ta filu n , passive m u s ta fa lu n ; lour-
radical I. active m u fa b i b u n , passive m u fa
babun) II. active
' pa.ssive m u ta fa bakun) III. active m u f a n b ik u n , pas-
sive m ufanbakun ) IV . active m u f a b i l k u n , passive m u f a b a lk u n .
N ote 1. Stems IX and XI form only active participles rnufallun,

m u fd lln n .
Verbal Substantives
225. Tire verbal subst.antive is formed from the perfect base. Where the
perfect base exhibits tlie vowel sequence a - a, the verbal substantive has
I - a. The triptotic inflectional endings (147 ff.) attach to the stem. I.
fa
a la : fv a lu n , e.g., h a sa b a 'reckon' : h isabun, shajd
'cure' : s h if a n n (257 b). This form of the verbal substantive occurs

infrequently in the basic stem. Most often the morpheme category fa
lun
and other categories (228 f.) are used.
N ote 1. In addition to fv d lu n , f a a lu n occurs: halaka

perish:
halakun, fa s a d a
spoil: fa sa d u n . Without an ending, fa al >
fa
alt (53.2) in pre-classical Arabic is used as a command form: nazali

Come down!
, sa m i
ti Listen!and as a proper name: K asabi

Fetch!(a dog's name).
II. 3ala : f v dlun, very rare, e.g., f c a - a b a 'call a liar' :

kidhdhabun. Instead o f this form, t a f ilu n (231) is regularly used in form
II for t,he verbal substantive.
III. f a a la : fv a lu n (instead of *fvalun). qd ta la 'fight' : qita-

lun.
N ote 2. Because of the semantic ambiguity of the morpheme category

fva lu n ) the fenrinine passive participle frequently occurs as a verbal sub
stantive:
'

quarrel: m u ja d a la tu n (cf. 230.1).
IV. "aâla : i f a l u n : ak m a la 'complete': nkmalun.

VII. ('i)n fa
ala: ( i) n fidlun.

VIII. (
i)ftalala: )
(/ alun.
IX. (>i)/a/Za: () ilalun.
X. (Ji)sa/aa: (
i)stifialun.
XI ' \
XII. i'i)f
awcala: '{ i)S'valun.
XIII. {
{)fiawwala: ( H)f'iwwalun.
X IV. (i)fanlala : (>)/inlalun.
X V . (>?:)/anla: )) fin la
un.
226. Four-radical verbal substantives have the s a m e formation pattern:

4 0 3 : fi'bdkm : zalzala 'shake' : zilzalun. M o r e often the
m o r p h e m e category fa
hakatun (75.1) occurs inst.ead.
N o t e 1. Four-radical fa'bdkun: zalzalun corresponds to the mor-
p h e m e category (225.1).
III. ()fa n h a k a : )i)finl3dkun.
IV. akalka:
(')/ ()/'ikkakun.
Note 2. fu'akbikatun occurs also in fo r m I V of four-radical stems:
m a anna b e c o m e c a l m :
(t) tumaminatun =
(ntmvTianuu.
227. Verbal stems for m e d with .-prefix change the last a of the perfect
base to w in verbal substantives:
W tajcrak'. tajailun.
\'\. taja'ak'. tajatulun.
II. four-radical 3 4 : tafa'bukun.
N o t e 1. A verbal substantive of s t e m V tifiyalun, wliich is form e d o n the
fi'dlun model, is occasionally attested: tamallaqa flatter :

timillaqun.
.
228. In the basic stem, abstract substantives of various m o r p h e m e c a t e
gories oc c u r as verbal substantives. T h e following classes o c c u r c o m m o n l y :
a a : fa
Ian, e.g.: lamasa 'touch' : lamsun.
fci'ila : fa
alun, e.g.: kadira 'be turbid' : / kadarun.
fa'ula : /a' alatun , e.g.: radhula 'be lowly, c o m m o n ' : radha-

l a t i.
/'/,-ata : fa'hakatun , e.g.: a afa'disturb' : qalqalatun.
N o t e 1. In roots witli r, , h, !, gh, ' as the second radical, fa

,m frequently
becomes fa
aim, m o r e rarely fa'ilun, with the addition of a secondary vowel
(38): talaba seek : talabun (rather than *talbun).
229. In addition to the verbal substantives cited th u s far, n u m e r o u s other
m o r p h e m e categories occur in t he basic stem. A s verbal substantives they
are typically associat.ed witl specific s e m a n t i c groups. T h e m o s t i mportant
types are:
fwiilun, mo.'-ion: dakhala 'enter' : dukhulun, jalasa

'sit up' : jnliisun.
fa'ilun, s o u n d a n d motion: safara 'whistle' : safirun,

r a .aa 'deparf,' : rahilun.
fwalun, sound: sa>aa 'ask' : su'dlun, nabaha 'bark' :
nubahun.
fu'ulntun, attribution: sa
uba 'be difficult' : swubatun,
sahula 'be easy' : suhulatun.
fa'alanun, repetition: khafaqa 'flutter' : khafaadnun.

sajama 'shed (tears) : sajamanun.
fvlun, remembering: hafiza 'preserve, retain in m e m o r y ' :

hifzun, 'alima 'k n o w ' : ilmun.
O t h e r m o r p l r e m e categories tliat o c c u r as verbal substantives are:

fwlun, ^ fvlanun, fwlanun, fa'ulun, fvalatun.

230. Morplieme categories formed with m a- prefix (78) frequently func-

tion as verbal substantives: m a p alun, m a p ilu n , m a p a la tu n , m a p ila tu n ,
m apulatun , e.g .1 h a m a la 'carry' : m ah m alu n , qa ru ba

neat' . "J > m aqrabatun , m a q r u b a t t , 'arafa 0 :\7
I'rifa tu n , q a d a ra 1p o s s e s s p ow er' " m aqda ratu n , maqdiratUTi,
m aqduratun. In the derived verbal stems, the passive participle (224) also
assumes the function of the verbal substantive: > adam,a 'go forward' :
m uqdam un , >( i)n sarafa (turn away m u n sa ra fu n .
N o t e 1. Asa rule, in verbal stem III, the feminine singular passive participle
is used as a verbal substantive rather than the masculine singular passive
participle: khataba
address: rnukhatabatun. In pre-
classical Arabic, the passive participle of the basic stem is sometimes used
also as a verbal substantive: r a d d a
send back(233) : m ardu -
dun.
231. Verbal substantives formed vith prefixed ta-/ti-/tu- are intensive in

meaning:
tap a l l from the basic stem: ta la ba 'seek' : tatlabu n

'(intensive) search'.
ta p ilu n ,
tadim un.
regularly the verbal substantive of form II: Y a lla m a 'teach':
N o t e 1. In Ill-weak verbs, ta p ila tu n (257.2) replaces tap ilu n . On occa-

sion, ta p ila tu n also occurs witlr other types of roots: ja r r a b a 'test' :
tajribatu n. cf. also 237.3.
N o t e 2. Other morpheme categories formed with -/?:-/- eccur only

TBieVy. ttja lu n , tt atatun, tajullun, tajultttun,
tu pu latu n . See also 240.3.

N o u n s Expressing a Single Action (N om en Vicis)
232. fa'lun, etc., with the feminine ending - (cf. 84) indicates an
action taken once: darbun 'striking' : darbatun 'one strike,
blow', juliisun 'sitting' : jalsatun 'a sitting (court)'. This kind
of formation is quite rare in other morpheme categories: takbiratun
'one cry of Allahu akbar' from takbirun (verbal substantive form II).
Note 1. Tlie nomen vicis is also used in the dual and plural:
darbatani.
two blows', darabatun
several blows' (105 a).
W-Gemmate Nets (Verba m ed ia e gem iiratae)
233. a) The two like radicals of verbs with ident.ical second and third
radicals form a geminate group, unless syllabification requirements break it
up (50.2). The morphologically conditioned vowel between the second and
third radicals is omitted if a morplieme vowel precedes: ra d d a 'return'
= f a a l a , r a d d u = fa'alii, r a d d u n = fa'ilu n . The vowel precedes
the geminate group if no morpheme vowel (.,recedes: y a ru d d u = yafulu,

ah abba ( yuhibbu) 'love' =
a f a l a (y u f i l u ), stem IV.
Note 1. In stems III and VI and in the participle fa'ilun, forms based on
three-radical root patterns occasionally occur: tashadada and
tashadda
argue with one another', farirun and farrun
fleeing
.
N o t e 2. In certain cases, stem I fa'ila and fa'ula attributive verbs can be

formed as threeradical roots: . , labuba
. 'be curly-haired
and labba
be sensible'.
Note 3. Observe in the imperfect of stems VII, VIII, and X the inconsistent
behavior (,f the stem vowel: (
i) n ra d d a ( yanraddu) = (i)nfa'ala
( y a n j a i ( \u y t a d d a ( _y a rta d d u = (n' ft a ala (yajta.
( 'A sta ra d d a ( yastartddu ( = A s t a j a l a ly a s ta jiilu y
b) In stems II and V, Il-geminate roots are treated as three-radical

roots: raddada ( yuraddidu(
repeY, taraddada ( yatarad-
dadu)
be repelled'.

N o t e 4. In preclassical Arabic, analogical formations from Ill-weak verbs
(250 ff.) occur on occasion: ta za n n a y tu 'I thought' instead of
tazan n an tu, verbal substantive ta z a n n in instead of

ta za n n u m n .
234. Syllable structure breaks u p the g e minate g r o u p if it is not followed
by a vowel. Accordingly, morphologically conditioned forms occur before
consonantal endings: radda return : radadtu , V i s ^ u m m a smell:
sh a m im tu or s h a m a m tu , a(m & a'love' : <8 &8 ( IV),
'>( i) amma 'be distressed' : v a a h ta m im n a (VIII).
N o t e 1. In preclassical Arabic, the geminate group before a consonant
suffix in the perfect could be simplified: z a lla 'remain' : ?au or
ziltu along with zaliltu; >a h a ssa feel : >aâsu as well
as ,a h sa stu (IV).
N o t e 2. O n rare occasion, analogical formations from the Ill-weak verb
occur: q a ss a : q a ssa y tu rather than a?asw,

ahassa : ,a h sa y tu instead of a h sa stu .
235. In forms of the prefix conjugation a n d the imperative that d o not
have endings, the ge m i n a t e gro u p is preserved w h e n a n auxiliary vowel (53)
is inserted. Otherwise, morphologically conditioned forms occur. Either
possibility m a y occur: Jussive y a ru d d - i (-a/u) or ârdwd,

yuhibb-i (-a) or , yu h bib , imperative ru d d -i (-a/u) or (u)rdud,
ahibb-i (-a) or ah bib.
236. N o m i n a l m o r p h e m e categories are likewise treated according to the
rules cited in 50. Obs e r v e the verbal substantive ta s ir r a tu n f r o m >

surra = aîlafwn'be happy', m a d h a m m a tu n f r o m d a m m a 'blame'
= m a fa la tu n . Should a long vowel appear be t w e e n the second a n d third
radicals, Il-geminate roots are treated as thre^radical roots: qararu n
from arra'dwell', a ^ d n w n f rom a n n a'groan'. T h e s a m e is
true for verbal substantives of the derived verb stems: ta r d id u n (II),
ridadwn (III), d r d a d w n (IV), ( j ) n n d a d u n (VII), etc.

'.ki abosunnat.com
128 M o r p h o lo g y : V erb
N ote 1. F r e q u e n t ly , fa d u n w i t h t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e g e m in a t e grou p
o c c u r s a l o n g s i d e fa* a im (50): bahh un a n d bahahun from

bah h a
b e h oarse
.
Verbs with Weak Radicals

Verbs with h a m z a h
237. V e rb s fr o m r o o t s w ith (h a m za h ) a s th e first, secon d , o r third rad-
ic a l fo r th e m o s t p a r t e x h ib it n o v a r ia tio n fr o m tJie in flectio n a l form s of
tlie th r ee - r a d ica l verb. In v e r b s w ith I-> th e ru le o f d is s im ila tio n o f the

s e q u e n c e > > (40) is in e ffec t fo r th e 1st. sg. im p e r fe c t o f s te m s I and IV
a n d fo r p e r fe c t a n d v e r b a l s u b s ta n tiv e o f s te m IV :
adhina 'allow ':
im p e r f e c t 1st. sg.
adhanu. bu t y a
dhanu; s te m IV: ,am ana <
a>77iana 'believe', im p e r fe c t 1st. sg. yfminu, b u t y u l i n u , verbal
s u b s t a n t iv e
iTTidnun < v m d n u n .
N ote 1. F o r m s b e g i n n i n g w i t h a lif al-w a sl (19 ff.) u n d e r g o d issim ila tio n
o n l y in in it ia l p o s i t i o n fo r m s . S e e 40.1. N o t e t h e s p e l l i n g o f im p era tiv e
fo r m s a fte r wa- a n d fa- a ju r ( < ( >u)

ju r )
r e w a r d
:
w a-
ju r, i t a li f ( < (
i)
ta lif)
u n it e !
: or w a-
talif.
N ote 2. S e e 247.1; 41 c o n c e r n i n g d i s s i m i l a t i o n o f > - in 11-weak verbs
w it h * a s t h e f ir s t o r t h i r d r a d ic a l
N ote 3. In n o n - c l a s s ic a l A r a b ic , I I I - v e r b s u s u a lly m e r g e w it h Ill-w eak
v erb s. N o n - c l a s s i c a l f o r m s s o m e t i m e s e n t e r c l a s s ic a l t e x t s , e.g., nabba
( yunabbi )in p la c e o f Tiabbaa ( y u n a b b im )

in fo r m
. In such
c a s e s , t h e v e r b a l s u b s t a n t i v e t a f i l a t u n (257.2) i s w r i t t e n in a cla ssicizin g
vaatmet . ta u b v a tu n = t i k i ja t u n .
238. I-> v e r b s e x lrib it th e f o llo w in g a lte r n a tiv e fo r m a tio n s: T lie imperatives
of ,a k h a d h a 'take', j s i ak a la 'eat', ' a m a r a 'order' are: khudh,

kul, m u r. ,a k h a d h a f o r m s v e r b a l s t e m V I I I lik e 1-verbs (242
b): ) (' assum e'. In a d d it io n t o i t a z a r a ((> )>tazara
, <)
40.1) 'w ra p o n e s e lf iir a n i z a r ) t t a z a r a a ls o o ccu rs.
N ote 1. A t h r e e - r a d ic a l i m p e r a t i v e f o r m o f a m a r a a ls o o c c u r e after
w a-: w a - m u r , in a d d i t i o n t o w a - m u r an d order!'.
, !
-.kitabosunnat.com
Verbs with W e a k Radicals 129
239. H a m za h in the very frequently occurring verbs sau ila 'ask' a n d
raid 'see, look' is elided:
a) sa
ala: Imperative sal, fem. salt a n d regular () ,
jussive y a sa l a n d y a s
al.
b) r a i (42) in the prefix conjugation: ,ara, . yard, jussive

yara, imperative ra h (240 b), f e m . ray, pi. ratu, fern. rayna,
also, in all forms of verbal s t e m IV: perfect ,a r a 'show', passive
lunya, imperfect yurt, jussive yuri, imperative ,art, imperfect
passive (stems I a n d IV) yura. T h e inflection follows otherwise that

of 111-wea.k verbs (250 ff.). See the paradigms, p. 245.
N o t e 1. In poetry, forms like y a r d are occasionally encountered.
Conversely, > can m o r e often be found elided. N o t e cases like sd la he

< sa'ala.
N o t e 2. O f *,a h ak a send, only the imperative ,a lik < *,a b ik exists.
N o t e 3. All other verbs with exhibit stable > in classical Arabic, e.g.,
uwS ( ya'1, 1st. sing.> af) promise (240 b).
I- W ea k V e r b s ( V erba p r im a e in firm a e )
240. a) In the basic stem, m o s t 1-w verbs f o r m the imperfect base (active)
without w: w a ja d a 'find(' : _ya-jid-u, utada'a p u t d o w n ' :

,0 -- W)u.ia 'step' : ya-ta-u, w a th iqa 'rely' : ya-thiq-u.
Otherwise, the inflection corresponds to that of tliree-radical verbs. See
paradigms, p. 244.
N o t e 1. T h e imperfect passive is for m e d f r o m the w stem:

y u ja d u
( = yuw jadu ) he is found'.
N o t e 2. viada'a ( yada'u) let usually occurs only in the prefix

conjugation: Jussive yada
, imperative da(. Thus, yadharu,
which is found exclusively in the prefix conjugation, jussive vadhar,
imperative dhar, is classed as if it belonged to a root *w-dh-r. The
imperative im, w h i c h occurs in the formula i m sa b a h a n
' G o o d morning!, is actually a n abbreviation of a r tim sa b a h a n

(root n-.-m).

wwv.kitab.sunnat.com
b) S o m e verbs are b o t h ]-w a n d III-J,: waqa 'guard' : imperfect
yaqi, jussive yaqi] waliya 'be near', imperfect yali, jussive
yali. T o avoid the short f o rms qi, li, t.he imperative ofsuCh verbs always
appears in the pausal f orm (55): lih\ but feminine qi, li,
/,
etc. Otherwise, they are inflected like III-J, verbs (250 ff.).
c) T h e imperfect base without UI is used to f orm verbal substantives:
thiqatun f r o m wathiqa ( yathiqu) 'rely', sa

atun from
wasva ( yasan) "be wide', shiyatun f rom washa ( yashi)
embellish.
Note 3. In s o m e verbal substantives, - appears in place of

turathun inheritance from waritha ( yarithu) inherit,
tukhamatun 'indigestion' from wakhima ( yakhimu) suffer from
indigestion.
241. A few verbs in the category f a

ila a n d all in the category fa'ula
preserve w in the imperfect: w a jila 'be afraid' : ,'
w a d u
a b e pure' : y a w d u
U According t.o 33 a, the imperative
becomes n ja l < *(>)w ja l.
N o t e 1. S o m e I-W verbs have both types of imperfect: wahirria have

a craving ., yahimu or yihamu.
N o t e 2. All I-m/11-geminate verbs have stable w: wadda like : im-
perfect yawaddu, jussive yawadd-i or yawdad, imperative

inadd-i or _ ulad < . )i> d a d .
N o t e 3. *till) b e c a m e t i with the -series of the personal prefixes (211.2):
tija lu Y o u are afraid'. W h e n such forms m a k e their w a y into liter-

ature, their vocalization is frequently classicized: ,. Isolated
occurrences of the preclassical imperfect type y a ja lu are attested.
242. a) T h e derived verbal stems are formed liketlireeradical verbs. W h e n
tlie sequence ill) occurs, it m u s t b e c o m e iy = i: ,awqa'a ( yuqt'u =

yuwqvu) 'let fall': Verbal subst.antive iq a
un (IV), ( H)stawda'a
( yastawdvu) 'deposit': Verbal substantive >( i)stida.'U7i (X),
*(
i)wraqqa > iraqqa ( yawraqqu) 'turn ashen' (IX).

V e r b s w ith W e a k R a d ic a ls 131
b) I n v e r b a l s t e m V I I I , r e p l a c e s *wt-: ) <) asa'a

e x p a n d (
yattasvu) ( r o o t ) ( '
1( ) yattafiqu) 'a g r e e ' ( r o o t w-f-q).
N o t e 1. See 238 concerning (

i)tta k h a d h a (root -kh-dh) and
))<tta za ra (root >-z-r).
N o t e 2. In the basic stem, back-formations with I- from verbal stem VIII
can occur: ) yatqi) be pious from ) :(' fear (God)'

(root w-q-y).
243. I-J, v e r b s a r e i n f l e c t e d lik e t h r e e - r a d ic a l v e r b s : y a q iz a b e a w a k e '

: im p e r fe c t yayqazu. T h e s e q u e n c e u y m u s t b e c o m e I = ii (33 b):
> a y qa za
w a k e u p : i m p e r f e c t yuqizu, p a s s i v e yuqazu, v e r b a l
su b sta n tiv e n qdzun (IV). S t e m V I I I o f t h e root, y-s-r is f o r m e d a s if

it w e r e a I-u, r o o t : ( >i)tta sa ra ( ya tta siru ) ' d r a w lots'.
1 1 - W e a k Ver b s ( Verba m e d ia e in firm a e)
244. V e r b s w i t h II-W a n d -y h a v e a l o n g v o w e l it, p l a c e o f t lie s e c o n d
r a d ica l. I n t h e b a s i c s t e m t h e r e a r e t h r e e c l a s s e s o f v o w e ls :
1. q d m a 'sta n d ', 1st sg. qu m tu : im p rjrf. y a q u m u

2. n a m a 'sleep', 1st sg . n im tu : im p e r f. yanam u
h a ra ' c o n fu se d ' , 1 st sg. h irtu : im p e r f. y a h a r u

3. S ara ' b e c o m e ' , 1 st sg. s ir tu : im p e r f. y a stru
T h e p e r f e c t b a s e e x h i b i t s t h e v o w e l a l t e r n a t i o n a : u / i, w h ic h o c c u r s
o n ly in t h e b a s i c s t e m . S t e m s w i t h l o n g v o w e l s (a) o c c u r b e f o r e v o c a l i c
in f le c t io n a l s u f fix e s : qdm a, qam at, qam a, qam ata,

q d m i S t e m s w i t h s h o r t v o w e l s ( um -, nim -, hir-, sir-) o c c u r b e f o r e c o n s o
n a n ta lsu fh x e s : qum ta, n im tu m , hirna, s im a , e tc . I n t h e
p r e fix c o n ju g a t i o n , t h e l o n g v o w e l s t e m a l s o o c c u r s b e f o r e v o c a l i c e n d in g s :
yaqum una, ya sira, etc. T h e stem v o w e l is s h o r t e n e d (52)
b e f o r e t h e c o n s o n a n t a l e n d i n g -na (fern, pi.) a n d in f o r m s w i t h o u t e n d i n g s
(ju ssiv e, im p e r a t iv e ) : yaqum na, ya n a m n a , yaharna,
- < 3
ya sirn a , } quin, mm, har, / sir, but feminine qumi,

n am i, etc. See the paradigms, pp. 246 ff.
N ote 1. In addition to jussive ya k u n from ka na ( yakunu)

, there
b e is a short form yaku, which, however, cannot be used before
tlie article (>) - (142).
N ote 2. m a ta ( yam utu) 'die' has a short-vowel perfect base

m it- ant.1 mut-: m itta or mutta.
N ote 3. ik h dlu (only in the 1st sing.) from khala ( yakhalu)

fancy, believe' originates from a dialect variant -series of personal prefixes
(211.2).
245. a) In the derived verbal stems with long vowels, there is no difference
between II-W arrd III - There is no vowel alternation in tlie perfect base:
IV: perf. ,a q a m a 1st sing. 'a q a m t u

impe.rf.
- tjuqxmu imperat. aqim
X: perf. ( n sta q a m a 1st sing. (

)staqamtu
imperf. y a sta q im u imfierat. 0 i)staqim
VII: perf. ( i) n q a m a 1st sing. (H)nqamtu
imperf. y a n q a m u imperat. (>i)n qam
VIII: perf. ( n q ta m a 1st sing. (
i)qtam tu
imperf. ,Jttqtu.mil. imperat. - (
i)qtam
N ote 1. The distribution of vowels in tire imperfect base conforms to that

of tlie corresponding stems of Il-geminate verbs (233.3).
N ote 2. See 49 b concerning >( i)s an ( yasti'u)

be in a
position to' in addition to ( Ji)s a
a
a and () /)
y a s iilu )
become long' in addition to ) i)s tt a a.
b) In verbal stems II, III, V, VI, and IX, w and y liehave like con-
sonants: qaw w am a ( y u q a w w im u )
set right', sayyara (
y u s a y y ir u ) 'induce' (II); qaw am a ( y u q a w im u ) 'resist', la-
yana ( y u la y in u ) 'treat wit.h kindness' (III), etc.; '( i) s w a d d a (

yasw ad d u ) (liecome black', >( i ) b y a d d a ( yabyaddv)
become white'
(IX). The inffect.ion corresponds to that of three-radical
strong" verbs.

kitabosunnat c o m
N o t e 3. F o r m a t i o n s w it h c o n s o n a n t a l U) o r y a l s o e x i s t in o t h e r v e r b a l
s t e m s . T h e y a r e r e g u l a r l y d e n o m i n a l in o r ig in : 'a v iija ( ya'waju)

' b e c r o o k e d ' (I), >ah w a ja ( yuhw iju) ' r e q u ir e ' (IV ),
){)stasw aba ( ya sta sw ib u ) a p p r o v e o f ' (X). C f. 68.1.
246. B y analogy with fu 'tla : yuf'alu, the passive of long vowel stems
has i/ i in the perfect base a n d a / a in tlie imperfect base: q im a (

yuqamu), n im a ( yunam u), Sira yusa.ru), jussive
yuqam, etc. T h e prefixed m o r p h e m e s in the perfect are taken f r o m the u
of fw ila : < ) y u q a m u ) IV, ) u ) n q id a y u n q a d u VII,
{,u js t u q lm a ( yu staqam u) X .
N o t e 1. V e r b a l s t e m s II, I II , V , V I f o r m t h e p a s s i v e :IS t h r e e - r a d ic a l m o r -
p h e m e c a t e g o r i e s (210; 219): q u w w im a , q fiw im a (28.2),

t u q u im a . > tu q u m m a .
N o t e 2. I n s t e a d o f (u ) n q id a , (
u )q tid a w it h a u x il i a r y v o w e l w in v e r b a l
s t e m s V I I a n d V I I I , t h e a u x ilia r y v o w e l c a n b e i : (
i) n q id a , ( ' i) q tid a .
N o t e 3. In p o e try , n o n - c l a s s ic a l p e r f e c t f o r m s w it h u / u i n s t e a d o f l/ i
o c c a s io n a lly o c c u r : quia, , f ' u)khtura
w a s s a id w a s ch o sen '
( V I I I o f r o o t kh-v-r).
247. a) T h e active participle (223) has the m o r p h e m e sequence - w ith
in between, in place of the s t e m vowel: qd'imun, n d

im un, > ha.-
irun , sadrun. In tlie passive participle, w h i c h haS ina- (223) prefixed
to the stem, the s t e m vowel varies it is in II-W verbs a n d i in II-J,
verbs: m aqu du n from qa d a ( y a qu d u ) 'lead', m ak h u fu n

from khafa ( yakhafu) 'fear', m abvun f rom bam (
yabvu) 'sell'.
N o t e 1. Tn I- a n d III-> v e r b s , t h e > ) s e q u e n c e in t h e a c t i v e p a r t i c i p l e is
d i s s i m i l a t e d (41): ,dyibu n f r o m ' aba ( yadibu) re t u r n ,

jd d n ( < * ja 'iy u n < * j a ' i ' i ) f r o m ja m ( yajvu) co m e .
N o t e 2. I n II-J, v e r b s , t h e p a s s i v e p a r t i c i p l e m a f
ulun a p p e a r s o c c a s i o n a l l y
w it h c o n s o n a n t a l ,: m a b yu m n
s o ld
.
:
b) In the derived stents, participles are f o r m e d according to 224 from
the imperfect base: tnuqaw w im un , m u q a w w a m u n (II), m u q im u n ,
m u q d m u n (IV), m u n q d m u n (VII, active a n d passive!), etc.
248. a) Radical w a n d y apjtear in verbal substantives fa'lun, fa'latu n :

qaw dun, n aw m un , khawfun. hayratun, sayrun.
N o t e 1. fa y lu la tu n is a m o r p h e m e category that occurs only in 11-weak
roots as a verbal substantive of the basic stem: d a y m u m a tu n from
dam a ( yadum u) last, from ba na (

y a b in u ) 'part, separate.
b) Verbal substantive fv-alun of II-W roots also lias y as the second
radical (33 a): qiyam un , n iyam un . B y analogy, verbal substan-
tives of stems VII a n d VIII follotv the s a m e pattern: )) n q iy a m u n ,

>( i)qtiydm un. In verb stems I V a n d X, tile m o r p h e m e pattern i-a is
distributed over prefix a n d stem, to which, in addition, the feminine ending
- a t m is attacl'ied: dqam atun , (

i) s t iq a m a t u n .
N o t e 2. Rarely occurring are verbal substantives of stems I V and X lacking
atun: iqdmun, ) i)stiqamun.
N o t ^ 3. Verbal substantives formed with Jêfixed m a - (23 have the stem
vowel a , or frequently with II-J, roots, V. m a la m u n , m a la m a tu n

from la m a ( y a lu m u ) blame, m a ash u n , m a ish u n ,
m a n sh a tu n from 'a sh a ( yanshu) live.
c) V e r b stems with consonantal w or y f orm verbal substantives accord-
ing to the tlireeradical m o r p h e m e category: taqw im un, tasyt-
r u n (II), qiu idm u n (III), ta q a w w u r n m (V), (i) sw id a d u n ,
i i) b y id a d u n (IX).
N o t e 4. Note the distinction: q iy a m u n = fi'd lu n from tile basic stem and
q iw a m u n == fi'd lu n from verb stem III.
249. haraqa 'pour, shed' (178 b) is inflected in the following m an-
ner: Perf. 1st sing. h a ra q tu , pass. huriqa, 1 7';
imperf. yuhariqu, yuhriqU) juss. yuhriq, pass. yuharaqu,

yuhraqu; active part. muhariqun, muhriqun, pass. muhardqun, j

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Verbs with Weak Radicals 135
muhraqun, verbal substantive h iraqatun , ih ra q a tu n . Derived

from the latter form are the secondary perfect forms: > a h r a q a , pass.
vuhriqa.
I l l - W e a k V e rbs ( Verba te r tia e in fir m a e )
250. III-W and -y verbs have a long vowel in place of the third radical.
The six classes of vowel combinations of the basic stem correspond to those
of the three-radical verb (216):
1. fa ala y a fu lu : da
d yad'ii 'call' (10) III-W
2. fa ala y a f ilu : ram a y a r m i
throwIII-J,
3. fa ala - s a ca yas'd 'run' III-J,
y a f a lu :
4. fa ila - y a fa lu : la q iy a . ya lq d 'meet' III-?/
5. fa ula y a f u l u : sa r u w a y a sr u 'be noble' III-W,
6. fa ila - y a f ilu : w a liy a 'be near' (240 b) III-1J
251. The derived verb stems, except for stems V and VI, which belong to
the third class, belong to the second class: g h a n n d ( y u q h a n n i )
'sing' (II), la q a ( y u l d q i ) 'meet' (III), ,ah d a ( y u h d l )
'give' (IV), ta la qq a ( y a ta la q q a ) 'receive' (V), ta la qd (
y a ta la q a ) 'get togetlier' (VI), J 4 \{i) n ja ld ( y a n ja li) 'reveal oneself '
(VII), ( H )ltaqa ( y a lta q i) 'meet' (VIII), >( i) s ta w la (
ya staw li) 'take posses"sion of' (X), (
i) h la w la ( y a h la w li) 'be
sweet' (XII).
N o t e 1. T h ere are n o verb stem s IX or XI. Instead, there are o cca sion a l
alternative form ation s (178 a): ' ( i) r a w a ( y a r a w i)

w a tch
.
N o t e 2. Verb stem X V (
i ) f an la ( y a fa n li) is inflected a ccord in g the secon d
class (173).
N o t e 3. Four-radical verb stem s o f IV-weak verbs correspon d to three-
radical derived stem s: s a lq a ( y u s a lq i ) (162.3)

overturn
(I),
ta sa lq a ( y a ta sa lq a ) fall o n to the b a ck (II),

('i)slan qd(
y a s l a n q i ) 'fall o n to the back' (III).
252. The vocalic stem ending undergoes complex variation (cf. 34; 35 a)
as a result of the addition of inflectional suffixes:
. )
a) w a n d I m e r g e into the s t e m vowel, wlrile a merges only into -0,
but not int.0 - a n d -i: subjunctive . y a r m iy a , y a d uwa, but

yalqa. 3rd pers. fern. sing, *-a m u s t b e shortened: rama , da'at,
but iayiyai, saruwa ; b y analogy, 3rd dual fern. ram ata,
d a aa, laqiyata, saruw ata.
b) Before consonantal suffixes a n d before -a (-ani), the s t e m ending
is treated consonantally: I == iy, = , a b e c o m e s ay or aw, depending
o n whetlier the root is II1-J, or III-w: perf. ram a yta, -ti, -u, etc.,
da'awna, da.nwna; sa ru ta (=
la q ita ( = laqiyta),
sarnwia); imperf. fetn. pi. y a d in a
y a r m in a ( = y a r m iy - n a ),
( : yad'uw-na), y a lq a y n a ; dual ra m a ya, da'awa, laqiyd,
s a r u w a ; y a rm iy a n i; yad'uwdni, yalqaydni.
c) - -I, -una, -Tna un d e r g o the following contractions w h e n vocalic
suffixes are added: a - u > aw, a - f > ay: perf. ram aw , da'aw
imperf. y a lq a w n a , alyayna. In the following contractions - i

> i, u -
u > u and - < - < the suffix vowel prevails: perf.
laqu, sard ; imperf. ya rm u n a, yad
una, ya sru n a ;
ta rm in a , tad'Tna, tasrina.
253. a) T h e subjunctive ending -a is a d d e d to tlie imperfect base:

yarmiya , yad.wwa, b u t yalqa (252 a). T e supplementary
suffixes lose -na, -ni: xjarmU) tarm i , y a r m i y a yad '
,
tad'1, yaduwa, yalqaw, afyay, yalqaya. T h e
ending -na of t.he feni. pi. is not dropped: yarmtna, yndiina,
yalqayna (like tlie imperf.).
b) T h e jussive's lack of endings is represented in Ill-weak verbs by a
shortening of the s t e m vowel: yarmi, yad'u, yalqa, yasru,
y n ^ a n n i (II), y a ta la q q a (V). F o r m s with supplementary suffixes

are identical to tliose of tlie subjunctive.

c) T h e imperative has the endings of tlie 2 n d person jussive:

(
i) rm i, f e m . ) i ) r m i , pj. ( i)rmw, fem. ) i ) r m i $ \ '(<) ,
fem. () pi. ( <) fem. (>i)<t2na; )i) lq a , fem.

) ) Iq a y , pi .'{ i)lqaw, f e m . ) i) lq a y n a ; gh a n n i, g h a n n i,
etc. (II), 0 0 fem. talaqqay, etc. (V).
254. T h e energetic forms (215) are: yarrn iyan {n a), 2 n d fem.

tarm inna, pi. ya rm u n n a , fem. y a r m in a n n i ;
yad'uwan(na), 2 n d fem. ta d in n a , pi. ya d'u n n a , fem.
yadninanni] ya lqaya n (n a), 2nd fem. talqayin n a, pi.
y a lq a w u n n a , f e m . yalqayn dn n i.
255. 'The passive is f o r m e d according to m o r p h e m e category f w i l a :
a l l !\(> ( \ tw rqa ( ' | . luqirja
( yulqa), s t e m 1.11 liiqiya ( yuldqa), s t e m I V *uhdiya,

( yuhda), etc. Tlie inflection follows the pattern of the fourth vowel
class (250).
N o t e 1. In poetry, there are also forms in the category f u i a (210.1):
rum a, fem. rum at; ru m m a , fem. run vm at (II).
256. Tire plionological rrrles in 252 hold for n o m i n a l stems ending in -

-a. W h e n the sign of indefiniteness is added, the final long vowel of tire
stem m u s t b e shortened. Cf. 154 f. o n the irrflection.
a) ram i, da'I, l a q i correspond to the active particijrle category f a il- :
ram in , fem. ra m iy a tu n , da'in, fem. d a iy a t u n , laqin,

le i \ taqvyatun.
b) T h e passive participle r n a flilu n is for m e d witlr consonantal w or y:
m achum , marTTUajun (< maTTnup. .
N o t e 1. O n occasion, m a f u lu n of III-W roots is formed with y:

m ad
XTjun Instead o l m a d f u i m .
c) All derived verb stems h ave stem-final -I in the act.ive participle a n d
-a in the passive participle: m u a h a n n in , fem. m u g h a n n iy a tu n

'singing', m u g h a n n a n , fem. m u q h a n n a tu n 'sung' (II): m u h d in
'giving', m u h d a n 'given' (IV), etc.
>
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Morphology: V e r b
257. T h e rules followed In tlie formation of fll-weak roots (69) hold for
verbal substantives.
a) In m o r p h e m e categories /a'Ian, fi'lanun, a n d the like, consonantal
w or y appears: ram yun , da'watun, n isy a n u n from

n a s iy a ( yansa) 'forget'. For f u
lun a n d jv lu n , usually a!an, fwalun
occur with a vocalic stem-ending: r id a n f r o m ra d iy a (

yarda) 'be satisfied', h u d an from h a d a ( yakdi) 'lead on the
right way'. In tlie s a m e way, m o r p h e m e category ^B.alatan occurs in place
of fa' latun : n a ja tu n f r o m ' n a ja ( yanju) 'escape' (60.3).
N ote 1. fu fu lu n is formed with radical w or : s u f u m n from

s a fa ( y a sfii ) 'be pure', h u w iyu n ( < hm m iyun 33 b) from
haw a ( yahwi) 'fall'.
b) M o r p h e m e categories with -a in the second syllable, fa

dlun, fi'alun,
etc., h ave before tlie inflectional ending (69 b): b a q a i from

b a q iy a ( ya b q a ) 'remain'. T h e forms of verbal substantives of the
derived ste m s correspond: liqdnin (III), nhdw un (IV), '

( n ) n jila ru n (VII), )*>( Itiqa'un (VIII), )!( stild'u n (X), etc. Ac-
cording to 33 b, verb stems V a.nd V I have ta la qq in (talaqqi - <
.talaqqiw A , ta ra m in .
N ote 2. T h e verbal substantive of stem II is formed like taj'ilatun rather
k n t a f x l i . . taghniuatun.
N ote 3. Verlial substantives formed with the prefix m a - occur as m afalun,
m a fa la tu n , m a ^ Ifatari: m a n ja n , m a n ja tu n from n aja es-
cape', m a 'siy a tu n from asa ( ya'si) disobey.
1 1 1 - W e a k - I I - W e a k V e r b s ( V e r b a t e r t i a e et m e d i a e i n ^ r m a e )
258. a) w in II-ar Ill-weak verbs is always treated consonantally:

ra w a ( yaruii) 'give to drink, water', r a w iy a ( yanua) 'drink
one's fill'. In verbal substantives in the category â'Ian, 'IBJ becomes yy
(33 c): rayyun.
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E m p h a t i c Qualification 139
b) 11-y-III-weak verbs in the basic s t e m can b e treated either as III-
weak or as Il-geminate verbs: h a y iy a ( yahya) or h a yy a (

yahayyu) 'live', 'a y iy a ( ya'ija) or 0' yya ( ya
ayyu) 'be
incapable'. In the derived stems, all forms are constructed like Ill-weak
verbs: stem I V ,ahya ( yu h y i ), 'lend life', >a<ya ( yu'yt)

'incapacitate'.
N ote 1. S t e m II hayya ( yuhayyi) greet forms its verbal

substantive like a Il-geminate verb (236): tahiyyatun.
N ote 2. In addition to '( i)stah ya ( y a sta h y i ) be asliamed'

(X), a shortened form occurs: (>i)sta.ha ( yastahi).
Emphatic Qualification
259. T h e words T i i i a ' W h a t a wonderful...', b v sa ' W h a t
an evil.. . as well as several w o r d s in the m o r p h e m e category fa'la, fiL'la
[fa
via) (262) are used for emp h a t i c qualification. Tliat w h i c h is qualified
always follows in the nominative a n d is determined b y the article, although
the entire phrase is considered indefinite: n i'm a

r - r a ju lu ' W h a t
a wonderful man!', 'a wonderful m a n to b e sure!', b v sa
n-niscvu
'What evil women!', 'bad w o m e n for sure!'.
N ote 1. Occasionally, feminine n i i a t , bv sa t are formed

and c o m e before feminine terms: n v m a t- i W h a t a
perfect w o m a n , in addition to normal n i m a

l- m a ra tu .
260. T h e invariable formula n i'm a [bvsa) with following article a n d sub-
stantive in the nominative m a y o c c u p y different places within the plirase:
a-&is r - r a ju la n i a n tu m a ' W h a t evil men are
two', n i'm a 1-fata k u n ta ' W h a t a perfect lad y o u were',
a -lay sa bi-bvsa z- za lim u 'Is h e not indeed a n evil doer?'.

N ote 1. Note the formula fa-biha, w a - n iin a t '(If you do it) in
that case, it's all right 'used as the apodosis of a conditional sentence.
261. a) T h e nominative c o m i n g after n i'm a [bvsa) m a y be replaced
by a clause introduced b y m a (289), in w h i c h case n v m a (bi

sa)
with relative m a (421) m e a n s 'something very wonderful (evil) indeed':

140 M o r p h o l o g y : E m p h a t i c Qualification
nvm a m a a m a r bih i (You have issued a wonderful order
inrleed', b v sa m a s a n a i a ' W h a t a n evil thing yott have e re
ated'. T h e action is qualified with subordinat.ing m a (416):

m a s a fa r tu m 'You Irave traveled very ba d l y .
N o t e 1. n v im m a occurs as a variant of ni'm a-m a.
b) Sonretimes, a n indefinite in t.he accusative (384) occurs in place of
the definite nominative:

b v sa liz - za lim in a ba d a la n ' H o w
evil is that exch a n g e for tile evildoers!' ( K o r a n 18:50).
262. O t h e r w o r d s that, are ttsed o n occasion to qualify emphatically are, for
example: ja lla , s h a d d a ,> azza, h a d d a ' ho w mighty, great',

kiibura, s d a 'h o w evil, bad', hasuna, h usn a, h a sn a 'ho w beautiful,
magnificent', ' a z u m a , ,u zm a, 'a z m a h o w powerful, mighty'. T h e y are
used m u c h like n v m a , bvsa. ja l l a ,l-khatbu fiq d a n u h u
"flow great a m i s h a p is his loss!', a - h . d d . - m d ah babtaha
' H o w m u c h d o y o u love her!', k a burat fc.imaan

ta k h ru ju m in 'afw ahihim ' H o w nasty a w o r d c o m e s fro m their mouths!'
( K o r a n 18:5).
N o t e 1. Used more as particles are: , qa lla-m a very rarely,
td la -m d 'how often, very often':

qa lla -m a yakfinu bi-
d-d abiiri '-ma(ai H o w infrequently does the rain
c o m e with the westerly w i n d , ta la -m a qa d s.a anfH o w
often have you asked me'.
N o t e 2. Other particles of emphatic qualification include: h d-

n a h o w unlike', s u r a n a , s i r a n a h o w swift':
sh a tta n a
t- ta m vu uia- '-yddsuH o w different are those wlro still have hope
from those w h o have given up hope!', s u r a n a m a n a situ m

H o w quicklj, have you forgotten!.
263. T h e e m p h a t i c qualification h abba (h ubba ) 'h o w loveable' is al-
m o s t always c o m b i n e d with d h a (274.2), in w h i c h case d h a is in tire
posit.ion of t.he definite nominative a n d c an b e accompaitied b y a n indefi-
nil.e accusative or m in (299): habba-dha ,a n ta ' H o w lovely are
you!', h abba-dha '-. H o w wonderful are the knights!.

- . k ita b o s u n n a t. c o m
P ron ou n s P erson al 141
) habba-dha '-, <

,)
d a)< o r min
.
!W h a t a lo v e ly s p o t o f e a r th is B a sra '
Note 1. Frequently
. . - yd (347) p reced es (i.& fta
N ote 2. habba, hubba w ithout -dhd o ccu rs in co m bin a tion w ith ft - )294
d) as p red ica te :

yd h .ftta ft -' -m
nz
H ow lovely is the
,
d w ellin g !

habba blhi

, W hat a lovelj' man is he !'.
Pronouns and Particles

Personal Pronottns
264. In d e p e n d e n t p e r s o n a l p rottou n s:
Sing. 1st pers. and dual pi. nahnu

2 nd m. a n . antuma antum
2nd f. a n antiwnO
antunna
3rd m. huwa humh hum
3 rd f. h jft humh hunna
N ote 1.
'I' in p o etry is usually
n ana (7.6).
N ote 2. P ronoun s en d in g in -um m ay in p oetry end in i n n (7.5).
N ote 3. A fter ua- and fa- (328 f.), huwa, hiya m ay b e shorten ed to

i - h i i - h y a fa-hwa, fa-kya.
N ote 4. O n o cca sio n in poetry, the non-classical form s

hu,
ft m ay
o ccu r in a ddition to huwa, ft ?/..
265. T h e in d e p e n d e n t p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n a s a r u le fu n c tio n s a s a n om in a -
tive. S e e 266.1; 267 for e x ce p tio n s . It ca n b e th e s u b je c t a n d p r e d ic a te o f

a n o m in a l s e n te n c e (360 ff.) a n d p r e c e d e th e d e fin ite n o m in a l p r e d ic a te
(363 b).
N ote 1. Hnna (339) w ith a personal suffix m ay o ccu r instead o f tire

in dependen t personal pronoun as the subject.
N ote 2. T h e in dependen t person al pronoun or the personal suffix (455)

m ay co m e after law-la.

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142 M o r p h o l o g y : P r o n o u n s a n d Particles
266. Since the verb incorporates the pronom i n a l subject (207; 211), the
personal p r o n o u n is used in the verbal sentence to e m p h asize the subject:

k a n a h uw a
s- sa r iq a 'H e w a s the thief'. It usually also a p
pears w h e n the w o r d order subject-predicate is required (368 If.), e.g.:
? m arra bi wa-'and 'a n zu ru Hlayhi 'He w e n t b y m e as I
w a t c h e d him'.
N o t e 1. On occasion, the personal p r o n o u n is also used to emphasize a
personal sufhx (268): bayti

and m y house.
267. T h e persoital p r o n o u n is used to coordinate m o r e than o ne subject
w ith o n e verbal predicate: f i > atayna 'ana. Wa-

1-Hakam 'We, al-
H a k a m a n d I, came'. In the s a m e way, flifferent p ronominal objects can be
coordinated witli o n e verb: ha

athani and I a-'anta 'He sent
y o u a n d me'. Cf. 328 b.
268. T h e de p e n d e n t personal suffixes can b e attached to subst.antives.
prepositions (292), verbs, a n d particles:
Sing. 1st pers. - -

ya dual pt. -na
-
2 n d m. 4 -ka -kum d f -kum
2 n d f. 4 -ki -kurna -kunna
3rd m. -hir, -hit -huraa

-hum
-hi, -hi -h im d

-him
3rd f.
ha -h u /im a -hu/inna
N o t e 1. In the 1st person sing.. -i, -ya is suffixed to substantives and
prepositions, a n d ni is suffixed to verbs a n d particles. T h e f orm -ya comes
after a, I, u, ay, aw (269 c).
N o t e 2. T h e suffix of the 1st sing, is -iya, -niya (54 a) w h e n it precedes the

article ( )- (142). In classical Arabic, Irowever, -i, -nf are also permitted.
In poetry, -iya, -niya often occur in place of -j -ni to fit the metre.
N o t e 3. T h e suffix of the 3rd masc. sing, is short (-flu, -hi) w h e n it comes
after a closed syllable, but long (-hiI, -hi) after an o p e n syllable. See 7.3.
N o t e 4. Plural suffixes that e n d in m m a y become -umu, -imii in poetry:

f kumu,
humii, himu (7.5). Cf. also 54 a.

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Personal P r o n o u n s 143
N o te 5. W h e n additional suffixes (271) are attached, -hum, -hum b e c o m e

-kumu, -humu (-himu). f-ka, i f - k i also occur in post-classical
Arabic in the 2n d sing, in this situation.
269. a) T h e personal suffixes are a d d e d to the construct state of n o u n s
(145), a n d in this construction function as genitives: ^\ki.tabu-ka, kitabi-
ka, kitaba-ka 'your book' (nom., gen., acc.), a b u -k u m a, -

kuma, A 'aba -k u m a 'your du.] father' (nom., gen., acc.), 1 d & i - h m
'your caller', qa n a -n a 'our spears', sariqu-hci, sariqT-ha
'her thieves' (nom., obi.), etc.
N o t e 1. T h e personal suffixes m a y function as accusatives w h e n affixed to
verbal substantives or participles. Cf. 271.1. See 386.2 concerning the use
of personal suffixes with terms expressing time.
b) After i, i, ay, the 3rd person suffixes are -hi {-hi), -hima, -him,
-hinna. S(Jrii-/f'his thief' (gen.), sa riq a y - h i 'both his thieves'

(obi.), sa riq i-h i 'his thieves' (obl.)as contrasted to n ominative sari-
-u.-h.Tj saTiqa-hu,, sa riqu -h u
N o te 2. In the dialect of Hijaz, -hu (-hu), -huma, -hum, -hunna remained

u n c h a n g e d after i, i, aj,: f i kitabi-hu in his b o o k .
c) T h e case suffixes -u, -i, -a disappear before the 1st sing, suffix
-: kitabi ' m y book', iff

ammatt ' m y aunt', ammati 'my
aunts'. After a,I, , ay, aw, the suffix is -ya, in w h i c h case the sequence
- j, b e c o m e s i - y, and a w - y becomes ay - y (33): sariqi-ya 'my
thieves' (nom., obi.), ' ammata-ya (nom.), f } 'ammaaj,-j,a (obi.)
'my t w o aunts'.
N o te 3. See 157.3 o n the shortening of -I > -i in tile vocative.
N ote 4. When the 1st sing, suffix is a d d e d to the substantives listed in
150, they are: >af ' m y father', > a m y brother', h a m i' m y

uncle, a n d fiy a m y nrouth'.
270. In combination with verbs, the personal suffixes function as objects.
T h e suffix of the 1st sing, is always -Til, -niya. O n l y the 2 n d pi. of the
perfect (207) undergoes variation d u e to the addition of the personal suffix:
.
144 Morphology: Pronouns and Particles
d a ra b tu m "You struck' : d a ra b tu m u - n i 'You struck me'.

The suffix of the 3rd person after i, i, ay becomes: -hi {-hi), -himd, -him,
-forma: y a rm i- h i 'He throws hinr', but ram a -h u 'He threw him'.
N o te 1. The I tliat is written a.fter the plural ending (7.2) is dropped

before t.he suffix: ka tabu : katabfi-ha.
N o te 2. The -ti of the 2nd fern. sing, of the perfect: may be -ti before
suffixes in post-classical Arabic: d a ra b ti-m for darabti-ni.
N o te 3. Tile imperfect endings -ina, -una, -ani may be shortened before

-nt, -na (50 c). As a result, tile imperfect forms are the same as tlie jussive
and subjunctive: t a d r i b i n i and ta d r ib in a - n i
You (fem.)
hit me', y a d r ib u n a and y a d rib u n a - n a "fhey lt US', etc.
271. Tliere may be two personal suffixes added to the verb. In t.his case,
tlie 1st person precedes the 2nd and the 3rd, and the 2nd frerson precedes
tlie 3rd: .ata-m -hi 'He gave it to me', . ,a'taytu-ka-hu 'I gave
it to you
, ' a'taynd-kum ii-hd
We gave her to you(268.5).
N o te 1. If two personal suffixes are attached to a verbal substantive, the

first functions as the subject, the second as the object: dhikru-ka-ha

your remembering her
, talab-i-kum
my searching for you
.
P r o n o m i n a l Object Particle
272. Instead of tlie second personal suffix, iy y a with personal suffixes

is used, if directly adding t.he suffix is impossible or is better avoided:
iy y a - y a
m e , iyya-ka, -hi 'you', iyya-hu, hin, etc.
'a'/.a/i. iy y a y a 'He gave me to lier' as opposed to > a d a n ih a 'He gave
tier to me'.
N o te 1. ,iy y a is also used to place the pronominal object first:

iyya k a na'budu w a-nyyaka n asta'in u (Koran 1:5)

You alone do we worship, and You alone we ask for lielp
.
N o te 2. Independent iy ya k a , -ki, iy ya k u m , iyya-

kunna, mostly w ith328.3) - )or ,an (414) following, lias the meaning

beware. . .!,
t.ake care not to. . .

ReflexivesDemonstratives 145
Reflexive
273. T h e reflexive relationship to the object is expressed b y nafsun

'soul, self' (111 d) with the addition of corresponding personal suffixes:
r aj,M nafsi I s a w myself', qala li-nafsihi 'He said to
himself'. In the other reflexive relationships, the simple personal suffixes
are usually used: kuntu bayti 'I w a s in m y h o u s e .
Demonstratives
274. Demonstratives that indicate direct deixis ('tliis'):
Sing. m. hadha, dual hadhani pi. lidm lan
L h a d h ih l h a ta m h a n tla i
Sing, a n d pi. demonstratives are not inflected. Tile dual has the n o m i n a l
inflection: O b i . hadhavni. fern. hatayni.
N o t e 1. In the singular, h a d h ih i has almost completely replaced the original
form hadhi. See 7.4; 7.7; 8 on the orthography.
N o t e 2. Forms without ha- occur very rarely in classical Arabic: sing. masc.
dha: f e m . , tiht, dhi, dhiht,, 0 dual masc. d h a n i,
d h a yn i (obi.), fern. tani, ta y n i (obl.)i pi. , Ilia,

;<.
275. Demonstratives that indicate indirect deixis ('that'):
a) F o r m e d witlr -fca:
Sing. m . dhaka dual dhanika pi. ulak a n daika

(obi.) dhaynika ulaka ida'ika
f. taka tanika u lak a ' ulanka
tika (obi.) taynika > ulaka nilanka
b) F o r m e d with -tika:
Sing. m. dhalika dual dhannika pi. nildlika
(obi.) dhavnnika yildlika
f. tilka tannika ndalika
taynnika lilalika
'.ktahsiinnt.om
146 Alorphology: P r o n o u n s a n d Particles
N ote 1. In the singular, forms with -lika are preferred. O n occasion, forms
with -ha occur: sing. masc. hadhaka, fem. hadhtka , pi.

hamlaka, h d
u la
ika.
N o t e 2. Sometimes in pre-classical Arabic, other forms of the pereonal
suffix of tile 2nd person occur instead of -fca: dhaki, dhakum,

dhalikum , dhalikunna, f i j tilkum, tilk u m a , etc. Reference
to the particular person, however, no longer holds. Cf. 278.1.
276. a) Direct, deixis refers in time a n d space to s o m ething present:

yd h a d h a 'oh, this one here!', i.e., 'hey, y o u there!', ,a-hadha a m
h a d h a 'this o n e here or this o n e here?'; referring to context da. dha
'leave this!'. Sometimes, h ad h a anticipates the context tliat follows:
hadha m a
sh ta r a fu la n u n "riiis (that follows) is what
S0-and-so bought'.
b) Indirect deixis refers in time a n d space to s o m ething at a distance:
( ( va w rn a dhdlika (d h a k a ) 'on the d a y of that (event), then.

dh dlik a is the demonstrative that m o s t frequently refers bac k to context.
N ote 1. In s o m e usages, demonstratives refer to preceding contexts in a
comprehensive way: . . . h a d h a w a . .. besides, moreover, on the other

liand' .. . dh dlik a a n n a .. .'that is (to say), namely, to wit..
277. Demonst.ratives c o m e before definite substantives witl. articles (142):
hadha
l-kitabu this book'. Otherwise, demonstratives c o m e af-
ter substantives: k u tu b i h a d h ih i these m y books',
a sh a bu
l-h ad ith i ;ulaH ka 'those followers of Hadith'. Demonstratives
agree w ith respect t,o gender in the s a m e w a y that attributive adjectives do
(113 f.).
N ote 1. W h e n used with proper n a mes which have the article, demonstra-
tives m a y precede: f ~ l\ h ad h a
l-H ak a m u or (a)l-Hakamu
h a d h a tliis alllakam, but always M u h a m m a d a n hadha this

M u h a m m a d , and so forth.
278. W h e n tliey introduce clauses, direct deixis demonstratives call atten-
tion to the presence of the predicate ('here is/are'): h a ii la i band-
'Here are m y daughters!' T h e predicate m a y b e e x p a n d e d with a circum-

t \v.kitibosi,i,n;,t.coni
D e m o n s t r a t iv e 147
s t a n t ia l a c c u s a t i v e (380 ff.) o r c l a u s e (431 ff.):

hadha rasulu
1-lahi qad dakhala ' N o w t h e M e s s e n g e r o f G o d h a s c o m e in'.
T h is u s a g e is r e s t r i c t e d p r i m a r i l y t o p r e - c la s s ic a l A r a b ic .
N o t e 1. W h e n dhaka, dhakum 1 tilka, etc., (275.2) o c c u r

w ith th is fu n ction , th e d ir e c t d e ix is refers t o th e p e r so n b e in g a d d r e sse d :
dhakum sahibukum
H e re is y o u r com pan ion !'.
279. a) A d e m o n s t r a t i v e r e f e r r in g t o a p e r s o n m a y o c c u r in c o m b i n a t i o n
w ith t h e p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a p lir a s e : 1 a n a dha,

>an a dha. hum hanilan, e tc .: ( )
h uw a d h a w a q if u n (u ia q ifa n ) f i d a r ik a ' T h e r e h e is in y o u r h o u s e ' (383 a),
b) I n c l a s s i c a l A r a b ic , ha- u s u a l l y p r e c e d e s t h e p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n :
) ) or hd-ana.-dhd, f. ha-a n a - d h i 'H e r e a m I!':

ha-'anta-dha, f. ( (ha-an ti-d h i (-ta );
ha-huwa-dhd, f. ( (h d-h iv a-d h i (-;(
hd-nahnu-'ulaH , etc.
N o t e 1. Hnna (339) m a y r e p la c e th e p e r so n a l p ro n o u n : ha-

,in n a - d h a , (
( h a - H n n a - d h i (- (: h a-H n n a-
dh i (jdhratun
T h e r e is an excuse!'.
N o t e 2. O n o c c a sio n , th e d e m o n s t r a t iv e is la ck in g: ha

antum ta ia m u n a
Y o u th e r e s u r e k n ow it!'
280. D e m o n s t r a t i v e s t h a t i n t r o d u c e c l a u s e s a re : Hdh. Hdha. u s u a lly
fa-Hdha ' t h e r e w a s ( a n d a ll o f a s u d d e n t h e r e w a s ) . ..
a) Hdh i n t r o d u c e s a v e r b a l c l a u s e (355 ff.):

H nm la - H n d a h u m >id h ,a q b a la i r u n 'I w a s w i t h th e m , a n d t h e r e c a m e a
ca ra v a n ' (407.2).
b) A s u b sta n tiv e or pron ou n fo llo w s )) ( fa-)

id h a :

()nazartu Hlayha fa-Hdha (hiya)
mra>atun 'I l o o k e d a t her,
and 0 it w a s a w o m a n ' , dakhala mlayha fa-

idh a hiya qad nam at
H e w e n t in t o lier, a n d t h e r e s l ie w a s a l r e a d y a s le e p '.
T h e s u b j e c t o f t h e c la u s e , w l ii c h is s o m e t h i n g t h a t a p p e a r s s u d d e n ly , is
fr e q u e n t ly i n t r o d u c e d b y bi- (294 d): fa-Hdha, bi-

abihi ' T h e r e a ll

v.ki ab sunnat.c m
148 M o r p h o lo g y : P r o n o u n s a n d P a r tic le s
o f a s u d d e n w a s h is fa th er', . fa-ndha huwa bi-'ablhi 'A ll o f a

s u d d e n , h e w a s f a c e t o f a c e w it h h is fa th er'.
N o t e 1. S e e 443; 444 o n *idh >idha in t r o d u c in g a m a in clause. S e e 442

o n ,idh in t r o d u c in g a s u b o r d in a t e cla u se, an d 464 f. on >idha in trod u cin g
a s u b o r d in a t e clause.
Definite Clauses (Relative P r o n ouns)
281. S in g . D ual P lu r a l
m. ( a M la d h i >( a M la d h a n i >( a M la d h in a
f. (>a)ZZa f >( a) a dni >( a) a for
>( a) w d f
T h e s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l a r e n o t in f le c t e d . T h e d u a l h a s a n o m i n a l in fle ction :
o b liq u e ( a ) l la d h a y n i , ) a ) l l a t a y n i . T h e (>a )l- a t t lie b e g in n in g
is t h e d e f i n it e a r t i c l e (18.1; 142 b).
N o t e 1. P re - cla ssica l A r a b ic h ad m asc. an d fem . p lu r a ls ( ja)l-

uld
and ) a)Z/au( 49 d).
N o t e 2. d h ii w ith th e s a m e fu n ction , fo u n d in p r e - cla ssica l poetry, is
in v ariable. It is a fe a tu r e o f th e dialect; o f th e T a y y i tribe.
282. R e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s m a k e a t t r i b u t i v e c l a u s e s d e fin ite . L ik e a d je c t iv e s
(113 f.), th ey agree w ith th e su b s ta n tiv e s to w h ic h th ey refer:
. ( >a)r-rajulu
lladh i darabtuhu 'th e m a n w h o m I st.ruck',
(lit.erally) ' th e m a n w h o I s t r u c k h im ', hi-
l-maratay-
ni
llatayni laqttuhuma
w it lt t.he t w o w o m e n w h o m I e n c o u n t e r e d
,
'{ a)r-rijdlu
lladhina darabtuhum ' th e n te n w h o n t I struck'. In
a d d it io n , it f u n c t i o n s w i t h o u t a n t e c e d e n t a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t r e la t iv e pro-
n o u n ('he w h o , tlr a t w liich ') . S e e 421 ff.
N o m i n a l Demonstratives
283. M e a n i n g ' t lie ( p o s s e s s o r , m a s t e r ) o f . . . , t h e o n e w it h . . . a n d al-
w a y s f o l l o w e d b y a g e n i t i v e (391), t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e dhu is in flected

n o m i n a l l y : (150):
.kitib osii ,,Iiiit.com
Demonstratives 149
Sing. m . n o m . dhu f.
"Ahi '\Akati
acc. dha dhata

Du. nom. dhawa dhata . dhawata
obi. dhaway dhatav. dhaivatay
PI. nom. dhawu, ' ulu dhawatu, ' ulatu
obi. dhaw i . < dhawati. ulati
N ote 1. A s a substantive, dhatun m e a n s 'being, self.
N ote 2. In th e a d v e rb ia l a ccu sa tiv e, d h u an d d h a tu are u s e d t o e x p r e s s

in d efin ite tim e : d h a s a b a h i n 'one m orn in g', d h a ta
y a w m in 'one day'.
D em onstrative Particles
284. a) Demonstratives referring to location: h una, , h a h u n d

'here'; h u n a k a, h u n a lik a , h a h u n a k a 'there': - th a m m a
there.
b) Demonstratives referring to time: )<0 (-<7' now', ,

id h a n 'then, consequently' (11.2; cf. 196.2; 447.1).
id h - d h a k a .
id h - d h a lik a 'at that time'.
N ote 1. (a)Z-a n a is n o t in flected : h a t ta

l-'an a, H la

l-
an a
u n til now'.
N ote 2. idhin 'at th a t t i m e o c c u r s w ith s u b s ta n tiv e s tlia t e x p r e s s tim e :
hma-Hdhin
then, at th a t tim e ' ( = hma-dhaka; cf. 276 b),
\ ghaA gta-nd. \ mcycrvm1,

yauima-uAhm (pn 0 . day'
etc.
c) Demonstratives referring to ma n n e r : kadh a , h a k a d h a ,

kadhaka, k a d h a lik a 'thus, in this/that way'; 1 k a d h a w a -k ad h a.
k a y ta w a - k a y ta 'so a n d so, such a n d such'.

In te r r o g a tiv e s
285. a) m an w h o ? , m a ' w hat ' are used for the singular, dual, and
plural: m an-i
r-rajulani ' W h o are the t w o men?'. dha , as it
introduces a clause, m a y directly follow: ma-dha tasna
u 'What
are y o u making?'.
N o te 1. m a may be followed by li- (295): ma laka

What is with
you?
, "What do you have?'. It may be followed by a verb or an accusative:
m a lahu kadhiban
For what is he lying?', ma laka
tabkina
Why are you (fern.) crying?' (434.1).
b) m an a n d m a m a y function as genitives a n d b e c o m b i n e d tvith
prepositions:
ukhtu m a n anti ' W h o s e sister are you?', ,
fi-m an a m o n g w h o m , a m o n g whi c h people?', m im m a n (45)
'from w h o m ? ' . Interrogatives like m a m a y b e abbreviated after prepositions
to m a (pausal f o r m mah): lim a w h y ? , bima, ' a m m a (45),

ala-ma ( (, hatta-ma ( ) >, etc.
N o te 2. Occasionally, lima, bima become lim, r him in poetry.
c) Indefinite ma 'some' c o m e s after the indefinite state (141):
r a ju lu n m a (also r a ju lu m - m a ) 'acertain man', smriin

m a (also a m r u m - m d ) 'a certain affair'. It m a y also appear between
the construct stat.e a n d a following genitive (145): yd tula
m a sh a w q in ' 0 so long yearning!'. Similarly, after prepositions:

'a m m a qa ltlin = ( an qa lilin 'shortly, soon' also frequently,
g h a y r u m a = gh a y ru 'other than' (325). Cf. 424.2.
286. a) ,ayyun 'which?' (419.2), almost always with the genitive

following: ,ayyu raju lin w h ich m a n ? , ,ayyu rijalin which
men?', ,ayyu ' nisan 'which of the w o m e n ? ' , ayyuna 'wlrich
of us?'. See 287.1 o n ka-
ayyin.
N o te 1. Occasionally, fern. ayyatun

whichoccurs: > ayyatu
qaryatin
which village?
.
N o te 2. Sometimes, non-classical 1 ayshin ,

aysh < > ayyu
shayHn
which thing, what?occurs in classical texts.
>
Interrogatives 151
b) Indefinite ayyun 'any, every': >akram ahu ,ayya
ikramin 'He bestowed every h o nor o n him'. A s a n exclamation, it is used to

express great admiration: ra'nyna fa risa n ayya fa risin
'We saw a rider, a n d w h a t a rider he was!'.
287. f a m h o w m u c h , h o w often?; the substantive to whicli it refers is
in the indefinite accusative singular (384): f karri laka dirham an

'How m a n y d i r h a m s d o y o u have?'. A s a n exclamation, is used with the
genitive or m in (299 a): f kam dirham in anfaqta ' H o w

m a n y dirhams h a v e y o u spent indeed!', 3 f kam laqayna m in
aduwin ' H o w m a n y enemies h ave w e encountered'.
N ote 1. ^ ka-'ayyin has the same meaning, in poetry oft.en >

kann: k d in ra.ayfw m in m ulukin
So many kings have
I seen.
288. Other interrogatives: myna where, w h e r e to?', .anna 'where,
where from, w h y is it that?', kayfa 'how?', ma a, > ayyana

w h en?.
N ote 1. ayn a , kayfa, aj,j,ana are not inflected: m in "ayna

where
from ?
, bila kayfa
without how,i.e.i
without asking how
.
N ote 2. On the interrogative particles

a-, ha , see 335. On law-la, aw-
ma introducing an interrogative clause, see 457.1.
289. M o s t of the interrogatives can also b e use as relatives: man
'who, tlie one who', m a 'what, the o n e which' ' ayyu with the genitive
'which of...', "ayna '(there) where', kayfa 'how', m ata '(then)
when' (461).
N ote 1. Relative ma is not shortened after prepositions: li-ma,

mimma < m in-m a (45), etc. Concerning relative clauses, see 421 ff.
N ote 2. Relative m a has two other functions: ma

the fact that(subordi-
nating ma, 416), ma
as long as(462).
5 >
www.kitab.sunnat.com
152 M orphology: Pronouns and Particles
290. In com bination with relatives, indefinite rna has a generalizing

sense: m ahm a < *m d-m a 'whatever',
ayyurria 'wliichever',
'dynamo, 'wherever', ,
m ata-m a 'wlienever', haythuma

'wherever', am ong ot.hers. See 461 for syntactic constructions.
N o te 1. In a ddition to 'ayyu-md, on occa sio n 'ayyu-man 'whoever'

o ccu rs w ith reference to persons.
P r e p o s itio n s
291. a) Primary prepositions: &

- li-, , ka-, maa, min,
an, (45), .ala, ild, hatta, lada, ladun\ see
294ff.
N o te 1. O n tire o rth ogra p h y o f con stru ction s w ith bi-, li-, ka-, see 23:
22. B efore the article, m in is min-a (54). In poetry, c m a. som etim es
ap p ea rs in place of ma'a.
N o te 2. In poetry, min and 'ala m ay b e shorten ed to ml-,

a- (49 e):
. , 1 mil-'ibili
from the camels', ,al-md.'i'on the w a ter
.
b) Secondary prepositions take the form o f the accusative in the con-

struct state (145): 'amama 'in front of, in tile presence of', ba'da
'after', bayna 'between' (308), tahta 'under', hawla,
hawald 'around, bout', khalfa 'beliind, after', duna (309),
,in da 'witlr' (307), faw qa 'above, over, on', qabla 'before (in time)',
qibala 'in the direction of', nahwa 'toward', ward'd 'behind',
wasta 'in the m idst of'. M ore recent formations, e.g.: dakhila
'within', didda 'against', etc., are also included in this group.
N o te 3. M any p rep osition s can be com bin ed w ith m in or nla:

m in

after co m p letio n of', m in faw qi
from above,
above', nla faw qi

ov er
,
m in qibali 'on the part of, from,
by
, a m o n g others; also m in ,ala.
from above, from on top o f
,
m in lada, m in ladun (305 f.). T ile p reposition m in !
such construct-ions m ay in dicate rlirection or b e partitive (see 299 b and c).
duna and bi-duni lrave the sa m e meaning.

www.kitabosunnat.coni
Prepositions 153
N o t e 4. D im in utives (81) are form ed from several o f the secon d a ry prepo-
sitions:

bwayda
soo n a fte r
,
qubayla
sh ortly b efo re
,

fuwayqa 'a little above'; similarly,
" tuhayta,
duwayna
(from
dum).
292. a) Ail prepositions are followed by a genitive. The sam e rules that
apply to substantives (268) also liold, with a few exceptions, for the addi-
tion of personal suffixes (269) to prepositions: m a ca : m a n
with
me',
mn'afca'with you', etc.;
ba'd a :
a'df'after me',

ba'dahu 'after him', etc.; A: fty a 'in me', fih im 'in them', etc.
With m in , ,an, and la d u n , the n is doubled before the addition o f the suffix
of the 1st sing.:
m in n i, anni, la d u n n iI; but.
m in k a ,

,anka, la d u n k a , etc.
N o t e 1. ka- 'as, like' and hatta 'until' may not take personal suffixes
(297 d).
b) li- becom es la- before personal suffixes: li(ya), laka, la k i ,

lahu, lahd, lakuma, lahuma, land, lakum, lakunna,
lahum, lahum a.
c) The stems o f ' ala, ild, lada, and hawala end

in -aj, before the personal suffixes: ' alayya, 0 alayki,
,alayhi,
alayha,
alaykumd,
alayhima,
' alayna,

,alaykum, ' alaykunna, ' alayhim, ' alayhinna.
293. a) Prepositions for the m ost part indicate position or direction. Sev-
eral are used to express syntactic relationships (294 d; 295 a-b; 299.1).
Many verbs occur in constructions with dependent prepositional predicate
complements, in which the preposition is part o f the lexical unit o f mean-
ing and modifies the meaning o f the verb: raqhiba ft shaynn
'He desired something' and raqhiba 'an shayHn 'He desired
something to b e away', i.e., 'He loathed it', > zahara land 'ft came
into our view' and zah ara
alayna 'He got the better o f US'. The
corresponding verbal substantives, verbal adjectives, and elatives (124 ff.)
appear in constructions with the sam e prepositions:
huwa 'arqhabu 'an dhalika m inka 'He detests that m ore tlian you do'.
wwrv.kitabosunnat.com
b) Prepositional phrases m a y appear in various syntactic positions: 1.
d e p e n d e n t o n a verb, verbal substantive, or verbal adjective (see above);
2. as the predicate in a nom i n a l sentence: ( a)l-jdriyatu

l-bayti 'Tlie m a i d w a s in her chamber'; 3. as a n adverbial modifier:
tanam u
l-jariyatu f i
l-bayti 'The m a i d is asleep in her
room', 4. in a.pposition: akhun f i
d-dini 'brother in religion'.
ka- 'as, like' (297) a n d m in 'from' (299 a-b), like substantives, m a y occur
as subject, predicate, or object.
N o te 1. Prepositions m a y appear in the genitive position only w h e n they

depend oir otlier prepositions (291.3). See 308.7 for an exception.
N o te 2. See 294.5; 302.3; 303.4309.1 for tire use of prepositional phrases

a s c o m m a n d s ; cf. 351.1.
c) Prepositional phrases that d e p e n d o n verbal substantives or verbal
adjective frequently c o m e before a verbal noun, especially w h e n the verlral
n o u n is the predicate arrd the preposition has a personal suffix or appears
witli a demonstrative: hadha ala dhalika dalilun 'This is

proof of that', kuntu dlayha m ushtaqan 'I w a s filled with
longing for her'. Prepositional plrrases m a y b e placed at. tire beginning
of a sent.ence for emphasis: wa-fihi qala

sh-shairu 'And
a b o u t him, tlie poet said ... fa-bi-
l-hilmi sud 'Reign with
compassion!'
294. 1 - in the sense of'in contact with, close by' is used irr t.lre following
ways:
a) ba'athahu bi-risalatin
'in corrtact with, by': 'ila
'abiha 'He sent, liinr with a mes s a g e to her father', ba atha bi-
risa la tin 'He seirt a message', m a m i n ghadabin the
anger that is iir ine'; in oaths, a n d other similar constructions:
aqsam tu bi-
l-la.hi 'I swear b y God', fj. bi-sm i '1-la.hi 'in the n a m e
of G o d ' (22 c); indicating content: >am ara bi-qatlihi H e gave
the order to kill him', ba'da m aw tihi bi-yawmayni after
his death b y t w o days', i.e., ' t w o days after his death'; - indicating time
a n d place: bi-
l-b&bi 'at the gate', bi-M isra 'in E g y p t ,
-'!-'& at night'.

n . k i t a h o s i , nnat.com
Prepositions 155
N ote 1. bi- in d ic a te s th e o b je c t t o w h ic h s o m e t h in g h a p p e n s :
'amila bl-shayin
H e o c c u p ie d h im s e lf w it h s o m e th in g ' as o p p o se d to

am ila shay
an 'H e d i d s o m e t h in g ' .
Note 2. bi- is u s e d a s a p a r t i c l e t o i n t r o d u c e a n o a t h : 1- -lahi

b y G od!'. T h e o a th p a r t ic le s 1 - and a- a r e a ls o u s e d in t h i s k in d o f
c o n s t r u c t io n : w a-
1-lahi, -'-
b y G od ! ',
wa-
lladhi n a fsi bi-yadihi
b y H im in w h o s e h a n d is m y s o u l (i.e.. .b y
G od!
).
Note 3. C f. 260.1; 452 b o n -w e ll and g o o d

.
N ote 4. bi-la, bi-ghayri

n o t in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h m e a n s
w it h o u t
:
bi-la shakkin
w it h o u t d o u b t
, bi-ghayri daruratin

w it h o u t n e c e s s ity , u n n e c e s s a r i l y
.
b) Intransitive verbs expressing m o v e m e n t take o n a kind of factitive
meaning with bi-

'atahu bi-kitabin 'He c a m e to h i m with a
book' = atahu kitaban 'He brought h i m a book', qam a
bi-gharatin H e undertook a raid' (literally, stood u p with
N ote 5. S im ila r ly , in u s a g e s lik e: > a ,a laka bi-dhalika

I s h a ll
o b t a in t h a t f o r y o u
, 'alayya bih i
B r i n g h im t o m e ! ( 302.3). S e e
222 o n t h e u s e o f t h e i m p e r a t i v e w i t h -.
c) 'By m e a n s of, with the help of': d a r a b a h u - Z-'asa H e

struck h i m with a stick', '( Oshtard shatan bi-dirham in 'He
bought a shrep for a dirham'; thus, also in the m e a n i n g of 'in place of, as
substitute for': ba'a shatan bi-dirham in 'He sold a slieep for

a dirham', ' Wt.dhu bi-
abyatihi dinaran 'I gave h i m a dinar
for his verses', qatalahu bi-Zaydin 'He killed h i m instead of Zayd',
-< an , wa-'ummiI 'You are instead of m y father a n d

mother', i.e., 'You take the place of m y father a n d m other' with persons,
often 'in the person of': shatam ta bihi muhabbaban nlayya

'You vilify in (him) his person o n e w h o is beloved to me'.
>
w.ki i b(iunnit.coni
156 Morph o l o g y : P r o n o u n s a n d Particles
d) T h e n o m i n a l predicate or the predicate accusative (382) in negative
or interrogative sentences is frequently int roduced h y -: lam

afcun bi-saghiratin 'She w a s not small', ha huwa bi-sddiqin
Is he sincere?.
N o t e 6. In positive sentences, bi- as predicate is very infrequent (363.1); it

occurs s o m e w h a t m ore often with verbs with a declarative meaning:
sam m ah u bi-karim in H e called h i m a noble man'.
N o t e 7. hi- as a predicate occurs in other usages: ) idha hi- (280 b),
habba hi- (263.2), j h ' a m n n a ... bi- (365.1).
Note 8. Several terms indicating totality and identity occur in apposi-
tion with hi-: . '(a)n-nasw bi-jam nhim 'the people altogether'

(138.2), huwa hi-na^sihfhe himself', Ji
dhalika
l-makani bi-'ayniht in this exact place, 7', hi-
'ay n ih i a certain man'.
295. i- (a-) 'to' is used in the following ways:
a) 'to', in space a n d time: >( i)nkabba li-wajhihi 'He fell

onto his face', li-'awwali marratin 'for the first time'; indicating
the indirect object: qala lahu 'He said to him',

qaddama
lahu shaifan H e ),resented h i m witlr sometliing': also to paraphrase
the direct object of participles a n d verbal substantives (203.2; 206.3):
. kana mudhikan lin-nasi 'He w a s o n e w h o m a d e the people
laugh': with verbs, if tlie object must, precede the verb:

Ix-lladhtna hum li-rabbihim yaThabui (Yvora.4 .\<
iVrose who k t
their Lord'.
Note 1. - is used in expressions of time and date: "
its time, i.e., 'immediately', lis a n a tin madat min

m u lk ih i 'when one year of his reign had passed,
li-sa b i layalin khalawna m in sha'bana w h e n seven days had gone by in
Sha'ban, i.e., 'on tlie seventh of . ' b a n .
N o t e 2. See 294.5 on
and la-kum b ih i1 a m for you with him',
i.e., I shall get Ilim for you'; on m a lahu with the accusative or a verb,
see 285.1.

Prepositions 157
N o t e 3. See 438 on - with the subjunctive; 195 with the jussive.
b) 'belonging to': kitabun lahu 'a b o o k of his (written by

him or o w n e d b y him)', anshada U-'Abi N uw asin 'He cited
a verse of A b Q NuwSs',
kana lil-
abdi h im arun 'Th e slave
had an ass', Hnna li-llahi ' W e belong to God'; in constructions with
persons, frequently with the m e a n i n g 'be someone's riglit, due' dha-

lika lakum 'That is your due!', ... laysa lahu a n ... 'It is not your
right, it is not possible for you, it is not allowed for y o u to ...
N o t e 4. In th is m ea n in g, /' i s u s e d t o p a r a p h r a s e th e g e n it iv e a ft e r th e
indefinite state; see 146.1.
c) 'in favor of, for': ban d and qagran 'He built a castle for
US'; - 'with regard to, because of': tabki li-waladiha 'She cried
over her child', jid u k a li-hajatm 'I c a m e to y o u because of a

concern', li-dhalika 'therefore', yuqalu lahu M uham m adun
'One says to h i m M u h a m m a d ' , i.e., 'He is called M u h a m m a d ' .
N o t e 5. In contrast to \ }
ala, which expresses something to which
someone has an obligation, 1- refers to something to which one has a right:

It alayhi
alfu dirham in H e owes m e 1000 dirhams.
d) S o m e t i m e s li- indicates the cause or originator: tuhalu

lahu '-'aj,M 'On e (the eye) is struck with terror b y Ilim'.
296. ^'in, within, in the midst of' is used in the following ways:
a) location, 'in, inside' (place a n d direction): fi

l-bahri
wa-
l-barri 'in the sea a n d o n land', w a a(a f i
1-bvri 'He fell
into the well'; time, 'in, during': f i k h ila fa ti U m a ra 'during
the caliphate of Uma r ' , m a m a d a 'in that, w h i c h has passed',

i.e., 'in the past'' in the midst of, among': bacath ahu fi-
jay sh in 'He sent h i m in he c o m p a n y of, i.e., with a n army',

m an fikum -u '-afcbar w ' W h o a m o n g y o u is the oldest?', .
sirna f i k h a m sa ti r ija lin ' W e travelled in a party of five men'.

ww . k i t a b o s u n n a t . c o m
b) By extension, f i may mean 'in the realm of, with respect to, concern-
ing, about': '( i)khtalafu fi dhalika
They disagreed on that',
l-khayli 'a chapter on the horse',
bdbun f i
m ithlu ,l-khazzi f i '1-lini 'like silk in smootliness', i.e., 'smooth as silk'.
Note 1. On occasion, fi may mean, like - in the person of:
f s a d kana lakum fih i Iisw atun 'You had in h i m an
example'.
N o t e 2. In arit.hmetic, f i indicates that n u m b e r by wliich another is multi-
plied: daraba thalalhata f i kham sata H e multiplied
tliree by five (See 129.5).
N o t e 3. f i indicates tile object of desire in uses like: ( ( hal

laka f i (.an) D o y o u desire to . .. ?
, ( ( m a n iahu f i (an)
W h o desires to . . .?
297. a) ka- 'as, like' is used in qualitative comparison:

l-ghabati 'men like lions of the thicket',
rijalu n ka-nsudi
ad khiltuhu ka-sakhratin 'I imagined him as a rock', ka-dhalika 'so,
like tlris, thus' (281 c).
N o t e 1. T h e personal suffixes are not a d d e d to fca- ; however, they do com-
bine with rnithlu (see below). Nevertheless, ka- m a y o n rare occasion
appear in constructions with independent personal pronouns: fca-and

'like m e , n-
un u 'like you', ka-huwa 'like him'.
N o t e 2. Sporadically, fca-md occurs in the sense of ka- (285 c): cf.
418 b. C oncerning ka-'ayyin , see 287.1.
b) ka- frequently functions as a substantive: 'one like 'something

like l-laylati 'sometlring like tliis night, a niglit like this',
ka-
yurina ka- 'd-darahimi 'He showed US something like dirhams'.
In poetry, such expressions are sometimes combined witlr additional prepo-
sitions: . a^ urM
an ka- uqhuwani 'When he laughed, he
l-
showed something like camoirrile flowers, i.e., teetlr'.

kitabosunnat-ram
Prepositions 159
Note 3. Sometimes ka- functions as a relative: ka-hmi some-

time when' (on > hina, see 346). It is also used to indicate ex-
amples: ( a)l-alwanu ka-'l-humrati wa-as-sufrati

colors like red, yellow . ..
c) mithlu, pi. amthalu 'something like, one like' ( 1 6 b 388
b), which is inflected as a noun, has the s a m e m e a n i n g as ka-: ,amtha-

luhurri 'people like them', qul lahu mithla dhalika 'Speak to
him in that way', < bi-naqatin m ithli n d q a ti'U e c a m e
with a camel like nline. It m a y also b e c o m b i n e d with ka-:
laysa ka-mithlihi s h a y i 'There is nothing like him'.
298. m a 'together with, simultaneously with': kharaju

m o ah 'They w e n t out together with him', dhahabna bihi
ma'and ' W e took h i m a w a y with U S' (294 b), in n a ' -(-
ha m a '0
s-sa bin n a ' G o d is with those w h o are steadfast',
ma
at a 'with the rising of the sun', wa-qala ma<a
dhalika 'And, moreover, he said Frequently, a simultaneous condition
is referred to, because of whiclr or despite w h i c h sometliing has occurred:
qutila ma<a nnaai/f 'Despite his strengt.h, lie w a s killed'.
299. m in lias t w o distinct uses: 'of, part of, s o m e of' (a_b) a n d 'from,
from the direction of, a w a y from' (c-d).
N o t e 1. A s a result of these two uses, m in m a y lie employed to paraphrase
the genitive, w h e n it is necessary to circumvent the formal requirements of
the construct state (145 f.): baytun m in buyutiht 'one

of his houses, 1 -ja.nibi 'sh-sharqiyyi min-a

i n a h r i on the east bank of the river'.
a) m in of, part of, s o m e of' indicates belonging to a larger entity:
laysa hadha m in adatihi 'This is not o n e of his habits',

m inhum m an tuhibbuhum ' A m o n g t h e m are t.liose y o u love',
,anta m inhu ' You belong to him', m in also indicates kind or
material: sh a y im m i n - a
[-khawfi 'some fear',
hadha m in 'ayshin 'such a life', ' ^ aduwukum m in ahli
Orisa 'your e n e m y f r o m a m o n g the Persians', i.e.1 'your enemy, the Per-
sians', libasun m i n - a '(-(larfri 'a g a r m e n t of silk'. Instead of
~,
.kitabosunnat.com
referring to a whole, it may refer to an entity consisting of more than one

part: Jr kullun m in rijd lin wa-nisdnn "all, namely men and
women'. With an indefinite genitive (141 c), m in is used in apposition as
a means of explication, especially with proper names and personal suffixes:
shallat yada Zaydin m in qatilin 'May the liands of
Zayd (who belongs t,o the genus "murderer", i.e.)> that murderer, wither!',
. qabahahd 1-lahu m in suyiifin 'May G od ruin tliem, the

swords!', akhin 'May you, a brotlier, be greeted!'.
huyyita m in
See also 421.2.
N o t e 2. See 425 c on m in used to supplement a relative.
N ote 3. m in gh ayri (325) means without': min

ahavri khilafirI 'without contradiction'.
N o t e 4. In arcliaic usage, an accusative often replaces tire m in of explica-

tion; cf. 128.2; 263.
b) m in 'a part of' is used to indicate a partitive relationslrip, 'some

of ..., someone of . . . sh a r ib tu m in - a
1 -m ai 'I drank some
(of tile) water', qa d ,a sa b a fu
adah u m in hubbiha
'His Ireart was st-ricken with (some) love for her',
*umirtu l-m w m in m a 'I was commanded to be one of the
an 'akuna m in-a
believers'; in negative and interrogative sentences: ma
n asitu m in sh a y in 'I have not forgotten any of it', hal
lakum m m ,abin 'Uo you Irave a father?'. In combination with terms that
denote place and time, m in refers to a certain segment of the place or t.ime:
m in faw qiht sahabun '(In tlie space) above him were clouds',
m in dakhili l-m asjidi '(at a place) within the mosque',
. min banli m aw tih i in the time after his death', min
al-layli 'in a pari, of the niglit,', i.e., 'at night', min-a l-ghadi 'the
next morning,' raja'a m in waqtihi He returned (in a part of
his time, i.e.) at tire same time, immediately'.
c) m in 'from' indicates tire direction from which something comes out:

1-babi 'A voice came out of tire
kharaja sawtun min-a
gate', 1-babi 'He came in t.hrough (from) the
dakhala m in-a
gate'; in constructions with other prepositions: jd-

www.titabosunnat.com
Prepositions 161
'a min in d i
l-khalifati 'He c a m e f rom being with the Caliph',
m in faw qi zahri 'l-farasi 'from (off) the b ack of tlie horse' (291.3):
in time:
'hawlin m in m aqtali
a khihi 'a year
since the m u r d e r of his brother', m in frequently indicates the origin or
cause: laqitu m inka sh arran 'I felt evil c o m i n g f r o m you',
hddhd m inka (this f r o m you', i.e.j 'this as a result of your behavior',
m in n a b a in j a
a n i 'because of a report tliat c a m e to me',
m in bughdihi out of hate for h i m ; cf. 199.2.
d) fn the m e a n i n g 'away from', m in indicates distance: qarl-

bun minhu 'near h i m , y a rifu
l-jayyida m in-a V-
rad ii 'He (knows) can distinguish the perfect f r o m the wortliless'; 'in r e
lation to': ' ayna nahnu m inka ' W h e r e are w e in relation to
y o u , i.e.i h o w incomparable is our situation to yours!,

manzilatuhu min-a i-'am iri 'His status in relation to tlie prince',
m a hddhd
l-ghulamu minka ' W h a t is tliis b o y in relation to
you?'. See 125 o n the use of m in in the comparative elative.
300. mundhu, mudh ( < * min-dhu 52.2) 'from ...on,' 'since',
'ago' is treated as b o t h a conjunction a n d a preposition. According to the
rules of A r a b g r a m m a r i a n s , it should b e treated as a preposition only w h e n
it refers to a.n unexpired period of time: m undhu 's-sanati =
m in-a
s-sanati 'as of, f r o m t-his year on, since this year', but
m undhu sanatun 'a year a g o . Contrary to this rule, tlie genitive
nevertheless is often used after mundhu.
N ote 1. A clause usually follows m undhu w h e n used as a conjunction:

m undhu khuliqna 'since w e were created', '
mundhu nahnu min-a
l-
aah n ivai since w e were counted a m o n g the rich'.
301. a) ,an 'from, a w a y f r o m designates complet.e removal or de-

parture from: ba id u n ,an al-haqqi far r e m o v e d f r o m the
truth, sakata 'an n i H e sat silent opposite (cut off from) m e ,
shaahalahu .an sh a y in H e occupied h i m a w a y f r o m s o me-
thing', i.e., 'he distracted him', m dta 'an w aladin 'He died,
leaving behind a child', fjike m in (299 c-d), 'an also indicates distance a n d
source: 'an ^ f m a l f n o n the left'; o n the basis of:

- . k i t bosunnat.com
162 M o r p h o lo g y : P r o n o u n s anrl P a r tic le s
kana dhalika
an >amnka 'T h a t lia p p e n e d o n a c c o u n t o f y o u r com m an d',
haddathani Hishamun 'an 'abihi 'H ish a m re la te d on

th e a u t h o r it y o f h is fatlier'.
N o t e 1. ( d i r ( . 'to tiis right (left)' 'an yarriinihi (shimalihi) may

b e com bin ed w ith m in : . m in 'an yaminihi 'oil the riglrt side
o f him .
N o t e 2. In the expression (
( 'an qaribin (qaliliri)
or X}
( ( 'am m U qaribin (qalilin) 'in a short time, shortly' (cf. 285 c),
'an design a tes a tim e interval.
b) 'an
h a s n u m e r o u s le x ic a liz e d u sa ges, su ch a s th e 'elim in a tion
o f a c o n d itio n ' : 8<

n 'an-i '1-jii
. 'ama i 'H e g a v e h im som e-
t h in g t o e a t t o d is p e l h is h u n ge r'' in d e fe n s e o f': yuqatilu 'anfca
'I fo u g lr t in y o u r d efen ce'; 'o p p o sitio n ':

fasaqa
'an >amri
rabbihi 'H e d e v ia t e d fr o m tlie c o m m a n d o f h is lord'; 'as a s u b s t it u t e for':

( a)(-
ii(w
lla ti nwîna anka 'the c a m e ls tlrat were
s la u g h te r e d in s te a d o f you': ' in c o m p a tib ility ': ddqa
an-f
s-saqi khalkhaluha 'Her a n k le t w a s t o o s m a ll for h er leg'; 'expos-
ing':
tabsimu 'an durrin 'She la u g h e d s h o w in g (her} pea-rls (i.e.i
teeth)'; a ls o t o refer t o a t.opic, i.e., 'on, a b o u t':

suila
anha 'He
w a s a sk e d a b o u t her'.
N o t e 3. <an may refer equally to som eth in g tlrat has been rem oved as to
that fronr w hich it Iras been rem oved:

'a/a 'an dhanbihi
He
forgave his sin' or 'a/a

anhu ^ a n
aftw 'He forgave him his
sin'.
302. ,aid 'on, a b o v e' is u s e d irr tire ftrllowirtg w ays:
a) 'on t o p of', 'above': >

ala wajhi l-m a i 'on tire surface
o f tire w ater, o v e r th e w ater', ,alayhi thawbun 'O n Irim is (i.e., he
w ore) a g a rm e n t': t o irrd ica te su p e r io r ity : kana )amiran
ala l-
i,raqi 'H e w a s c o m m a n d e r o v e r Iraq'; 'at th e fr o n t o ' :
laqiyahum 'ala m ain 'H e m e t th e m a t a w a te r in g Irole', qara a
ala,
ablhi 'H e r e c it e d (tire K oran ) lrefore h is fath er, i.e., s tu d ie d it under
h is gu id a n ce'.

Prepositions 163
N o t e 1. Infrequently in expressions of time: ala h im at tire
time of .. .
ala 'ahdi in the era of .. .
N o t e 2. 'ala as over, higher than is used for comparison:

. faddaln a bafdahum 0,15, bw dm mmlvum lKorau.'i'.'25'i) '1.
preferred s ome of t h e m to the others.
b) 'onto, into the presence of, before': saqata 'aid '-

a r . ' H e fell onto the ground', dakhala 'ala "
into the presence of the king', khafa alayka H e w a s fearful in
your presence' often to indicate that against w h i c h sometlring is directed:
tujiru
aduwana
alayna 'You defended our e n e m y against
US', da'd
alayna ' H e I n v o k e d ( G o d ) against US', i.e., 'cursed US' as
opposed to da'd lahum 'He invoked ( G o d ) in favor of them', i.e.,

blessed t h e m .
c) 'obligation, duty': hadhd haram un 'alaykum 'This
is forbidden to you', 'alayka an taf'ala dhalika Y o u are

obligated (it is your duty) to d o tlrat'; cf. 295.5.
N o t e 3. Similarly in these uses: ' alayka bihi Dep e n d on him!,
alayhi 6 j H e must rely on me!.
d) 'on the Irasis of', for indicating the b ^ i s of a condition or ac-
tion: laysa hukmuhu

ala shayin 'His j u d g m e n t is
baseless', hadhd
ala qismayni 'This consists of t w o parts',
huwa ala dini dbanhi He follows ,he religions of his fa-
thers', m a ,ana alayhi 'that (i.e., tlie condition) in w h i c h I am',
jd
a
ala >annahu abi H e c a m e b y virtue of his being m y
father', sdlahana d f n a f n ' H e m a d e peace with
us on the condition (that he b e paid) 1,000 dinars': to express a negative
precondition ('despite'): qa ta la hfi

a la s ig h a r i sin n ih t-
'He killed h i m despite his y o u n g age'; often in ,he sense of 'following
the pattern of, corresponding to, according to': ka-

'iddatuna
ala
id d a tih im O u r n u m b e r corresponds to theirs',
h adh a 'ala m a d h a k a rn a h u 'Tliis is according to w h a t ve h ave r e
p o rte d '.

164 Morpho l o g y : P r o n o u n s a n d Particles
N o t e 4.
ala . ..m in is used to indicate distance:
kana m in Makkata >aa laylatin It was a n ght(s Journey) distant from
Mecca', ala . ,ashhurin m in khilafati
'U m ara After six months of the caliphate of Umar'.
N o t e 5. yaday,
ala 'aydi'ni the hand of' has the
sense as a result of the act of, through, by.
303. Ha, 'in the direction of, toward' is used to indicate:
a) a direct.ion, a goal, or a n obtainable end: >JZaj,fca
.' '_azaa ' (On our way) to you, we traversed the desert',
; yam ara bih i i l a

l-sijni 'He ordered h i m (thrown) into
prison' ild
l-yawm i 'until today', i i l a sanatin '(after a
period) of u p to a year', tham dnuna dinaran ,ila m vatin
'80 to 100 dinars'.
N o t e 1. ila m a y be combined with other prepositions (291.3).
N o t e 2. In addition to m in .. .,ila 'from . .. to', in post-classical Arabic,
m in ... wa-
Ud sometimes occurs; cf. 308.5.
Note 3. ila often occurs for Zi- (295), w h e n there is ambiguity:
huwa ahabbu ila y y a m inka H e is dearer to m e than
y o u .
b) a tendency to, belonging to, a n d the like: lawnuhu

nla '.5-.5 'His color teirds toward black', kana ila y h i 'sh-
shurtatu ' The police w ere assigned to him', ) (-
S h a m wa-m a ,ilayhd m in-a
l-biladi ' D a m a s c u s a n d tlie country tliat b e
longs to it'; huwa nla - m a huwa 'He tends to be
s o m e w h a t tall.
c) the i m m e d i a t e proximity: w ajadnahum

nahri '-U rdunni W e found t h e m at the river ,Iordan', ' -
n ib ih i at his side, next to him'.
N o t e 4. A s an order, ilay k a means K e e p back!, be off; in the same

way, ilay k a 'armf'Stay away from me!'.
.
Prepositions 165
3.4. hatta 'until, to (cf. 439) is occasionally treated like a preposi-

tion: hatta
l-hahri 'up to the sea', hatta.
l-m am ati
'until death'.
N o te 1. In cases like

da ahum bi-
ajm a'ihim
hatta A m rin 'He s u m m o n e d t h e m all together up to and including A m r ,
hatta acquires the meaning 'even' and is treated in post-classical Arabic as
a particle:

da'ahum bi-'ajma'ihim hatta 'A m ran
'He s u m m o n e d t h e m all together, even Amr',
gad kv.llu
n-nasi hatta anta 'All the people have come, even you'.
305. lada 'at, near': laqaytuhu lada

1-babi 'I m e t
him at the door', m a ladayya ' W h a t is witli me?', i.e., W h a t d o I
have with me?' or ' W h a t d o I feel?', lada.

l-qayzi 'in su m m e r ' :
m in ladaykum 'He c a m e f r o m you'.
306. ladun, in the construction m in ladun 'from'

hab land m in ladunka rahm atan ( K o r a n 3:8) 'Give US c o m p a s -
sion from You!', "m in ladun-i

b tid a ih i did tam dm ih i
' R o m its beginning to its end'.
N ote 1. Frequently, ladun, with or without min, is a conjunction 'since':

( ) ) min) ladun m a a a
d-duha 'Since the forenoon
shone brightly; also ladiLn ahudwatan hatta
ghabat-i
sh-sham su 'from morning until the sun set' (439). Also used as
conjunctions are ( ) ) min) ladun art (,anna), m undhu
ladun (300).
N ote 2. m in ladu occura as a rare short form.
307. in d a 'at' indicates that w h i c h is present or available:

shufa'dim d in d a
1-lahi our intercessors with God',
indaka laha dawa'un ( W i t h y o u is, i.e.) y o u possess a r e m e d y for it',
kdnat
indahu S h e w a s in his possession (i.e., his wife)',
(a,)l-hiku 'inda
l-ghadabi 'clemency considering the anger'; in
time: in d a
l-qah ti 'during tlie famine', in d a dhalika
'then, thereupon, at the mo m e n t ' .

wv.kit a b o s u n n a t . c o m
166 M o rphology: P r o n o u n s a n d Particles
N o te 1. 'inda frequently m e a n s 'in the opinion of': Arana
'indana rnayyitan H e was in our opinion dead', m a 'indaka 'Wliat

do you think?.
N o t e 2. in da m a y occur in constructions witli m in and ila in a directional
sense; cf. 291.3; 299 c.
308. a) bayna 'between, a m o n g ' indicates b oth separation a n d con-
nection be t w e e n things: ja m a m baynahum 'He brought t h e m

togetlier', - yum ayyizu &aj,na w ajhayni 'He distinguished (be-
tween) the t.wo viewpoints'; in reciprocal relationships:

qalat-i
n-nisa.)u baynahunna 'Tlie w o m e n spoke to each other'.
N o te 1. In combination with bayna, verbal stem III m e a n s 'bring about

separation or connection: .add fcu n h w m H e promoted enmity
a m o n g them', la'ama baynahum H e brought about a reconcilia-

tion between them'.
N o t e 2. 6 aj,na yaday (between the hands of') means before,

in the presence of: qam a bayna yaday-i ,l-
am iri
H e stood before the prince', also .6 aj,na yaday saririhi
before his throne; sometimes with the s a m e meaning aj,na

aydi, bayna
a rju li (from rijlu n foot).
N o t e 3. bayna m a y be combined witli m in and 'ila wlien they designate
direction: kharaia m in baynihim H e departed from tlreir

midst' (291..3).
b) 'Between ... and' is expressed b y ... bayna ... wa-; w h e n the

p r o n o m i n a l suffixes are a d d e d or clarificat.ion is necessary, it is . ..
bayna . ..wa-bayna: &tt wu-ftyafca'between y o u a n d m e . As
a result of contamination f r o m m in . . .
ila (hatta ) 'from ...up to', o n e some-
times encounters ( (... bayna ... ila (na):
bayna
s-S afa
ila
l-M arw ata bet w e e n Safa a n d M a r w a or from. Safa to
Marwa'.
N o t e 4. In poetry, with tire s a m e meaning, . . . bayna . . .fa- (329)
is used with tcrnrs denoting places.

Prepositions 167
N ote 5. Also as a result of contamination, the expression
( ( . . . bayna ... w a-
ila, ( o - ia) occasionally occurs;
cf. 303.2.
c) ma bayna ('what is between') occurs instead of &7when

the expression is syntactically a nominative or genitive:
farqu ma baynana wa-baynahum 'the difference between them and US'; ma
bayna also appears in the position o f an accusative: 0
kana yanamu ma bayna
l-maahribi wa-
l-ish a i 'He used to sleep
(in the time) between sunset and evening prayer'.
N o t e 6. 7^ - m d is close in meaning to feajma:

qalu fi-ma baynahum T h e y spoke a m o n g themselves'.
N o t e 7. In pre-classical Arabic, bayna m a y be rendered in the genitive:

mawaddatu baynikum the love between you'.
d) W ith an indefinite genitive singular (141 c) following, bayna ... wa-

indicates a whole consisting o f several parts (
partly ... partly,
som e ... some"): tarahum bayna qaimin wa-qaidin
'You sre them, som e standing, som e sitting'. In this use, bayna may ap-
pear with partitive min.
< min bayni tajirin
wa-
ajirin 'You come, som e merchants, som e workers'. Sorrretimes, aw
oroccurs with tile same meaning instearl o f wa-:
qawmun bayna haribin ,aw qatilin 'a people, partly fleeing, partly killed'.
309. a) duna 'beneath' denotes an inferior position:

shvbun duna
l-qunnati 'a ravine below the peak'; m ostly in reference to
rank, value, or weight 'under, short of': )a)l-nuhasu duna
l-fiddati 'copper is o f less value than silver', laysa bi-dunihi

(291.3) 'He is not beneath him (in rank)'.
b) 'before, on this side', to describe a position tliat obstructs or protects

against something: f ] nnnahu lakum duna
n-nasi 'He stood
(as protection) for you before tire people',
aghlaqa dii-
ni ';-' He locked the door on nre (closing me in or locking m e out)',
,inna duna
l-ghadi
l-laylata 'Before m orning is night'.
168 hlorphology: Pronouns and Particles
N o t e 1. dunaka '(There it is) before you!' as a c o m m a n d Seize
it!' is used with the accusative: dunaka 'd-dirhama Take
the dirham!', dunakumuha G r a b them/her!'. A s an interjection
dunaka lias tlie sense of 'look out, take care!'.
c) 'Apart, from, to tile exclusion of, barring, without', as when the hin-
drance is considered insurtnountable: la yuktasabu
1-mdlu duna (or bi-duni) mashaqqatin 'Nothing is acquired without

toil' ma'ahu 'alfu 'abdin duna man kana
min 'ashiratihi'lle has 1,000 slaves, excluding his family members'.
N o t e 2. In this use, duna is often combined with min:

. ya'buduna ' -.snOma min duni
1-lahi T h e y worship the
idols (to tlie exclusion of God, i.e.), but not G o d .
P a r tic le s o f E x c e p tio n a n d R e s tr ic tio n
310. nffn 'except, unless' (< in-la 'if not'):
a) In positive sentences, tfie exception follows in tire accusative:

qutila fo Ww/ , m ilia a l a 'All were killed except your father',
>( i)shtarahu bi-mvati dirhamin ilia wahidan 'He
Irouglrt it for a lrmrdred dirhams save one (i.e., 99 dirlrams)'.
N o t e 1. ilia, if not occurs rarely as a conditional (452).
N o t e 2. Occasionally in post-classical usage, tire personal srrffixes are at-
tached directly to the jrarticle: illa-ya, illa-ka, etc.
b) In negative sentences, among wltich may Ire irrcluded interrogative

(335 a) and unreal conditional (453) sentences, the exception agrees in
case with the general ternr (i.e., tlrat from wlrich the exception is made):
tna land nasirun ilia 1-lahu 'We have no helper but God',
hal ra ayta 'ahadan ilia 'Aliy an 'Have you seen any-
one but 'Ali?' la ildha ilia 'There is no god other tlran
Allalr' (318 c), where la
ildha is in tire position of a nonrinative. The ex-
ception must Ire itr the accusative, lrowever, if it precedes t.lre general term
or is of another species: ma land ilia
1-laha nasirun (see

Particles of Exception a n d Restriction 169
above), m d ja
an t
ahadun ilia h im aran N o o n e c a m e
to m e but a n ass'. Contrary to these rules, the nominative occurs s o m e t i m e s
instead of the accusative.
c) In negative sentences, frequently only tlie exception is identified, a n d
thus, a positive restriction ('only') is expressed: m a ha-
dha ilia li-

anfusihim 'This is only for themselves',
la y a ia m u
l-ghayba ilia huwa 'Only H e k n o w s the concealed'. Personal
suffixes used as objects after

ilia m u s t b e introduced with
iy y a (272):
alia ya'hudu ilia, iy ya h u 'that the y w o r s h i p o n l y H i m ' .
d) Subordinate clauses m a y also follow

ilia : m a

azunnuhu > a d m ata 'I can only believe that lie died',
la. yalqam ilia w a-sayfi j i J,df'He will not m e e t

me, unless I h ave r^y s w o r d in h a n d (409), la
tasjud ilia >an takuna tahiran ' D o not b o w d o w n in worship, unless y o u are
pure'. ilia a n n a (and ghayru .anna 311) is used in a n adver-
sative sense: kana it
hnun ilia, a n n a w tuwuffiya 'I
had a son (except tliat, i.e.)| hut he died.'
N o t e 3. m d huwa
ilia, is used to introduce surprising events, e.g.:
( m a huwa
ilia, a n rnUnf^n- nraân(or hat-
ta araânf) H e had hardly (no sooner) seen me, wlien (than) he recognized
m e .
311. ghayru. siw a 'other than, diffei'ent from' (325) a n d the
preposition duna (309 c) also indicate exceptions. T h e y are used
either with the genitive or with affixed personal sulfixes. T h e case of ghayru
is determined according to the rules that hold for substantives after

ilia
(310 a_c): ( (m a w,a)adn ghayraka (siwaka) 'I found
only you', dhahaba n-nasu ghayran a ' The people w e n t
a w a y with the exception of US', m a n 'ilahun ghayru
1-lahi
. . w h o is a g o d other t han G o d ...? ( K o r a n 6:46; 28:71, 72).
312. ma
ada, m a khala or ( add, khala 'what goes
beyond ...' are used like particles of exception. Consistent with their origin

170 Morpho l o g y : P r o n o u n s a n d Particles
as verbs, the accusative follows: Jr kullu shaynn md

khala
1-laha batilun 'Everything but G o d is vain'. B y analogy with .
siw a (311), the genitive m a y also a ppear after 'add a n d khala.
Note 1. Verbal constructions with relative m a are also possible:
mana'a m a add w ajibahu H e refused to do whatever
exceeded the bounds of his duty'.
N o t e 2. , hasha 'far be it!' (e.g., hasha li-llahi G o d

forbid!') is used as a particle of exception like, add, hasha
Aliyin, m d hasha 'A liyan except for All'.
313. nnnam a is a n e m p h a t i c a n d restrictive particle 'only'. While

'innam d stands at the beginning, that w h i c h is affected b y it is ustially, but
not always, placed at the e n d of the sentence for emphasis:
nnnam a khargd'u hamqa'u 'She is only a slovenly, stupid
(woman)', ... in n a m d qdla dhalika li-'annahu ... 'He said
that only because very often adversative 'but, rather':

nnnam a huwa dm aru n "It is ratlier a dinar (not a dirham!)'.
N o t e 1. In pre-classical Arabic, in n am d can be understood as

in n a (339)
with relative m d : nnnam a ,abla 'izam i hubbuha-
' W h a t has w orn out m y bones is (certainly only) m y love for her'.
314. nm m dla 'at least': huwa nm m dla rajulun T h a t is

then at least a man!'; to restl'ict the imperative with a following^.- (222.3)
nm m dla fa-
b siru 'At least h ave patience!'.
Adverbs
315. a) Adverlrs denoting conditions lrave developed from various ac-
cusative usages into indepeirdent terms (373 ff.): jid d a n 'very',

ja m v a n 'iltogether': definite: ) a)l-huwayna leisurely,
(>a)-&aaa 'absolutely' (wit.h negatives). N o t e here also analogical forma-
tions like m a ' . n 'together' (from m a < 298), . a w w a l a n first (127
b).
N o t e 1. kathtran m d frequently, 7 m d seldom
with subordinate m d are used like tdla-ma, qalla-m d (262.1).

,.kltafeosunnat.com
Adverbs-Negation 171
b) T e r m s indicating time in particular appear in the adverbial ac-
cusative: yaw m an 'one day', laylan 'at night, qhadan 'to-
morrow', qidm an 'once, in olden times': definite: (a)!-j/w n

'today', >( a)l-barihata 'yesterday'; with following genitive:
yawma
l-w aqha 'on the d a y of the uproar', layaliya
l-'idi 'in the
nights of the festival', yawm a-ndhin 'then, o n that day' (284.2); see
also 346; 420.
N o t e 2. Adverbial accusative forms are inflected following prepositions:
ha'da ohadin the day after tomorrow', did

l-yaw m i
until today. After ladun (306), the adverb m a y be uninflected:
ladun ghuAmatan for qhuAmatffll 'ItomearVy n n \\tv g .
316. a) Accusative adverbs are often used to bid s o m e o n e (to do) s o m e

thing (375): m ahlan 'slowly' or 'take it easy!', ahlan
wa-sahlan W e l c o m e ! .
b) M a n y adverbs used in this m a n n e r take tile 2 n d p e son suffix:

ruwaydan 'leisurely', ruwaydaka 'take it easy!, shwnaka "It's
your business!', i.e., ' D o as y o u vish!', shamakahci ' D o with her as
you wish!' (271).
317. Several adverbs h ave the uninflected ending -u: ba

du 'later,
afterwards, tahtu 'beneath' faw qu 'above', waraiL 'behind'
' ilu 'above'. T h e s e can also be c o m b i n e d witli partitive m in (299 b);
m in faw qu '(within the space) above'.
N o t e 1. Diminutives (81) also figure a m o n g the adverbs: qubaylu a
little before from qablu earlier, before.
N o t e 2. T h e ending - also appears in la gh ayru 'nothing else, no
m o r e , fa-hasbu and thats all, only.
N o t e 3. See 284; 288 on demonstrative and interrogative advei'bs.
N e g ation
318. a) la nega.tes the imperfect (184), the sub.iunctive (196), the
energetic (198), the jussive (195 b), the perfect w h e n it expresses a wish
(182 b), a n d individual elements of the sentence: rakibtu
, 5 >
baghlan Id him aran '! r o d e a mule, n o t a n ass', fatan wa-ld

ka-M alikin a y o u n g m a n , b u t n o t like Malik'. S e e 294.4 o n bi-la
'witliout'.
N o t e 1. is affixed to particles tliat introduce clauses: alia =

.an la that, not',) ilia < in-la 'if not (310; 452)1 law-la if not
(455), > hal-la is not ...?, w h y not?' (335), kay-ld 'so that not
(438), kalld not at all, by no means'.

b) wa-ld continties the subseqitent negat i o n of sentence elements in
a series of negatives. lam ya jid nnsan wa-la jinnan

' H e f o u n d neitlier m e n n o r ghosts', i.e., 'no one',
raju lu n ghayru taivilin wa-(a qasirin 'a m a n neitlier tall nor short'. In
expressions tliat consist of several elements, ... wa-la m a y b e used instead
of other negatives in the first element: c T id raya wa-la samva

' H e neither s a w n o r heard', huwa dhu malin wa-
la, dhu majdin ' H e is a m a n of neitlier w e a l t h nor noliility'.
c) la is u s e d w i t h a directly following accusative in the definite state
(142) as a general denial: la shakka T h e r e is n o d o u b t . Thisexpres-
sion a p p e a r s m o s t l y in tlie subject position ( 3 6 7 . 2 3 6 9 b):

la ladhdhdti lish-shtbi ' T h e r e is n o pleasure for old men'; cf. 3 1 0 b.
N o t e 2. a6in father, >akhun brother (150) appear in the
construct state: fa ,aba laka M a y y o u have n o father! (also on
occasion Id
abaka).
N o t e 3. According to the rules of the A r a b grammarians, the substantive
should be in the indefinite state if it occurs in combination with a dependent
yre os
\onvA \\ tase-. \ la Hajatan nlaijh'i 'indana
1
liave no need for him'.
N o t e 4. When there is m o r e than one element in tlie negative phrase,
the nominative or accusative of the indefinite state m a y occur in both el-
ements: ( ( ) (la h issa (hissun, hissan) lahu

wa-la
aqhtn (aqla,
aqlan) H e lias neither feeling nor understanding.

kitabosunnat c o m
Negation 173
319. lam with the jussive denies that a n act has b een accomplished or
something has b e c o m e a fact (194); lam -m a negates in a preliminary
way ('not yet'): - lam m a yam ut 'He has (had) not yet died'.
N ote 1. Instead of l a m m a , l a m . . . ha' du (317) m a y occur:

lam yamut ba'du H e did not die only later, i.e., not yet'.
320.
lan ( < *la-
an) with the subjunctive negates a future action (196
c):
lan yunjihu 'They vill not succeed'.
321. m a is always at the beginning of the sentence. Unlike l a m a n d la,

ma with the perfect denies the w h o l e fact; with tile imperfect, the action
or its possibility: m a j u i u 'I a m not (did not b e c o m e ) hungry' (cf.
189),

ma
yaraka 'He does not see y o u at all, cannot see you'.
N o t e 1. Typically, ma is used after particles expressing oaths a n d in sen-
tences containing the particle of except.ion

ilia (310).
Note 2. See 367 a for ma used to negate nominal sentences.
322. in (52.1) is functionally equivalent to m a : in

a d r ill d o
not know', in - i 'l-hukmu ilia li-llahi ( K o r a n 6:57; 12:40, 67)
'Judgment is G o d ' s alone'. This negative particle m a y be c o m b i n e d with
ma:
ma i n j a z i i u 'I a m not at all worried'.
323. a) laysa is a n inflected negative (209) a n d is used chiefly to

negate nominal sentences (367 a). T h e predicate is in the accusative or is
introduced by (294 d): lastu bakhilan or lastu bi-

1 1 ' l a m not miserly'. Verbal predicates m a y also occur:
lasna nasilu ilayka ' W e d o not c o m e to you' (431 f.).
N o t e 1. a-laysa (33 ) is not? often introduces negative interroga-

tive sentences: > a-lastu ,aiaytuka Did I not give y o u ? .
N o t e 2. laysa m a y occur in combination with kana w h e n it indicates the
past (190):

kana laysa bi-bakhilin H e w a s not miserly'.
b) Uninflected laysa negates single elements of the sentence:

laysa an hadha n a s
aluka ' W e are not asking y o u abo u t
that', laysa
ana qataltuhum 'It w a s not I w h o killed them'.

In non-classical usage, it also occurs with verbs: laysa naqbalu

W e d o not accept'.
324. lata 'it. is not' is used sporadically in preclassical Arabic as a

negative:
lata hina m an asin ( K o r a n 38:3) 'But the t.ime is
n o n e to escape, hanna 'That is not so'.
325. a) gh ayru a n d sivua 'other tlian, different from' ex-

elude following substantives in the genitive, personal suffixes, or adjectives:
Zaynabu wa-ghayruha m in-a

n-nisdH 'Zaynab and
other (than her fro m a m o n g the) w o m e n ' , natawakkalu Hid
ghayrika ' W e place our trust in s o m e o n e other tlian you', ghayru
ah adin 'not one, i.e., m o r e t.han one, several', ghayru, m arratin 'not
once, i.e., several t.imes' (315).
b) ghayru negates a n o m i n a l predicate a n d attributive:

Hnnaha ghayru m alum atin 'She is not blameworthy', rajulun
ghayru m alum in a m a n w h o is not reprehensible'. W h e n there is m o r e than
o n e element to negate, la ... wa-la m a y occur instead of ghayru ... wa-la
(318 b): rajulun la tawilun wa-la qasirun 'a m a n
neitlier tall nor short'.
N o t e 1 In post-classical usage, ghayru in constructions with attributives
m a y take the article: ( a)l-ashyau

l-ghayru
th-thabi-
aJ the impermanent things (398.1).
N o t e 2. bi-ghayri (294.(, m in gh ayri (299.3) *without

m a y also be continued by la: m in ghayri
abin wa-la
,um m in without father or motlier'.
Note 3. For ghayru used as a particle of exception, see 311; ghayru ma,
285 c; Id ghayru, 317.2.
326. bal '(no) rather, o n the contrary' counters a preceding proposition

a n d introduces a correction or confirmation: >a<tam
dirh am an ; dirham ayni 'He gave m e a dirham, no, rather, t W o dirhains',
ma aqam na hunaka yauiman ; shahran W e so-
journed there not .just a day, but a month'.
,
Coordinating Conjunctions 175
N o e 1. Introducing an answer to a double question (333):

\ q a la
a-dh ak ari
am ,
uTitha ja - q u lt u b a l
UTitha 'He
said, male or female? I then answered, but female (i.e., not male, but fe
male).
327. Peculiarities in the use of negatives:
a) Negative particles s o m e t i m e s b e c o m e redundant:

lam, a s m a ' u b i- m ith lik a Id h il m a n w a - la j u d a n 'I h ave never
heard from a n y o n e like y o u a b o u t gentleness or generosity'. N e g tio in
m in a n d secondary clauses c o m e s to m e a n affirmation:

lam na.mati .an la n a j i d a )a m n a n ' W e w ere (not) certain that w e w o u l d
(not) find security'.
b) A negative declaration is pr o d u c e d in preclassical Arabic after a n
oath without the use of a negative: 1'- -la/jf >a/'alw 'By God, I
would not d o that'.
C oordinating Conjunctions
328. a) wa- (23) joins equivalent sentences and clauses (401; 404
ff.). Frequently wa- connects the stat.ement to the context (276.1) or given
situation, e.g., when a question is offered in reply to another:
>a-wa-
an a tukadhdhibum
Are you calling me a liar?'.
N o te 1. wa- introduce coordinated circumstantial clauses (407 ff.) with

the subjunctive, see 410.1 with the particle expressing oaths with tire gen-
itive, 294.2 before a genitive introducing a condition, 389.
b) wa- 'with' and the accusative following joins a substantive to the

subject, less frequently to an object, in a verbal sentence. The personal
pronoun is introduced by 'iyyd- (272) after wa-:
ana wa-'abahu ala ma qad [alimna 'He was (i.e., stood) with his father
as far as we know', ma sanaia wa-iyydhu 'what have you
done with him?', sirna wa-
n-NUa 'We traveled with the Nile,
i.e., along the Nile', dam n wa-
am rand 'Let US alone with our
busings!

w w.kitabosunnat.c m
N o t e 2. T h e A rab grammarians call this wa- with accusative

waw al-ma'iyyah, wa- meaning m a . a .
Note 3. w a- with the accusative does not occur in nominal sentences:

' anta wa-'abuka <0 rna, n a ia m u you and your
father are in such a relationship, as far as w e know'. Yet the accusative m a y
be used Jifter w - in certain nominal phrases: anta wa-dhaka

you and that!, i.e., It is your thing!, m a > wa-
l-'amra
Wliat do I have to lo with this affair?, Hyyaka wa-
l-hayyata
W a t c h out for the snake!' (272.2), sha'nakum wa- 'r-rahila
Y o u may- leave'at your discretion' (316 b).
329. fa- 'and then, a n d so, a n d consequently, for' (23) indicates a
se \wi
&. y taghtasxlu Ja-tutaHhvru thftU'ba-yka 1\0 are l.
wasli yourself a n d then to clean botl your garments', jd-
> , ? a-wa^T h e y c a m e o n e after the other', min-
a '-.arm fa-sd'idan ' F r o m n o w o n a n d beyond': it designates w h a t follows as
a result of the preceding statement: ( p . dLarabtuhu fa-baka 'I struck

h i m so he cried'; cf. 402.1.
N o t e 1. O n fa- after
am m a, see 336; fa- introducing the apodosis, 447;
443.1; a-'Jnna- then, 404 b; fa- with the subjunctive, 410; with the
imperative, 222.3.
Note 2. In poetry, places are presented in sequence by fa-.

\ qhashttu dM jriran bi-T-Baqtrt fa-TKakmadm
\
c a m e to dwellings in al-Baql. and then in Thahmad'.
N o t e 3. After verbs expressing c o m m ands, decisions, and the like, the
clause containing the statement of resulting action begins with fa-:

' amara bi-
1-babi fa-iiqhliqa lie c o m m a n d e d the door to be closed,

bada lahu fa- 'btana m a sjid a n It c ame into his mind
to build a m o s q u e (cf. 359).
N o t e 4. fa- links the verb to a verbal complement:

sakata saktatan fa-'atalaha 'He was completely silent and was so for a long
time', takallam a
in a s u fa-'aktfiaru T h e people spoke
and did so at length'.
>
Coordinating Conjunctions 177
330. Im m a 'hen, t h e r e u p o n ^ next, furthermore' joins b o t h sen-
tences a n d words: innahii 'aqama ala

la lik a
arbaina yawman thumma tallaqaha ' H e p a s s e d forty d a y s in this
way, t h e n h e g r a n t e d her the divorce': s o m e t i m e s in a n intensifying sense:
qad jarrabuni thumma jarrabfmi ' T h e y tested m e ,
a n d the n t h e y tested m e s o m e more'. Sometimes thumma indicates tran-
sition f r o m general to specific: .

yeano, Satan mm QuTa'yshin I m m a '-ahadu ha.nl Abdi
l-MuttaUbi
k
y o u n g m a n c a m e to US f r o m the Q u r a y s h , in fact, o n e of t h e B a n . ' A b d
al-Muttalib'.
N ote 1. A n alternative form, thummata, also occurs.
331. aw 'or' (54.1) introduces alternatives: rama

bi-sahmin 'aw sahmayni ' H e shot a n a r r o w or two'.
N ote 1. See 411 for a w with the subjunctive; in disjunctive conditional
clause, 459 a; cf. also 308 d; 333.1.
332. in a n d im m a (459) are us e d to express alternatives:

...
im m a ... wa-Hmma, ... imma ... a w , a n d less often
... > OT ... wa-in, ... i n . .. > a w 'either ... or', e.g.,
' \ Annan! r a ju l i nmma mahmudun wa-nmma dhamlmun
a m a m a n w h o is either pr a i s e w o r t h y or b l a m e w o r t h y ' .
333.' am o r in questions offering a choice: ...a ... ' a m o n occasion

... hal ...a m (335), e.g., a-dhalika
min indaka 'am min in di
1-lahi ' D o e s this c o m e f r o m y o u or f r o m G o d ? ' .
T h e interrogative particle m a y b e lacking following a n o t h e r question or in
indirect questions: la 'adri kharaia ilayhim 'am la

'I d o not k n o w , did h e d e p a r t in their direction, or not?'. T h e alternative
question m a y c o m e after the statement: sadaqta 'am
'ana mukhtvun ' Y o u h a v e s p o k e n the truth, or a m I in error?'.
N o te 1. > a w is on occasion used in alternative questions:

a-'arabiyyun >an a ' a w m a w l a n A r e y o u an A r a b or a client?'.
N o te 2. O n >am in disjunctive conditional clauses, see 459.1.
.
- .k ita b o su n n a t.c o m
178 M o r p h o lo g y : P r o n o u n s a n d P a r tic le s
Particles Introducing the M a i n Clause
334. la- (22; 23) 'tru ly , v e r ily ' c o n f i r m s a s t a t e m e n t a n d , a s a rule,

m a r k s t ir e b e g i n n i n g o f a s e n t e n c e ; a n d a l m o s t a lw a y s it o c c u r s witl an
e l a t i v e in t h e p r e d i c a t e p o s i t i o n : lal-m awtu
k h a y ru n m in h a y d tin *ala q h a m d in ' D e a t h is t r u ly b e t t e r t h a n lif e in g lo o m ';
cf. a l s o 198. I n c o n d i t i o n a l c la u s e s , la- m a y c o m e b e f o r e t h e p r o t a s is

a n d a p o d o s i s {la-
in . . . la- a n d la w ... la- 447 b). O n la- a f t e r in n a , see
339 b.
N o t e 1. In p r e - c l a s s i c a l A r a b ic , la - s o m e t i m e s is u s e d w it h m a (285 c): u
l a m a , la m m d ( 339.2). T h e l a t t e r is u se d , f o r e x a m p l e , t o i n t r o d u c e oa th s:
yuqsim u
alayka la m m d f a
a lta dh a lik a I beseech
y o u , tr u ly , n o t t o d o th is ! ( 456.1).
335. a)
a- (41 c) a n d hal b e g i n i n t e r r o g a t i v e s e n t e n c e s . >a-
is u se d m a in ly w h e n t h e q u e s t io n is le f t o p e n , a n d h a l is ,lse d m o s t ly
w h e n a n e g a t i v e a n s w e r is a n t i c i p a t e d a n d w h e n t h e q u e s t i o n is rh etori-
c a l: > a-alim a ' a n n f a d a sla m tu ' D o y o u k n o w th a t I

h a v e b e c o m e a M u s lim ? ' , h al n wrwr ?~ ' T h e n d o y o u rem em -
b e r m e ? '. S e n t e n c e s i n t r o d u c e d w i t h h a l a r e t r e a t e d lik e n e g a t e d s e n te n c e s
(294 d ; 299 b ; 310 b). S e e 333 o n a l t e r n a t i v e q u e s t io n s .
N o t e 1. a- c o m e s b e f o r e wa-, fa-, thumma (328 ff.); h a l c o m e s after.
- On h a l aha .. ., s e e 296.3.
N o t e 2. a- s o m e t i m e s is l a c k in g :

b m a'akum m in h u s h a y l

D o y o u lia v c a n y o f it w it h y o u ?
.
b) N e g a t i v e p a r t. ic le s f o l l o w i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r >a- a n d h al: > a-la,

'.-m a, > a- aysa ( 323.1), hul-la, e.g.: i j i fa-h al-la tashkuru
' W h y w o u l d y o u n o t t lie n g i v e m e t h a n k s ? ' ; o f t e n a s a n e x c la m a t io n :

a - la ' a r s a lla Hlayya ' W h y h a v e y o u n o t s e n t [it) 1.0 m e?!'.
O n ,ala, 'a m a a s in t e r je c t i o n s , s e e 347.
N o t e 3. 'a - la tara
anna ' D o y o u n o t s e e t h a t p r e s e n t s a
c o n f ir m a t io n :
A f t e r a ll, it is t r u e t h a t . . . . C e r t a in ly , . . .
.
>
Particles Introducing the M a i n Clause 179
336. >amma 'as for, regarding' with a nominative following as a subject

of a copulative sentence (368 ff.). The predicate clause is always joined
with fa- (329): ,amma ,akhuka fa-clam ,annahu
qad mata 'As for your brother, know that he has died'. Adverbial sentence
elements and clauses may be set apart by
amma:
amma basdu
fa- ... 'Now then on to ...' (a formula for introducing the main topic).
337. rubba 'many a' with the indefinite genitive following (389) is
mostly the subject of a copulative sentence (389 ff.):
rubba rajulin karimin ad laqitu 'Many a noble man have I met'.
N o te 1. Often yd (347) is used before rubba.
N o te 2. In pre-classical Arabic, the feminine rubbata appears o n rare
occasion. Sometimes, rubba, rubbata occur in combination with m a (285
c): w & a a - m a gharatin ( M a n y a raid.
N o t e 3. rubba-ma (with subordinating m a 416) m a n y a time,
sometimes, perliaps:
rubba-ma akuffu yadi ankum
'Sometimes I restrained m y h a n d from (striking) y o u .
338. After the particles Hnna, lakinna, layta, la

alla,
the subject of a nominal or copulative sentence (360 ff.; 368 ff.) in the
accusative or a personal suffix (268.1) follows. If the subject does not
immediately follow, the 3rd masc. personal suffix appears as the "pronoun
of the fact" ( damtr ash-sham) and represents or anticipates the
subject: ' innahfi la yuflihu 'l-mujrimuna (Koran 10:17)
'Surely the sinners do not prosper'.
N o te 1. ,anna (415) that, the subordinate clause particle correspond-

ing to inna , is also followed b y the accusative.
N o te 2. Hnna and lakinna with the suffixes of the 1st person (-m, -nd)
are frequently shortened (49 c): Hum, Hnna = Hnna-m,
Hnna-na; lakinni, lakinna = lakinna-ni, lakinna-
nd. In combination with Za'affa, the 1st person suffix - occurs in place of
-nv. Za'aZZJ rather t han la'alla-ni.

www.kitabosun.at.com
180 Morph o l o g y : P r o n o u n s a n d Particles
339. a) inna in the m e a n i n g 'verily, truly indicates that the fol-
lowing statement is remarkable: Jr . inna '1-laha ,ala

kulli shayin qadirun ( K o r a n 2:20, 106, 109, etc.) "Iruly, G o d is power-
ful over everything'. According to n o m i n a l sentence w o r d order (366), a
prepositional phrase as predicate appears between 'inna a n d the accusative:
inna fi
1-qal
a ti sijnan 'Surely, in the fortress is a prison'.
N o te 1. inna-ma has a restrictive sense (313).
b) T h e predicate after inna is often m a r k e d b y la- (334):

in n i bika la-'arifun 'I k n o w you'. W h e n the w o r d order is predicatesubject
(366), l a - m a y also c o m e before the subject: inna fi dhalika

la-ibratan ( K o r a n 3:13; 24:44; 79:26) 'Surely, in that is a lesson'.
N o t e 2. T h e closely related pre-classical particle in is not followed by
the accusative, a n d the predicate is often m a r k e d by la- (334.1):

) in kadat la-a alnf S h e had nearly killed me',
wa-
l-l&hi in kana la-badinan B y G o d , he w a s corpulent, Jr
) kullu Tuifsm lama Vlammaj 'alatiHa hajlzun ( K on
86:4) O v e r every soul there is a watcher, w h i c h could also be interpreted
as T h e r e is not any soul, but a watcher is a bove it.
340. lakinna, wa-ldkinna 'but, yet':

wa-lakinna kathiran niinhum fasiquna ( K o r a n 5:81) 'But m a n y of tliem are
ungodly'. If n o substantive or {)ersonal suffix follows, ( ) ) wa-) lakin

or ) (wa-) lakinna-ma (416) occurs: lakin darabtahu
'But y o u struck Ilim'.
N o te 1. In pre-classical Arabic, tile subject in the nominative m a y follow
lakin (cf. 339.2).
341. laj/a 'if only, w o u l d that', frequently W'ith yd or .ala(347),

introduces a sentence expressing a wish: laytani ba'idun canka
'If only I w ere far f r o m you!', ^ c J [ yd laytahu lam yafcal 'If only
h e h a d not d o n e it!'. Ratlier tha n t.he a-ccusative, a clause introduced by
anna (415) m a y follow: Iaj,a annahu shairun ' W o u l d that
he w ere a poet!'.

Subordinating C onjunctions 181
N ote 1. T h e pred ica te appears on occa sio n as a pred ica te accu sative (381
.(: faj, a Zaydan shakhisan If only Zayd w ould start
out!'.
342. Uvalla 'perhaps' (338.2): la

allaha sa-tarhamum
'Perhaps she will take pity on me'. Verbal predicate clauses are often in-
troduced by )an 'that' (414): la'alla sdhibana >an
yahlika 'Perhaps our com panion has perished'.
N ote 1. la- (334) has b eco m e an inseparable co m p o n en t o f la(alia. T h e

form alia w ith out
fa- d o e s o ccu r in pre-classical Arabic.
N ote 2. Verbal sa 'it cou ld be' (with

' > an th a t) is occa sio n a lly
treated like a particle and appea rs w ith the person al suffixes:

asahu
lladhl yusammihi !l-'arabu sulan P erhaps
this is w hat the A rabs call Sulan'.
Subordinating Conjunctions
343. a) For conditional particles: in, imma, law 'if', see 450ff.
b) Temporal particles: id k bfdha (280) 'if, when', lamma

'when, after', ma 'as long as'; see 442 f.; 462464 .
N ote 1. ma is often added to Hdha. and ,an is often added to lamma,-.

Hdha-ma if, w hen (465), lamma .an after, when'.
344. .an (196 b), anna (338.1) 'that' and subordinating ma,
'the fact that' introduce subordinate clauses which occupy the position of
substantives in the sentence; see 414 ff. These particles make subordinate
clauses dependent on prepositions and adverbs: bi- an, bi-anna 'by
(followed by a gerund), by means o f the,fact that - . ild >an 'until,
up to the point that', c maca an 'although', li-wnna 'because',
ka-'an, ^ka-'anna 'as if, as though', ka-ma 'as', fi-ma 'during,
while', bayna-ma > baynd 'during, while' (49.1), & a'da-ma,
ba'da ,an 'after', qabla .an, qabla ma 'before' (346.1),
kulla-ma 'whenever', the m ore . . . , awwala ma 'the m om ent
when, just when', etc.
.
w v w . k it a b o s u n n a t . c o m
182 Alarphology: Pronouns and Particles
N o te 1. Su bord in a tin g rria often o ccu rs instead o f a substan tive which

w ou ld b e deperrdent on a particle in trod u cin g the clause: rubba-ma (337.3),
lakinna-ma (340), rarely also layta-ma (341), lafalla-ma (342): also at
tim es rria is .joined to ,anna and ka-
anna:

,anna-ma 'that', l k ka-

anna-md
as if
.
N o te 2. A clatrse iirtroduced witli

id h (343 b) m ay also be depen den t on
ba
da 'after':

ba'da
idh
a fter
.
345. The following may function sometimes as prepositions and at. other
times as conjunctions: li- 'so that, in order to' (196 b; 295), hatta
until, so that' (196 b; 304), mundhu. mudh 'since' (300)1

ladun, m in ladun 'since' (306). The following are used only as
conjunctions: / kay, li-kay 'so that, in order to' (196 b), haythu
'wlrere, inasmuclr as' (441).
N o te 1. T lrese co n ju n ctio n s som etim es o ccu r in co n stru ction s with

an or
ms: m undhu "an, m in ladun "an, kay-ma ,

U-kaj-ma.
N o te 2. In terrogative particles rtsed as relatives m ay also begin subordinate

clauses: kayfa,
ayn a, m ata (289).
346. Substantives expressing time irr tlie adverbial accusative (315 b)

may be followed by a dependent clarrse in tire role of a genitive (420):

hina 'at the time when', yaw m a 'on tire day when', layaliya 'on
the nights when', raytha 'while', etc.
N o te 1. In post-classical Arabic, m a frequently o ccu rs rvith these adverbs:

hina-ma, raytha-ma. O n the oth er hand, qabla, instead of
qabla-ma
b e fo re (344), som etim es behaves like a conjunctiorr:

qabla
usaji.ru
before 1 traveY.
N o te 2. A fter the p rep osition 'ala (302.1), hina m ay be uninflected:

'ala hma or 'ala hmi.
Vocative. Particles (Interjections)
yd '0, oh' (vocative 157 ff.; impera.tive 221.1; cf. 263; 337;
347.
341) w d 'oh, ah' (158) u lid 'ha, oh' (cf. 279 b); as oath particlts:

>
-.kitabosun.at.c.m
Interjections 183
1-lahi '0 God!' (294.2) -

ha > ayyuha , ayyuha ' '
yd
(vocative 157) < ,
' aya 'all, oh' (vocative 157.4) ala ,
ama 'oh no, ah, ah yes' (335 b): 'ala layta s h ir t 'Ah, if I
only knew!' (341).
N ote 1.
, la- with the genitive is used to call out or call for help:
ya lar-rijali
'0 m e n (come)!, f / ( Note the orthography!)
ya-la T am im in '0 you T a m i m , (help)!, ya la-llahi lil-'aduwi

'0 God, (help us) against the enemy!: with personal suffixes referring to the
one called and the indefinite accusative or m in (299.4) as an interjection
of astonishment: ( (
m in rajulin (or raju lan )
O, w hat a m a n ! , , laki m in laylatin

O, w hat a night!'.
348. Interjections bemoaning misfortune: w a y 'woe'; mostly with la-

and personal suffixes: w a y li
woe is me!', w a yla k a 'woe to you!
(see also w aylu n 350; w a y lu m m i 349.1) w a yh a with tlie genitive or
personal suffixes: w a yh a n a 'woe to us!' h a y h a ta / i/ u (53.2)
'far from it!'.
349. Several interjections take on the inflection of the imperative or the

endings of the 2nd pers. personal pronoun: ta'ala 'Come on!', fem .
ta'dlay, dual ta
dlayd, masc. pi. ta ldlaw, fem . ta calayna.
h ati 'Give here!', fem . hati, dual h d tiy a , masc. pi. hatu,
fem. hdtina. haka 'Here, take it!', h akaha 'Take her, you've
go her!', fem. haki, dual hakum d, masc. pi. hakum, fem.
hakunna. h a
a 'Take!', fem. haH, dual h a
um a, masc. pi.
h aum , fem. h a i n a , or with the imperative inflection: masc.
sing. ha) h a i, fem. ha% dual h a
d, hdiyd) masc. pi.
h ai fem. h a in a . h a lu m m a 'Get up, forward, come on!'

(with accusative 'bring here!'), fem. h a lu m m i] dual h a lu m m a ,
masc. pi. halum m u, fem . halm u m n a.
N ote 1. Uninflected -umm also appears in the interjection > al-la-

/lima G o d 'and in ' or waylummi, with the 3rd person
suffix and indefinite accusative (384) as an interjection expressing horror or
wonder: w aylum m iha harban W h a t a horrible w a r ,

w aylum m ihi m alan 'Wh a t a wonderful possession'.

Morphology: Pronouns and Particles
Particles as Substantives
350. Particles may be treated like substantives (on gender, see 112).
As such, either they are cited without modification or they take notninal
inflectional endings: m a d a y a w m u n bi-layta wa-law
,a n n i
A day passed with an "Oh would that" and an
If only I'"; in poetry,
they are inflec.ted: m d la ytu n bi-n a fva tin 'An
if only" is of
no use'. w a ylu n 'woe, affliction', w a y la tu n 'ail expression of woe'
are formed from w ayla- (348). From these derive adverbial accusative
w a y la n 'Woe!', w a y la n laka 'Woe to you!'

Syntax
Syntax: Sentences
Subject a n d Predicate
351. Classical Arabic has three kinds of sentences:
a) Verbal sentence: The predicate is a verb. T h e w o r d order is
predicate-subject (355 ff.).
b) N o m i n a l sentence: T h e predicate is a n o u n or a pronoun. Tlie w o r d
order is subject-predicate or predicatesubject (360 ff.).
c) C o m p o u n d sentence: T h e predicate is a verbal or n o m i n a l clause
connected to the subject b y a copulative p r o n o u n (personal p r o n o u n or
suffix, subject p r o n o u n incorporated into the verb). T h e subject c o m e s at
the beginning of the sentence (368 ff.)
Note 1. Prepositional phrases sometimes function as sentences; see 294.5;
3 0 2 . 3 3 0 9 . 1 ;303.4 . Interrogative particles also occur in such uses:
H o w can I get in touch witli h i m ? , 'Where can one
meet you?, ... > D o you feel a desire to?

(296.3).
352. a) T h e subject is in the nominative. It is a sulrstantive or a pronoun.
Non-substantive nomina.l forms like adjectives a n d n u m b e r s function as
substantives w h e n in the subject position: 'three of t h e m
came'. In addition, non-substantive no m i n a l forms like numbers, kullun

(136), ghayru- (325) a n d other similar forms, as well as those prepositions
which m a y serve as substantives like ka- (297 b) a n d m in (299 b) in
constructions with the dependent genitive, m a y also b e used as subjects:
( 'There is s o m e thing (burning) like oil in m y liver',

'Someone other tha n y o u came'. Relative clauses a n d substa.ntive clauses
(414 ff.: 421 ff.) m a y also appear in subject position.
Note 1. T h e pronominal subject is incorporated in the verb (355).
Note 2. After the introductory particles mentioned in 338 ff., the subject
is in the accusative. After rubba (337) and other particles, the subject is
in the introductory genitive (389).

186 Syntax: Sentences
b) A s a rule tlie predicate agrees with the subject in gender. T e rms
that refer to persons agree ad sensurn also in n u m b e r . N o m i n a l predicates
follow essentially the s a m e rules of agrrement as attributes (113 f.; 362).
T e r m s that indicate quantity not infrequently agree ad se.5 m ratlier than
grammatically (353 f.). See 356 f. o n tlie details of verbal predicate
agreement.
353. T e r m s indicating totality (136 ff.) a n d w o r d s like 'ayyu- (286),

ghayru- (325), mithlu (297 c) a n d otlrer.similar terms with the genitiye
following are considered masc. sing.: All of US killed him', 1
'Th e y are all poets'. Yet, often the predicate agrees with the genitive
sen su m : W h a t g o o d n e w s reached m e ? , 11
of tliem will b e angry'.
N ote 1. Similarly, wlien ka- and m in function as substantives (352),
the agreement is with the word in tlie genitive: N o camel
carried anything' (299 b).
354. Tlie n u m b e r s fro m 3 to 10 are treated like feminine plura.ls, if the

objects to w h i c h they refer are things: 'Wlien
tliree nights of tlie m o n t h of R a j a b have passed' (295.1), > l

'Three (things) are unavoidable'. N u m b e r s over 10 in such cases are treated
like feminine singulars: W h e n 14 nights in
R a m a d a n remained' (i.e., o n the 16th of R a m a d a n ) . N u m b e r s referring
to persons h ve predicates ad sen su m in the masculine or feminine plural:
Four (jieople) c a m e u p to him', These
are 12 men'. Cf. 399.
N ote 1. A d sen su m agreement m a y occur even w h e n a verbal predicate
comes first (356): <Three of tliem went to h i m .
N ote 2. N u m b e r s in the abstract are feminine singular:

Seven is one sliort of eiglit'; in post-classical Arabic, liowever,
it is usually masculine singular: Seven minus

three is four' (129.5).

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S u b je c t a n d P r e d ic a te 187
V erb a l S en ten ces
355. T h e p r o n o m i n a l s u b j e c t is i n c o r p o r a t e d in t h e v e r b : ' H e p la y e d ' ,

'H e p la y s ' . T h e s u b s t a n t i v e s u b j e c t f o l l o w s t h e 3 rd p e r s o n m a s c u l i n e
o r f e m i n in e s i n g u l a r (356); lik e w is e , a p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n f o l l o w s t h e v e r b
for e m p h a s i s (266). O t h e r s e n t e n c e e l e m e n t s m a y in t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e
v erb a n d s u b je c t : ' T h e n e w s r e a c h e d t h e C a lip h ' . If
th e s u b j e c t h a s m o r e t h a n o n e v e r b a l p r e d i c a t e , t h e s u b j e c t c o m e s a f t e r t h e
first v e r b : '
M a y G o d b l e s s h im a n d g r a n t h im s a l v a t i o n
.
N ote 1. When the subject is placed before the verbal predicate, the sentence
is considered compound (368 ff.).
N ote 2. See 318-323 on the negation of verbal predicates.
356. A g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n v e r b a l p r e d i c a t e a n d s u b j e c t :
a) T h e 3 r d m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r o f t.he v e r b c o m e s b e f o r e m a s c u l i n e su b -
je c t s , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r i t is s in g ., dua.1, o r p lu r a l: ' A th ie f
ca m e', ' T w o t h ie v e s c a m e ' , ' T h i e v e s c a m e '. F re-
q u en tly , t h e 3 rd m a s c . s in g , a l s o p r e c e d e s f e m i n in e s u b j e c t s (sin g, o r p lu -
ral), e s p e c i a l l y i f o t h e r s e n t e n c e e l e m e n t s i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n j u b j e c t a n d
p r e d ic a t e : ' A m e s s a g e c a m e t o t h e ju d g e ' , ' T h e

c ir c u m sta n c e s ch a n g ed '.
b) T h e 3 r d fe m . s in g , u s u a l l y p r e c e d e s f e m i n i n e s u b j e c t s (110 ff.); t h e
3rd m a s c . s in g , m a y a p p e a r i n s t e a d , e x c e p t b e f o r e s in g , t e r m s t h a t r e fe r
t o f e m a l e p e r s o n s a n d t h e fe m . d u a l: 'A t h i e f (fem .) c a m e ',
' T w o t h ie v e s (fem .) c a m e ' .
N ote 1. Before the names of clans (86 b), including those consisting of
banii
sons of (385.3), the predicate is usually in the 3rd. fem. sing.:

The Jews said
.
N ote 2. A g r e e m e n t a d sensum in n u m b e r in v erb a l s e n te n c e s is a tte s te d
o n ly e x c e p tio n a lly : B o t h
.111 5 h is e y e s tu r n e d re d
.
357. A g r e e m e n t o f a s u c c e e d i n g v e r b a l p r e d i c a t e w i t h a s u b j e c t a l r e a d y
m e n t io n e d in t h e s e n t e n c e is strict;, a n d a g r e e m e n t in n u m b e r is, a s a ru le,
ad sen su m w i t h t e r m s r e f e r r in g t o p e r s o n s (cf. 114):
.

'W.ktah si
nat.coni
S y n ta x : S e n te n ce s
'Zayd and his father cam , and tlren they said', 0 ^

The people
used to say',' The women cried and w ailed; but also
' The Quraysh (86 b) heard (it) and became angry'.
N o t e 1. After place names, the inhabitants are frequently referred to with-
out explicitly naming them: H e c a m e to the Y e m e n and
there they (i.e., tire Yemenis) fought with him'; also outeide the subject-
predicate cont.ext: H e stopped at the fortress of
H u w a t h a and fought t h e m (the garrison)'.
358. An unspecified subject may be expressed more frequently than by

such terms as ,
m an
,
on e
, among oth ers-in the following
ways:
a) With the 2nd masc. sing, (less often the plural): ' You think',
i.e., 'It is thought, one thinks, they t.hink'; with the 3rd masc. plural:
1' They Ireard, i.e., one heard a voice'; sometimes with 3rd masc.
sing.: When someone
dies, things seem to Ilim different from how he now sees them'; with the
passive withorrt a subject, see 199 b.
Note 1. Similarly, in nominal constructions with the personal suffixes:
lib61 your speech, or 6'11 their speech', i.e., as they say, as it
is said, as one says'.
b) W i t l i t h e a c t i v e p a r t i c i p l e o f t h e v e r b w h ic lt f o r m s t h e p r e d ic a te ;
a s a s in g u la r , t h e p a . r t ic ip le is u s u a l l y in d e f in it e , a s a p lu r a l, d efin ite :
' Someone said', ' Don't let anything distract

you!', ' ' No one ever saw anyone like him.'
N o t e 2. Likewise, with nominal constructions: / S someones blame'.
359. The absence of tile subject occurs with the passive of intransitive
and, occasionally, transitive verbs (199 b): ' There was a cov-
ering thrown over him, i.e., he fairrted'. There are only a few other cases
of the unmentioned subject, e.g.: ' 0 is a sufficient witness
,
ww w J U t a b o s u n n a t . c o m
Subject and Predicate 189
(Koran 4:79, 166; 10:29, etc.), ij ' It seemed good to him', i.e., 'He
decided' (as in the example cited in 329.3).
N ote 1. W h e n the subject c an be determined f r o m the context, it is not a
case of a truly lacking subject: If y o u w o u l d remain, it w o u l d
m a k e US h a p p y , T h e n it ( what w a s told) b e c a m e a proverb,
w h e n it w a s [on] the fourt.h d a y .
N ote 2. Observe that verbs w h i c h incorporate an element of time always
take a personal subject: W h e n w e w o k e u p in the m o r n -
ing, i.e., w h e n it w a s morning, w e left.'
N o m i n a l Sentences
360. The nominal sentence describes a condition which exists or a desired

one: (
Peace be on you!(a Muslim greeting). To refer to a
past and future condition, a verbal sentence with ^
wasor
will be
is used (382 a; 190.2).
N ote 1. T e r m s referring to time are s om e t i m e s the subject of a nominal
sentence: ' ;His day is fasting, a n d his night is standing,
i.e.i 'Daytime he fasts, a n d nighttime he is awake'.
361. The predicate of a nominal sentence may be a noun, pronoun, p re p o

siional phrase (293), or adverb (315 ff.), e.g.: ' They are above',
^
How are you?'. In addition, relative clauses (421 If.) and s u b
ordinate clauses beginning with "an, "anna, ma (414 If.) may be pred-
icates. Adjectival predicates are as a rule asyndetically coordinated, i.e.,
without a conjunction: '
God is forgiving and merciful
.
N o t e 1. See 202 o n the use of tile predicative participle.
362. Adjectives in the predicate are in the nominative pf the indefi-

nite state and a g r ^ with the subject (113 f.): The boy is
,
sm all The camel is big-humped ,
The colors are
diverse, f b They re sleeping(122). On agreement in cases like:
) Each party is rejoicing in what is with them
(Koran 23:53; 30:32), see 353.

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363. a) Substantives in the predicate are in the nominat.ive of the indef-

inite state and, as sucli, have a qualifying sense: ' He is a man',
' We are war (.., hostile) to you ,' ; His garment
silk (i.e., made of silk)', ' You are reliability (I.e., reliable)',
'Your order means obedience', ' Time consists of day and
niglit'.
b) A definite substantive or a predicate that serves as a substan-

tive 1 an identifying sense:' Tlris horse is your horse',
' You are the commander of the faithful'. If a predicate
substantive is made definite witli the article, a compound sentence witli a
copulative subject, pronoun (370 a) results: ' Those are
the unbelievers'.
Note 1. In pre-classical Arabic, the definite predicate is occasionally intro

duced by bi- (294 d):
He is it
.
N o t e 2. Matching subject and predicate are used to emphasize an identity:

You are really you',
Your land is really yoltrs'.
364. Tire 3rd persoir pronoitn iir the predicate always refers to a person
rreuter
itdoes not. xist in Arabic: ' You (masc.) are it' (literally
'you are Ire'), You (fenr.) are it' (literally 'you are sire'),
'You (jrl.) are it', ' Verily, he is it', ' This is it, there it is
,
' This is air old wonran', 'Tlrere is an old woman'.
365. a) The 3rd person pronoun is often lacking in tire subject or predicat.e
position, especiall.y aft.er >! (280) and fa- (329): ' I
turned around, and tliere (it) was the vizier', ' ' If
there is a Ma'bad in the world, then this one is it' (448).
b) In tire following formulas, tire 3rd person pronoun is regularly lack-

ing: (' It is) entrugh for you!', or ( Enougli for me!),
'Enough for you!', etc., 418 ;415) b)
It is as if...', e.g.,

Lf 'And it is as if I were walking in a gardrrn'.
Note 1. ka-'anna may occur with predicate u- (294 d): J

It is as if
I had something to do witli you
,It is as if I saw you before me'. It is often
augmented by a circumstantial accusative (383) or a circumstantial clause
Subject and Predicate 191
(436): '1 is as if you had something to do with h i m as he
has already m e t you, i.e., 'It seems that he has already m e t you'.
366. Tile word order is usually subject-predicate. Definite predicates,

however, may come at the beginning of the sentence: ' The
maid is in her chamber', but j 'In Irer chamber is t ie maid'.
Likewise, sentence elements called into qu ^tion appea.r at the beginning:

Is it true what you reported to m e?
;
Who is in
the room?' and a.nalogously in the reply: ' A maid is in the
room'.
N o t e 1. T h e introductory particle inna (339) lias no influence on the
position of words in the nominal sentence: ' Verily, in the

r oom is a slave-girl'.
367. a) A nominal sentence is negated with ma, ,in, and laysa (321ff.).
After m a and ,in the predicate is in the nominative; after laysa, in he
accusative. The Predicate may also be introduced wit.h bi- (294 d):
; or and or
You are not miserly
.
An indefinite subject is frequently introduced witli parl.itive m in (299 b):
3 ' ) You have no protector apart, from God' (Koran
2:107; 9:116; 29:22; etc.); cf. 318 b.
N o t e 1. T h e use of so-called tile HijazT m a , according to
which the predicate follows in the accusative, as with laysa, is limited to
pre-classical Arabic: ' This is no mortal' (Koran 12:31).
N o t e 2. T h e subject m a y be negated with the particle of general denial la
(318 c): . There is no poet like him'.
b) Nominal predicates may be negated witli gh ayru (325 b). In

tliis case, agreement of the adjective is unaffected: ' Our
dwellings are not far
.
C o m p o u n d Sentences
368. T h e subject of a c o m p o u n d sentence is always at the beginning. A n y
nominal or p r o n o m i n a l part of tlie sentence m a y b e c o m e the subject of
a cop.ulative sentence b y being placed at the beginning for emphasis. In
> ..<
ww^'-kili lwsunnat.com
192 S y n t a x : Sentences
t h e predicate clanse, tJien, a copulative personal p r o n o u n or personal suffix
a p p e a r s for the subject: ' Zayd, his fatlrer died' as o p p o s e d
to T h e father of Z a y d d i e d . If the subject of a copulative
sentence is also a subject in t he predicate clause, the subject p r o n o u n that
is i n corporated in the ver b functions as a copulative p r o n o u n , prov i d e d there
is a verbal clause. A c c o r d i n g to 357, there is strict a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n verb
a n d subject: ' T h e disobedience of the sensible one
e n g e n d e r s sadness'.
369. a) T h e subject m a y c o m e at the b e g i n n i n g of the sentence for rea-
sons of context a n d p r o m i n e n c e a n d usually in connec t i o n witlr the use
of d e m o n s t r a t i v e a n d interrogative p r o n o u n s : 'Which man

came?'. T h e s a m e also occurs wit,l the introductory particles
idha (280),
,amma (336), a n d Hnna, lakinna, lacalla, layta (338 ff.). T h e introduc-
tory genitive (389) after wa- and rubba regularly a p p e a r s at the beginning
of the s entence a n d is the subject of a c o m p o u n d sentence.
b) S p o n t a n e o u s p l a c e m e n t of the subject at the b e g i n n i n g of the sen-
tence is u s e d to empliasize contrasts: ' T h e e y e

w tness sees what, the o n e wlio is absent d o e s not'. Similarly:
' W h a t a n excellent y o u t h y o u h a v e slandere ) '!2 5 9 1 1 .(,

' T w o (tilings) are unavoidable', l
' A certain t hing I h a v e b e e n seeking for t w e n t y years'.
N ote 1. See 409 a; 433 ff.; 428 ff. on copulative subordinate clauses.
370. T h e predicate of a c o m p o u n d sentence is a v er b or a n o m i n a l clause
in w h i c h a copulative p r o n o u n refers to the subject.
a) Tlie copulative p r o n o u n is the subject of the predicate clause:

' T h o s e are the unbelievers' (363 b).
T h e sensible o n e d o e s n o t associate w i t h the evil o n e s .
N ote 1. T h e copulative personal p r o n o u n m a y be lacking before an in-
definite nominal predicate: ) A s for their garments, they are
wliite'.
b) T h e copulative p r o n o u n is the object of a predicate clause:

' L o o k at m e ! Passion has conquered me'. In tliese examples.
Predicate Complements 193
the copulative pronoun may be lacking, unless ambiguity results: j

many a cup have you drunk' (rather than ).
Note 2. In these cases, a substantive which becomes prominent by its
placement at the beginning of the sentence appears on occasion in the ac-
cusative as a result of prolepsis:
And the moon we
have determined for it stations' (Koran 36:39).
c) The copulative pronoun occupies the position of the genitive in the

predicate clause: '
And tyranny, its pasturing ground is
unhealthy'.
Predicate C o m p l e m e n t s
371. a) Nominal, prepositional, anrl verbal complements may be added

to the verbal predicate. The nominal predicate complement is in the ac-
cusative (372 ff.). See 293 on the use of prepositional predicate com-
plements. Verbal predicate complements are termed c.ircumstantial clauses
(431 ff.).
b) In nominal sentences, prepositional phrases (293) or circumstantial

expressions of adverbial origin (315 ff.) may be appended to the predicate:
1 ' Kings are (no more than) dust before G od '1
' He is a lion on the day of the battle'.
Uses of the Accusative
372. When it is governed by a verb, the accusative is the object, inner (ab-
solute) object, or predicate accusative. Additional uses of the accusative,
namely, adverbial expressions describing circumstances and denominal ex-
pressions indicating conditions, have developed from the accusative and
assumed a status of tlieir own. The accusative governed by the verb as a
rule follows the verb; placement of the accusat.ive first for emphasis does,
however, occasionally occur (370.2).
Note 1. On the accusative as vocative, 157 f.; with the general negation,
318 c; after wa- 'with', 328 b; with numbers, 130 f.; after particles of
exception, 310 a; 312; after introductory particles, 338 ff.; in negative
nominal sentences, 367.

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Accusative as Object
373. The accusative indicates the direct object on which an action is

effected: '
He seeks knowledge
, He reached Basra
,
' HC followed liis father', ' He came to him'.
N o t e 1. O n e m u s t determine from the lexicon w h i c h verbs are used with
the object accusative. .Occasionally, either the accusative or a preposition is
used: or H e we n t to Syria.
N o t e 2. P r o n o m i n a l object c o m p l e m e n t s m a y be omitted from verbs that
appear in iick succession: I said to him: Report to
me. H e did (it).
N o t e 3. A n unspecified object m a y be expressed with a verbal adjective of
the s a m e verbal stem: ' He killed s o m e o n e .
374. a) C a u s a l. iv e v e r b s a n d t h o s e w i t h r e l a t e d m e a n i n g s m a y ta k e an

a d d i t i o n a l o b j e c t a c c . u s a tiv e r e f e r r in g t o a p e r s o n : He t a u g h
h im r e a d in g ' , ' He g a v e h is d a u g h t e r a g ir d le ' ,
'He c l o t l i e d m e ill h is g a r m e n t s ' , ' ) GU ard
yourselves and your families against a fire whose fuel is men ...' (Koran
66:6). Cf. also 271 f.
N o t e 1. Witlr certain verbs, the second accusative is a predicate accusative
(380 ff.).
b) ff verbs like these appear in the passive (199 f.), the personal
object becojnes tile subject, while tlie second accusative remains unaffected:
' She was given a girdle', 'She received a girdle', ' We
received a letter', passive formation of 'He sent us a letter'.
N o t e 2. T h e intransitive basic s t e m is treated like a passive:
1 dressed in liis clothes^, T h e bucket w a s filled with water',
intransitive of H e filled the bucket with water'.
375. The accusative may refer to a pe.rceived or intended object, even if it

is not governed by a verb: (' Look) the new moon, by God!'
'!' fearing and obeying', i.e., '! am ready to obey',
' fs ..here hesitancy now tliat. gray hairs cover you?': often as
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Predicate Complements 195
an exclamation or warning: Please, the story! ,

Watch
out, the lion!', ' Careful, your foot', 5' Stay where you are!' (cf.
379.1). Cf. also 272.2316 .
N o t e 1. Verbal substantives used in exclamations have the sense of impera-
tives: ; W h e n y o u meet the unbelievers,
then smite t h e m on their necks (Koran 47:4), Take prisoners!'.
O n the accusative used with the vocative, see 157 f.
Inner (Absolute) O b ject
376. Any verb, even intransitive and passive, may occur in conjunction
with the accusative of the inner object, with the effect of confirming or
strengthening the action. As a rule, the inner object is the verbal substan-
tive of the main verb: ' He hit him hitting, i.e.really',
'He was struck with a blow, i.e.j was really hit'. Even verbal substantives of
another verb stem of the same root, a n o m e n v ic is (232), or a n o m e n sp e c ie i
(77), may be an inner object:' They fought each other in

a violent fighting
,
He shot two shots, i.e.j tw ice,
'They killed them with every way of killing, i.e., in every conceivable way'.
N o t e 1. Sometimes a verbal substantive with a related meaning occurs as
the inner object: T h e y bound h i m really tight.'
Note 2. T h e inner object m a y be represented by the personal suffix:
T w o joys that he feels.
377. Most of the time, the inner object appears with an attribute or
genitive hat further specifies the action and is used to qualify the verb:
. , '
He educated him really w ell
'I found out enough about him that I had no more doubts'; . it ap-
pears with the genitive often to offer comparison: 1 ' He was
frightend lik a coward', ' We drove them like camels',

I judge it as you d o
.
,
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Note 1. Sometimes he adjective appears alone and tlius assumes tile role
of an adverb: j T
He came often ( uch)'. Tile verbal substantive
is usually lac.king when numbers are cited:
V"" have insulted him
a thousand tim es , fie struck him 60 (blows)'.
A d v e r b ia l A c c u sa tiv e
378. Verbal substantives that are not related in meaning to their respective
verbal predicates art used as inner objects to describe circumstances, i.e.,
the kind and ma.nner or the cause of the action: ' They ran away
taking great leaps', ' He seized liim by force', ' He
remained silent out of ignorance', j 'I stood up in lronor of him'.
N o t e 1. Adverbs like openly, 1 deliberately,a m o n g others, liave
developed inf.0 independent expressions from this usage.
379. The accusative is used to indicate extent and direction, as well

as duration and points in time: ' He traveled two parsangs',
' We raised some of them above the others
by several steps' (Koran 43:32), ' They scattered east and
west', ' This happened on his return from Kufa'
(382.2), Jyi . 'During the year of the conquest, he
spent a half m o n t h ill Mecca'; cf. 315 b.
N o t e 1. Tliis kind of accusative sometimes occure with terms indicating
places: ' Remain sitting in your place!'.
N o t e 2. T h e personal suffixes m a y substitute for this accusative:

Nights during wliich I was ill'.
C ir c u m s ta n tia l A c c u sa tiv e
380. Tlie circumstantial accusat.ive functions as a predicate to a verb

and indicates a simultaneous condition (). As such, these predicatives
are treated as nominal predicates (361 f.): They can be nouns or ad-
jectives, are usually indefinite, and agree grammatically witli tlie subject
(113 f.):' He came riding', ' His sister, cry-'
ing, went up to him', .' We deputed In the direc-
tion of Yemen', ' The moon rose full', ' You come

www.kitabosunnat.coni
Predicate Com plem ents 197
in droves'. Adjectival predicat elements follow one another asyndetically

(361): ' ] Go fortli from it (from Paradise), despised
and banished!(Koran 7:18).
N o te 1. As a circumstantial accusative, the participle may be imperfective

or perfective (202 c): ' He went out, witli the intent of fleeing',
' He came in flight'.
N te 2. The predicative may precede an indefinite subject:

If a beggar, with a wish, comes to him
Note 3. The predicative adjective may have its own subject with which
it agrees: ' In the evening the horizon appeared
dust-colored at its edges' (435).
381. W hen used with verbs conveying the ideas o f inducing ..., con-
sidering as ..., finding as ...and the like, the circumstantial accusative
refers to the ob ject and agrees with it as need be: ' I see
myself as larger than y ou (i.e.,
that I am larger than y ou
), [
'(It s God.who) m ade for you the eartli as a resting place' (Ko-
ran 40:64),
He left his opponents for dead
,
' I found the women u.nconscious' (204). If a causative governs
two accusatives (34( the circumstantial accusative refers to the second
object: ' He showed them that their deeds were evil'.
N o te 1. If the circumstantial accusative refers to subject and object, it

appears in the dual as the occasion arises:
whenever
you meet me so that we are both alone
.
N ote 2. According to 363 b, a personal pronoun may come before a

definite predicate:
We cause ) his descendants to be
the unending ones
, If violence is the obligation'
(382).
382. a) Nominal predicates com ing after

' )) be' (360) may b e
considered to b e in the circumstantial accusative:, " He was a
b r o th e r o f m in e
,
A s in g le t h in g c a n n o t
(at the sam e time) exist and b e non-existent'. Atry,other predicate in

a nominal sentence (361) may also occur witir kana, e.g., A
0
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brother was mine', i.e., 'I have a brother', ' His return will
be tomorrow'. See 381.2 on t.he definite predicate.
N o t e 1. Although the personal suffixes do not occur in place of the cir-
cumstantial accusative, kdna m a y appear with predicate personal suffixes:
W a t c h out that you are not it!'.
N o t e 2. Wit.hout a predicate, kdna has the meaning exist, occur': Z jt

H e was once a merchant. See 190 ff., on kdna in complex verbal con-
structions.
b) In the same manner, accusat.ive predicates may occur with such se-
mantically related verbs as ' )) become', ' ) ) not cease',
i.e., 'cont,inue being, s t i l l a n r o n g others: ' The earth
became fertile', 'He was still strong'. In place of tire circmstan-
tial accusative, there may be a circumstantial clause (432): or
He is st.ill turning , He became so t.hat he did not
speak', i.e., 'He became speeclrless'.
383. a) A substantive or personal pronoun (personal suffixes) may be

followed by an appositional circumstantial accusative which indicates the
immediate condition of the srrbstantive or the pronoun:
'What's witli your body, being (so) emaciated', i.e.. Why is your body
so emaciated?', ' It is t.he sound of the wild asses going
to drink', ' They reached lrim just, as Ire was sitting
before Iris house'.
b) Substantives in the appositional accusative most, often have an ex-

plicative sense: ' I called to G od to hear (my prayers) ,
' This is more tasty as fresh grapes t,han it is as
raisins'. The appositional accusative of pronouns of the 1st and 2nd per-
sons is, as a rule, defil'iite: 1
You, as believers
,
'We, the mult.itude of proplrets'.
N o t e 1. Tile explicative accusative is for the most part replaceable with
m i n (299.4): or ' Oh, w hat a man!' (347.1).
.
w w iita b o s u n n a t.c o m
N o m i n a l Constructions 199
N .te 3. The explication may consist of a distributive pair (402:

He named them man for man
, 0 is
time one state after another'.
N o t e 3. In pre-classical Arabic, substantives occur on ,ccasion in the defi-

nite appositional accusative: his wife, tile carrier of the
firewood(Koran 111:4),
with his sandals, tile old ones .
Accusative of Specificity
384. The indefinite accusative is used to specify (141 c). It occurs with
v^rbs: ' You increase in love', i.e.
You love more',
' You will not reach the mountains in tallness' with adjectives In the
predicate and, especially, with the elative (124.3):
' the youngest
among US in age ,
He is the most of liis people in pos-
sessions', i.e., 'He is the most wealthy of his people'. This accusative is
also used to indicate content and material:
' your jubbah of silk',
5' an atom's weight of good' (Koran 99:7); cf. 261 b; 262
287.
Nominal Constructions
Genitive Constructions
385. a) A substa.ntive tliat is dependent, o n a n o u n is in t.he genit.ive. T h e
noun o n w h ich the genitive dep e n d s is in the construct state (145 f.)
Additional genitives m a y b e dependent o n a genitive: 1(
'The n a m e s of the horses of the Messenger of God'.
N o t e 1. Personal pronouns in genitive position appear as personal suffixes
(269). All prejjositions govern the genitive (291 ff.). See 129; 132 on
the use of the genitive after numerals.
N o t e 2. Relative clauses as well as subordinate clauses introduced by

an,
anna, or m a (414 ff.) m a y appear in the position of a genitive. Only
with substantives referring to time (420) m a y clauses follov the construct
state without; a subordinating particle.
b) T h e genitive construction, w h i c h consists of the construct state
(regens , i.e., governing) a n d the rectum (i.e., governed) in the genit.ive.

Syntax: Sentetices
normally in dicate the connection of the regens to the rectum:
the head of Zayd'. The genitive construction, h wever, also involves the
relationship of the rectum to the regens:
Earth with barrenness
,
i.e., 'infertile eartli' (391 ff.).
c) In genitive constructions which represent lexical unitie, e.g., per-

sonal names like 1 (
slave of the Merciful), (sun of
the religion
), ( father o f Bakr
) or the constructions mentioned in
391, the construct state retains its grammatical independence:
'Oh, Abu Bakr'. If such construction? occur in the plural, as a rule both
members become plurals: from commander of the
arm y
, from
trustworthy(391).
N o t e 3. If the regens indicate only a formal connection, gender agreement
is sometimes determined by the genitive (353). Like other nam e s of clans,
even those formed with sons of ' are regularly feminine (86b).
N o t e 4. In post-classical Arabic, c o m p o u n d n a m e s are treated as units, so
that forms like 116) ) 96 (, ) from ' Abd Allah (slave
of God') m a k e their w a y into classical texts.
386. a) The genitive is used to express various kinds of relationships:

possession or being part of, belonging to a space, a time, and so forth, e.g.,
f the pen of the sces', the market of Ukaz,
' the way to Syria', ' the rain in winter'. If the meanings
of botli members together imply no particular relationship, the genitive
construction indicates a simple belonging together:
three
nights and their (j)roper) days'.
N o t e 1. Proper nam e s also.may be in the genitive: ' Nabighah

of (the clan of) D h u b y S n , ' Tripoli of Syria'.
N o t e 2. Expressions of time often receive a genitive personal suffix that
refers to the appropriate person: 'He spent his night (i.e., the
night as it concerned him at the time), H e returned at his
time, i.e., at once'. Demonstratives in the genitive refer, however, to a
situation or evnt: on tile day of that, i.e., on the day w h e n that
occurred.
. )
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Nominal Constructions 201
b) Tlie genitive may appear in a subject or object relationship with

a verbal substantive (g e n itim s subjectivus, gen. objectiyus): ' the
love of Layla', i.e., 'Layla's loving' or 'loving Layla', ' the report
'Umar gave' or 'the report about 'Umar'; see also 206.
N o t e 3. The object genitive may appear with active participles:

the author of the book': see also 146 c. The subject genitive may

appear with passive verbal adjectives: killed by starvation
.
387. a) When dependent on an elative (124), ) 1,16(, ) 286(,

(287), 299.4) ), and a few others, the indefinite genitive, indicates the
overall class to which the preceding word belongs:
every ma.n
i

the most excellent m an
,
what 'men
. This kind of
genitive (which may be termed the generic genitive) may also be used with
adjectives functioning a substantives: ^ important of m atter
, i.e.,
'something important', ' curdled with blood'.
b) The definite genitive in such constructions indicates a totality, and
so the regens functions in a partitive relationship with the rectum:
' the most excellent 0 the men', ' the best of his work',
i.e., 'his best work', ' the entire speech', " which part of
the (whole) action'. Adjectives functioning as subst.antives also work in a
similar way:
the noble side of his character
,
in
: : . '
Note 1. Partitive genitive constructions often have a superlative sense:

judge of judges
, i.e.,
chief judge', ' the subtle-
ness of the signs
, i.e.,
the especially subtle signs
.
Note 2.
the people', as a partitive genitive, s sometimes treated as
an indefinite like a generic genitive: <' He was the first
(of the people) to hit him'.
388. a) Adjectives may govern the genitive of specificity. This genitive

is always definite in the generic sense (144), but it does not make the
adjective definite (
improper annexation146 c): ' pretty with
respect to the ,face, pretty-faced', ' a black-haired woman',

the black-haired w om an
. This genitive may be replaced
&
202 Synt.ax: Sentences
with the personal suffixes: ^

Yazid was handsome
of beard but tilin of i.e.1 'liad a liandsome but tiliji beard' (145 c; 380).
N ote 1. This genitive also occurs in pre-classical Arabic in ni5h-adjec-

tives referring to clan-names: CO ' belonging to tile clan of Taym,
namely Taym (ibn) 'Adi
.
b) Terms of comparison like 297) d), ,

resembling
, ,
, ' equivalent', , ' other than' (325) may also appear, usu-
ally defined in the generic sense, with the genitive. The regens, liowever,
is considered indefinite (146 b): ' an idol the
size of a man of medium stature', 1 ' sometliing ver'b-like
.
389. Tfie introductory genitive presents a new subject. It is always in-

definite and as a rule singular. It appears with rubba
many a' (337) and,
in poetry, witli Ilia- (328). The introductory genil.ive is usually the su b
ject of a copulat.ive sentence:
Oh, behind many
an overburdened one lrave I ridden'. Wliile the genitive after rubba refers
t.o a plurality of subjects, aft.er via-, tlie plural is not necessarily implied:
' Many a cup liave I quaffed' (370 b), (' [ I will
S))eak about) a house in which the falcons were tra
' .I know of oire wit'll two legs who does not walk on tliem' (391 a).
N ote 1. Tlie plural may follow via-.
(I remember)
the days wlien we defied the king
.
N ote 2. On rare occasion, tlnis genitive may follow fa- (329), bal (326), or
there may be no particle at all:
But (now I tliink
of) a place where tlie paths are filled With dust'.
390. a) Tlie qualifying genitive indicates something by wliich the regens is

cliaract.erized:
an oat.il of sincerity
,a sinc.ere oath
,
t.lie words of error , 'false statements'; also with proper names:
' 1 of generosity , i.e.,
the generous 'Alqamah
,
"Uwayf with tlie rhym es
.
b) It is also used to indicate dimension, content, or material:

' in the year 75' (379), 8 cup of water', ' king of a
month (for a month)', ' houses made of marble'.
N o t e 1. In addition, materials may be indicated by apposition (394 a),

the indefinite accusative (384), or m in (299 a).
Note 2. In fixed expressions, a.djectival qualification in the genitive is

also used on o ason: ' RabJ I', ' Itabi' II(names
of njonths),
the previous year
, '' he next year
,

the main mosque'.
391. a) The nominal demonstrative 283) )followed by substantives or

adjectives in the genitive is used to form qualifying expressions:
'the one with the two horn( 'proper name), ' the one with knowl-
edge, the knowing', a wealthj, man(398.1).
N o te 1. Only the dual and plural of dhu are combined with personal
suffixes:
your relatives/family'.
b) 'Terms referring to relationship are often used as substantives indi-

eating a connection or affinity, as are also ' companion', ' people',
and words of like meaning, e.g.:
the father of the guest, the host',
' s n of war, warrior', ' the son of fifty, the fifty-year-
old', ' a trustworthy person', ' a drinker', ' the
followers of tire Sunnah'.
N o t e 2. Such constructions are sometimes used for .lie names of things or
animals: , 1
daughters of time, blows of fate father of
the small fortress', i.e., 'fox'.
392. Proper names follow in the genitive (genitivus epexegeticus) the ap-
propriate terms that identify them: ' the montli (called by the
name of) Ramadan', ' the Sura! (called) the Opening of
tlie Dook', ' the city of Baghdad', ' the day one', i.e.,
'Sunday'.
N o t e 1. Personal names are not in the genitive but follow in apposition

(394 b) to tlie term referring to the person.
.
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N ote 2. In analogy to proper names, terms indicating specific things are

sometimes expressed in tire genitive after a term referring to something
generic: ' the plague of famine'; in the same way with grammatical
terms: "i^ 't.h e word kana
.
Apposition
393. All nominal forms tliat appear as predicates in nominal sentences

(361), and including prepositions (293 b), may clarify, emphasize, or qual-
ify in apposition. Apposition follows the substantive, which functions as a
regens, and agrees witl it in case: 'Kabul,
a famous city in the land of the Turks
, to a
straight patli, the patli of God'.
Note 1. When the regens is dependent on a preposition, that preposition

may be repeated in the apposition: ' We belong to
this clan, RabPah'. Personal suffixes may at times carry over into the term
in apposition: with his brother, the younger one
.
Note 2. A substantive in apposition may also appear after the personal

pronouns of tlie 3rd person and demonstratives (277). After the 1st and
2nd persons, tlie term in apposition is in tlie accusative (383 b).
Note 3. After tlie personal suffixes, the apposition may appear in the
accusative (383) or with the preposition m in (299 a): ' He
struck him, namely his face
,He struck him in the face
.
394. a) A substantive in apposition may be used, like the genitive (390 b),
to indicate material or content and to denote dimension, weiglit, or price:

th sea ng ring (of) iron
,
a jac et 0 in ) ade
of) w ool
, , 'a purse (containing) iOo dinars,'

an island (measured) five by five parsangs
,
system-
atic wGks (in) large quantity'.
Note 1. Prepositional pposition may occur instead: beard (of)

a cubitor . beard the length of a cubit
; cf. also 299 a.
b) Personal names follow what they qualify in apposition; however,

the qualified may also follow in apposition: ' your brother Zayd

-.kitiibosunnat.com
or
Zayd, your broth er
, ,
the linam M alik
'the prophet Moses'.
395. a) Permutative apposition makes it possible t.o put the second mem-
ber of a genitive construction first. The prominent- member is represented
in the appositional term by a personal suffix:
'Amr, his
handsomeness astonished me' = ' the handsomCness of 'Amr',
.
your people, most of them= 1 most of your p eop le.
N ote 1. This, apposition may in special cases occur with the preposition
b i the prince himself
, ' my slave-girl lierself
,
a certain man'.
b) Permutative a.pposition is the^refered construction in expressions

that indicate totality and identity: ' all women' (136),

both his sons(109), ( (
He liimself stood up.
396. Appositional repetition is fo emphasis _

if the Cord, the cOrd of union, is not torn , 1
'When the earth is totally demolished' (Koran 89:21).
N ote 1. Repetition also has a strengthening eect wth other kinds of

words:
Wake up, wake up!
,
a reliable,
truly reliable man'. See 402 on other uses of repetition.
397. Abstracts denoting attribuf.es also appear in apposition in an ad-

jectival function. Here, the apposition agrees not only in case,, but also
in definiteness, with its regens: ,
a closfrby p la ce

the mistaken opinion
, a subdivided rlistribution
, a
chara.cter trait acquired by h abit
,
the correct (just) sca les
.
N ote 1. Terms of comparison (388 b) usually come after an indefinite

reverts: -
a shape like a mountain
.
Attributives
398. Attribufiive adjectives agree with governing substantives in case and

definiteness, as well as in gender (number) according to the rules given in
113 f.:
an honest m an
,
the honest slave-girl
,
> -
^w.kitabosunnat.com

your wliite garments' (119.2). The attribute of tire reyens in a
genitive construction follows after tlie genitive; 145 b; 146 a.
N ote 1. Negative ghayru (325) agrees in case with tile governing substan-
tve,wth the adjective following in the genitive in gender and in definiteness:
the dishonest man'. The genitive of specification (388
a) has no effect on whether the adjective is definite or indefinite; see 146c.
Whether adjectival dhu is definite or indefinite is determined by tlie geni-
tive (391 ): h
a man of reason
,
the man of
reason
.
N ote 2. Attributes are asyndetically coordinated (400). Prepositional

phrases and attributive clausas (428 If.) may precede an attributive ad-
jective: 'a grievous trial from your Lord(Koran 2:49;
7:141; 14:6), a long report wilieh he gave
.
399. Attributive atljectives that appear with numerals are, irrespective of

the number of ,he object counted, very often construed ad sensurn in the
plural: ' me hundred shecam els pregnant, in the tent.il

month', ' forty observant men', ' sixty

large towers'; cf. 354.
Coordination of Parts of the Sentence
400. a) Appositiopal and attributive expressions are as a rule asyndetically

coordinated: ' an enemy misleading, manifest' (Koran 28:15),
' ..lie exalted and great God'. Dissimilar (jualifications are
identified as belongii'ig together by means of wa- 'and':
' tlie peojile of Iraq, the eminent, and the ordinary of them'.
N ote 1. Pai'ts tliat are asyndetically coordinated may appear next to eacli
otlier in an iidvers^tive relationship: ' a city, part mountain-
ous, part flat', .>
a homely, but in hair growth hand-
some, man'.
b) Several adjectival predicat.es may be asyndetically coordinat.ed; see

361; 380. Otlier nominal predicates are usually coordinated with con-
junct.ions, for tlie most part wit.il wa- (328 ff.):
He is
a greater poet and more lioi'iorable than you'.
All(A

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Coordination of Parts of the Sentence 207
401. More than one substantive referring to different things and identified
as parallel parts of the sentence are always coordinated by conjunctions,
usually wa- (328 ff.): ' This is a shame and disgrace for
us
, (
the passing of the days and the niglits
.
N o t e 1. wa- coordinates approximate numbers in a range:

Its length is 100 to 200 fathoms'.
402. T o illustrate distributive enumeration, two asyndetically coordinated

substantives may be cited, e.g.:
; And so
he gave his brothers each a camel and two sheep',
'He began to ask me about each individual valley'; cf. 383.2.
N o te 1. In distributive pairs, coordination with fa- has the sense of a

sequence: year by year, every year' (329); with wa-, a sum:
one evil after (add'ed to, on top of) another
,
hundreds
and hundreds more'.
403. If a complement belongs to all of the coordinated parts of a sen-

tence, the complement is usually mentioned only once. If the complement
goes with the first part, the coordinated parts follow without the com p le
ment: was a man of distinction and standing
among the p eop le
, all the good and bad that I have seen
,
^ (
Indeed, there are so ma y (masc. an fern.) among
us who take revenge on you': with verbs: .' We shall die
and live with you'.
N o t e 1. In the coordination of the construct state, the genitive must be

repeated as personal suffix; see 145 c.
Syntax: Clauses
Coordinate Clauses
404. a) Independent clauses or subordinate clauses of equal status are

coordinated by coordinating conjunctions (328 ff.), for the most part by
wa- or fa-.
The behavior of this boy
has, by God, filled me with suspicion, and I do not trust,him' (189.1).
A change in subject is often indicated by fa-: ' Umar
came to a Bedouin, and he (the Bedouin) said to him

kitabosunnat.com
208 Syntax: Clauses
b) The coordinate clause is not always parallel to the preceding clause

but can be adversative: .
And God knows it, but
you do not' (Koran 2:216, 232; 3:66, etc'.). Clauses that justify are often
coordinated wit.h fa- or /.-,m i (339), especially following exclamations
and the like:
Com e on, I will ride to
Joseph with you, for he is my friend' (412).
N o t e 1. Coordination of a pair of clauses is sometimes expressed by placing

parallel part.s directly before and after wa-: ' With
one thing you make the weft, and with others you make the warp
.
405. a) Asyndetic c.oordination of clauses occurs only in lively conversa-

tion, e.g., introducing direct discotirse and a reply: ... ... He said
...,I replied...'.
b) An asyndetically coordinated clause may follow another in appo-

sition as an explanatory postscript: : ill ' They killed
Abdallah, indeed, tliey really slauglrtered him'. The agent of the ac-;
tion may be appended after a passive verb in this way:
' Your cousin was taken prisoner, tliat is, by the BanU Faz&rah'.
N o te 1. An explanatory afterthought may also be introduced by wa- or
fa-:
They said. By God, we did not recognize
him, and they were speakiirg the truth
.
N o t e 2. Sometimes, verbs are coordinated asyndetically and form a se

mantic unit: Send, inform me!' also in the standard phrase
introducing a tradition: So-and-so reported to me,
he said
.
406. In coordinate clauses which have one or more componente in com-

mon, the shared one is usually mentioned only once:
' Are you related or are you merely fami.liar with the clan?' (333),
Of\j ' ; ; We are content wit.h what we have, and
you are with what you have , No subject and no king
will be left al.ive' (318 b).
-
Coordinate Clauses 209
Coordinate Circumstantial Clauses
407. A circumstantial clause relates a condition or action simulta

ous with an event. The verb assumes its aspect capacity in the circum-
stantial clause, while tense is determined by the preceding independent
clause: 1 Aminali died while she was return-
ing to M ecca
,
Sometimes I go out early in the
morning, while the birds are still in t.heir n ests
.
Note 1. The coordinate particle wa- also connects adversative conditions

(404 b): jl/
How can' we pledge our
women to you, when you are Yathrib's most renowned celebrator of women
in verse'.
N o t e 2. Although wa- coordinates the clauses, the circumstantial clause

is nevertheless a dependent clause. Its dependency is formally marked by
the subject-predicate word order in the verbal clause and firnctionally in-
dicated by the verb in its aspect capacity. Pre-classical Arabic still has
an independent circumstantial clause after Hnna, which is always followed
by a clause introduced by
idh or 1idha i (280):
We
were just about to set out on the journey, when you suddenly approached',
' I was in their liands, when a group of peo-
pie came suddenlj, upon them'. In classical usage, the conjunction that
introduces the subordinate clause is bayna-ma, bayna (444), rather than
,inna.
408. If tire action or condition mentioned in the circumstantial clause

represents an event independent of the main clause, tlie circumstantial
clause is coordinated with wa-
and
:
A caravan ap-
proached, just as we were praying'. Conversely, a predicate circumstantial
clarrse (413 ff.), which occupies the position of a circumstantial accusative
and is not coordinated by a conjunction, designates that the action or
condition is incorporated in the action of t.he main clause and specifies
it: h ' They approached while their horses galloped with
them'.

wvw.Wtabosunnat.com
210 Syntax: Clauses
Note 1. When the subjects are the same in the main and the circumstan-
tial clauses, predicate circumstantial clauses and coortlinate circumstantial
clauses are often equivalent. This is because it is not clear whether both
actions are mutually independent or mutuallj, inclusive, e.g.,

'Umar came, and as he did, he gave the poor
some of the alms tax at tlie same tim e
, for which .. .' Umar
came, while he gave ... is also possible. Still another interpretation (431 b,

came in order to give
) is ruled out with coordinate circumstantial clauses.
Note 2. On occasion, coordinate circumstantial clauses may also come after

kana
beand verbs with related meanings (cf. 382): ' We were,
and at the sanre time, we were not praying', i.e., 'At that time, we were not
praying'.
409. Coordinate circumstantial clauses may occur as follows:
a) with tlie imperfect indicating simultaneous action; the subject al-

ways comes immediately after via-:
He passed by
me, and my companions were looking at him at that sametime'. A prpnom-
inal subject appears as an independent personal pronoun:
I met Ahmad just as he was circumambulating the (holy)
h ouse, 0
Her brother passed by, but she did not
recognize him
,
b) witli the perfect and qad (189 a) indicating an action already corn-
pleted; tlie subject always follows the verb: ' Tlren he woke
up, 1,0 find that tliey had tied him up'. In the negat.ive, tliese clauses take
ma with the perfect (321) to indicate a negative condition, or lam with tlie
jussive (319) to indicate a condition tliat does not exist:
'Zayd came, but he was not mou ted', .' He died, witliout hav-
ing left behind descendants
, .
I escaped, before they
could strip me of my arms (i.e., what would have been their booty)'.
Note 1. The perfect without qad is very rare:

'Shall we believe you, though the vilest followed you?' (Koran 26:111).
c) witli noipinal clauses; there is nothing peculiar about the word order
(366): ' I said, when did you marry lier? He

.
Coordinate Clauses 211
replied, w h e n I w a s in Aden', ' He did not w a n t

t o e n te r t h e h o u s e w h il e t h e r e w e r e i d o l s in it'; cf. a l s o t h e e x a m p l e s in 407.
N o t e 2. C o o r d in a t e d c ir c u m sta n tia l s e n te n c e s m a y fo llo w

ilia , (310 d).
C oordinate Clauses with the Subjunctive
410. Clauses coordinated with the m a i n clause b y fa - 'and then' (329)
which indicate a possible result hav e the subjunctive, provided the hea d
clause is not a statement of fact, but a wish, question, condition, negation,
and the like; fa- has the m e a n i n g 'so.that' and, after negatives, 'lest' in these
constructions: \yj Will y o u not come, so that I m i g h t

give y o u dates to eat?, 1
'Do not judge the majesty of G o d according to your intellect, lest y o u then
be a m o n g the d oomed'; cf. 197.
N o t e 1. T h e s u b ju n c t iv e o c c u r s o c c a s io n a lly a fter via- a n d o th e r p a r tic le s
(196.2) u n d er s im ila r c o n d itio n s : . ' , th a t

w e w o u ld b e b r o u g h t b a ck (from Hell), tlien w e w o u ld n o t d is b e lie v e th e
sig n s o f o u r L o r d (K ora n 6:27).
411. After aw 'or' (331), th subjunctive presents a possible alternative

('unless, until'): ' I will really strike him, unless he stands
up, W e can d o nothing else ot.lier t han go a w a y .
Asyndetic Result Clauses with the Jussive
412. A clause expressing t.he result of a n imperative in the m a i n clause

has.the verb in the jussive a n d is asyndetically joined to the m a i n clause:
Fatten your dog, a n d he will devour y o u , | B e
compassionate, a n d s o m e o n e will s h o w compas s i o n for you' (conditional
implication: 'if y o u s h o w compas s i o n see 460). Tlie jussive, as a rule,
also follows w h e n the result clause suggests the intent, of the c o m m a n d
or request: Ord e r him, he should c o m e ! , Let m e g o
away!,
A l l o w m e to decapitate h i m ! .
N o t e 1. S im ilarly, fo llo w in g p a r t i c l e o f e x c la m a tio n :

W a tc h
out, le s t I h it you!' (272.2)

w
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212 S y n ta x : C la u se s
Subordinate Clauses as Parts o f the Main Clause
413. S o m e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s m a y a p p e a r in t h e s a m e s y n t a c t i c p o s i-
t i o n s in w h ic h n o m i n a l f o r m s f u n c t i o n a s p a r t s o f t h e c la u s e . S u b s t a n t iv e
c la u s e s in t r o d u c e d b y
an , 'a n n a , m a , c la t t s e s f t r n c t io n in g a s s u b s t a n t iv e s ,
o r r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s m a y f u n c t i o n s y n t a c t i c a l l y a s s u b s t a n t iv e s . A t t r ib u t iv e
a n d c i r c u m s t a n t i a l c l a u s e s m a y o c c u p j, t h e p o s i t i o n o f a d je c t i v e s . S t i l l o t h e r
s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s m a y a p p e a r w l ie r e c i r c u m s t a n t i a l a d v e r b ia l p h r a s e s a re
o t h e r w i s e fo u n d .
S u b s t a n t iv e C la u s e s
414. ' tliat' introduces a verbal clause w h o s e predicate is either in the
subjunctive (196 f.), if t.he action is expected, or in the perfect, if the
action lias taken place: ' ft is proper that you

b e w a r e of abominations', ' G o d has foreordained
that the Christian (jiower) b e broken'. Usually, ,a n n a ( 15 ( ccurs instead
of ,a n with the imperfect (196.1): = ' ' I k n o w tliat
h e is sleeping'. T h e future particle sa- witli the imperfect m a y also occur:
' lie claimed that he w o u l d visit you'.
Note 1. .an. is used to in trod u ce d irgct discourse, if it is not in dicated by

say (419 a): I attest, there is n o g o d but the (one)
God', T h e y sent t h e m word, give US back our
camels!, . O n e of the people called, they have
c o m e to you'.
N o t e 2. In pre-classical Arabic, )an occurs w h e r e in classical Arabic only
. a n n a may, especially before a nominal clause w hich does not begin with the
subject: Y o u k n o w that w e are witliout guilt: but also

' A n d k n o w that every fortunate life is transi-

tory.
415. ' that' introduces a no m i n a l or a copulative clause. T h e subject
follows in the accusative (338): ' It is

told tliat o n e of the kings of India h a d a w i e'i lie
thinks that after adversity c o m e s ease', ji- ' That is
a result of your having found out our secrets'.

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Substantive Clauses 213
N ote 1. After anna-ma (416.2), the structure of the clause is free:

It was clear to me that he was a liorseman'.
N ote 2. In post-classical Arabic,

anna may introduce an indirect question:

He does not know how he reached us(see 338
on the Use of with the pronoun of tile fact).
416. Subordinating ' the fact that' (289) introduces a verbal clause:
'! will certainly not a c knowledge that y o u delayed the
matter', 'It. m a k e s a person (358) h a p p y that the
nights pass by', ' I w a s a m a z e d that y o u hit him'.
N ote 1. The Arab grammarians called this ma ma al-mas-

dariyyah, because this ma and following verb are always replaceable by a
verbal substantive (masdar): .
N ote 2. Wherever particles introducing a clause are of the type that occur
in constructions with a substantive, ma may replace that substantive and
permit any kind of following clause; see 337.3: 344.1; cf. also 261 f. On

that
, see 426.1.
N o t e 3.
beingis used in post-classical Arabic to embed clauses in
complex sentences. Tlie subject of tlie subordinate clause appears as a gen-
itive of ^ and the predicate follows in the accusative (382) or as a pred-
icate circumstantial clause (431): " The fact that
he is a coward prevented him from making the journey ,
The people came to congratulate him, because the vizier
had spoken to him
.
417. Altliough substantive clauses (clauses beginning with 'tliat') function

mostly as subjects or objects, they may also serve as predicates 0 in apposi-
tion: ' My assumption is t,hat you will return',
This, namely that you go away, is not a goorl idea'. They raay
also ,appear in the position of adverbial accusatives (378):

He hired people to work for him ',
' The Messenger of God orderedIlim killed, because (of the fact
that) he became a Muslim and then returned to polytheism'.

214 Syntax: C l a u s e
N o t e 1. In pre-classical Arabic, after verbs expressing a negative intent,
the adverbial that-claise has a negative sense without being explicitly
negative: H e abandoned his loved ones lest he
have to figlit for t h e m .
N o t e 2. Clauses with a n n a in the object position or which are dependent
on a preposition governed by a verb tend to be abbreviated. Accordingly,
the subject of the a n n a clause is added directly to the main clause, and
t e predicate follows as if it were ajiredjcate circumstantial clause (434):
= ... I see that the swor s will one day

= { . . . I a m crying
be d r a w n .
because the news from heaven has been cut off.
N o t e 3. Clause with >an, .anna, ma m a y function as genitives after verbal

substantives : ' on the condition that',,' while'! clauses with
a n m a y function as genitive or accusative: or 0 out of fear
that'.
418. a) "an, anna,, a n d ma m a y occur in constructions with all p r e p o

stns, e.g.:^ ' T h e n they did this until they died',
. ' T h e r e w a s n o doubt, t.hat he w a s blind see 437.
N o t e 1. Sometimes, the preposition is lacking before a n and a n n a as
long as there is no ambiguiy: ' S h was too m ute t
haye been able to speak' (for 301 ( 1

' If you regarded her (with the intent of marriage), that would be most
appropriate t at a good relationship develop between you two (for (

' God is not ashamed to strike a similitude
(Koran 2:20; for ) .

b) Cert.ain prepositional constructions witli a n n a a n d m a m a y assume
a n in gp e n d e n t role a n d .0 as conjunctions (344), e.g.: ,

as, if: I regard the affair as y o u d o ,
H e fled as if lie w ere a n ostrich, $ A b o y wliose
ton g u e is as it were a bull's tongue'; cf. also 365 b.

Substantive Clauses 215
N o t e 2. In pre-classical Arabic, ka-rria also has tlie meaning so that
and occurs with the subjunctive: Listen to an
account so that you can report it s o m e day!'; cf. 438.1.
Clauses Functioning as Substantives
419. a) W h e n elements of a sentence in the f o r m of direct or indirect
speech need to b e inserted, they appear without a n introductory particle in
the position of a substantive: Manliness consists
ofthi: if y o u are given something, y o u are thankful',

' It is better for y o u to hear abo u t the M u ' a y d i t h a n to see
t h e m , Y o u k n o w , w e did not c o m e to ruin
the land, ...) It s e e m e d g o o d to t h e m .. .they should im-
prison him' ( K o r a n 12:35). Similarly, direct speech always follows ' say':
' He said to US, the people are sleeping'.
N o t e 1. a n n a m a y c o m e after only w h e n it has the sense of suppose:
W h e n would you say he would go ay-ay, or w h e n the
direct speech is not the object of : >ilT 'The first
thing I shall say is that I praise G o d ; cf. 414.1.
b) Likewise, indirect interrogative clauses are a d d e d without conjunc-
tions: T h e n she looked there to determine whe t h e r

she s a w a n y o n e It is clear to US w h e r e the matter
is hea d e d , H e asked Ilim a b o u t the sacrifice,
whether or not it w a s obligatory' (333).
N o t e 2. Notice the different possible treatments of ,a y y u n (286) as subject
of tlie interrogative clause, depending on whether it is classified as part of the
maip clause or remains in the nominative as part of the interrogative clause:
'} or Ttiey did not agree on
which of t h e m was the better poet'.
420. Substantives referring to time are followed b y substantivized clauses
without subordinating particles in the position of a gen

'That w a s the right time that y o u s a w the road', ' after
the year in w h i c h I m e t t h e m . T h e unrestricted use of such constructions

216 Syntax: C l a u s e
in all syntactic positions is possible in early stages of the language. Later,
usage w a s restricted to the adverbial accusative: M y

a r r o w missed h i m w h e n I shot it'; see 346-
Relative Clauses as Substantives
421. Relative clauses functioning as substantives are introduced b y

'who' ('one who', people who'), ' what' ('something that), or 'the one
w h o , o n e which' (289; 281). T h e relative p r o n o u n appears in the sentence
w h e r e a substant.ive w o u l d b e a n d m a y function as subject or predicate, as
object, a n d m a y occ u p y the position of a genitive: 1( A w s
is o n e w l i o m y o u k n o w , 1 T h e y say with
their m o u t h s w h a t is not in their Hearts' ( K o r a n 3 1 6 7 (, ' Do
w h a t s e e m s g o o d to you!'; also in tile vocative: ' y o u wlio
believe.
N o t e 1. 281.2) ) m a y also be a relative pronoun: 6 ' the
one w h o falls b ehind.
N o t e 2. In pre-classical Arabic, man and ma m a y stand in apposition:
A n d tire Muslims, t.he ones v h o follow
tire hlessenger of G o d , are many'. In constructions with m in , relative
ronouns areused for appositional clarification (299 a):

'Tlrirty m e n , driven out b y poverty,
'> Aged wine, w h a t the merchants bring.
422. Tile relative p r o n o u n is always the subject of a compouird clause
(368), which, as a relative clause, has a copulative personal pronoun
like tile predicate of a c o m p o u n d sentence: ;

G o d knows w h o has strayed into unmistakable err , it
H e agreed as t.o w h a t the people asked',
'I did not. find a n y slrip before the o n e in wlrich I came'. Tire cop-
ulative pronouit m a y also appear in a subordina.te clause governed b y the
relative clause: 'Therefore that whi c h he says
w o u l d b e Paradise is (in reality) Ilellfire(. T h e copulative p r o n o u n m a y be
lacking according to the conditions me n t i o n e d in 370:

' He is the o n e w h o is G o d in heaven a n d G o d o n e a r t h '
R e la tiv e C la u s e s 217
(K ora n 43:84), 4 S h a ll I b o w m y s e l f t o ..he o n e Y o u h a v e
c r e a te d o f c la y ? ' ( K o r a n 17:61).
N o t e 1. If t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e is d e p e n d e n t o n a p r e p o s i t i o n w h i c h m u s t b e
r e p e a t e d in t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e in c o m b i n a t i o n w it h t.tie c o p u l a t i v e p r o n o u n ,
th e p r e p o s i t i o n s t o g e ^ e r w h t h e p e r s o n a l s u f f ix m a y b e o m i t t e d in t h e
relative clause: Seek revenge o n those people for
w h a t h a p p e n e d to y o u (where is omitted).
N o t e 2. If the copulative p r o n o u n refers to a 1st or 2 nd person in the m a i n
clause, this person also appears frequently in the relative clause:

' W e are the ones w ho , if driven back, m o v e d forward'; cf.
also 429.2.
423. 'w h o' is u s e d t o r e f e r t o p e r s o n s a n d i s u s u a l l y t r e a t e d as a
m a s c u lin e s in g u la r , e v e n w h e n it r e f e r s t o a f e m a l e o r t o s e v e r a l p e o p l e :

S h e w a s o n e o f th e s la v e g ir ls w h o m he
s u s p e c t e d ' ( 25 c), ' A m o n g t h e m w a s o n e w h o b e l i e v e d in
,
h im W h o e v e r f o l l o w s in y g u i d a n c e h a s n o th -
i n g t o fear'. N e v e r t h e le s s , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a y h a v e ad sensum a g r e e m e n t :
1 w a s a m o n g t h o s e b e f o r e w h o m t h e s c r e e n
' ) A m o n g t h e m t lie r e a r e s o m e w h o lis t e n
w a s erected ',
t o y o u ' ( K o r a n 10:42).
4.24. w h a t is u s e d f o r t i l i n g s a n d is m a s c u l i n e s in g u la r :

T h i s is w h a t y o u h a v e a m a s s e d f o r y o u r s e lv e s ' . S o m e t i m e s i t is
u sed t o refer t o g r o u p s o f p e o p le : ' T h a t w h ic h (i.e.j t h o s e
w h o m ) t h e p r i n c e h a d k il l e d in c a p t iv i t y ' (cf. 425 c).
N o t e 1. See 416 on subordinating m a the fact that'.
N o t e 2. In preclassical Arabic, m a is used for empliasis. Tile e mphasized
w o r d c o m e s at the beginning of the sentence a n d is followed by a clause
introduced by m a : It is a h o r s e m a n that they have left
behind', It is for g o o d luck that m a n w a s created. In
m a n y cases, however, m a is syntactically unimportant a n d is placed before
the emphasized w o r d as an expletive: S o go a w a y ! (303.4),
if I b.ecame, so to speak, a v e r y old man'.

w w v . k i t a b o s u nnat . c o m
218 Syntax: Clauses
425. a) Relative clauses with and are as a rule indefinite. As sue ,

they may occur in the position of a generic genitive (387 a): "
'all that changes', ' the most evil one that God has created',
J f m u c h of what they gave', 'rhey also appear as qualifying geni-
tives: You do not think wliat we think ,
the
matter of which you are wary' (392.2).
b) Relative m a n and m a are used in paronomastic constructions to

express uncertainty: I 'I gathered wliat 1 gathered, i.e., a
certain quantity',' They are what they are', i.e, 'they represent
something, Som eofthem came dow n ,
:
Then he dwelled for as long as God w illed .
c) Frequently, partitive m in (299 b) is added to relative m a n and ma:

' Then h gave me what, he had of bread', i.e.,
the bread that lie 1', ' Those Arabs who entered
Syria'. In this case, ma often refers to groups of people:
' So marry such women as seem good to you' (Koran 4:3).
N o t e 1. O n relative clauses with conditional implication, see 461.
426. introduces definite relative clauses. According to the subject

referred to, the j-elative pronoun may be singular, dual, or plural and mas-
culine or emi ine (281):
What you said readied our
ears', " I think tliat it is she whom he mentioned',

We are the ones who cried for him
.
N o t e 1. O n occasion, occurs in the role of introductory m a (416),
especially in constructions with fca- (297): \ y i T h e n

they prayed as they used to d o , as well as in the post-classical plirase:
Tliank G o d that ...
427 Other interrogative (289) are also used as relatives:

' ^ He knew tile trick and how the king employed it',

By God, we do not care where he went'; cf. also
419b.

ww . k J t a b o s u n n a t . c o m
Relative Clauses 219
Attributive Relative Clauses
428. An attributive relative clause occupies the posit-ion of an attributive

adjective (398). In attributive relative clauses, the governing substantive
(regens) replaces the relative pronoun:
a man who struck
me' (cf. ' one who struck me"). Like he attributive, the clause
agrees with the regens in (in)definieness. 281) )is used to make
the clause definite. For its part, agrees wit.h respect to gender (num-
ber) and case with the regens: the man who struck
m e , ' people w h o believe, de n te the peo-
pie w h o believe, T l i e r e u p o n his t w o
sons, who had murdered him, fled into the mountains'.
N ote 1. W h e n there is generic definiteness, the attributive clause is not
always explicitly defined: Y o u are the vizier w h o is not

disobeyed, ' ) They are the h o r s e m e n w h o protect
the w o m e n
429. In an attributive relative clause, the copulative personal pronoun

refers to the regens. In an indefinite relative clause, the pronoun appears
as a rule; in a definite relative clause, it may, under tlie circumstances
mentioned in 370, be dropped: ^
'When he was in Kufah, he built a mosque, which stands there even today',
' I saw a blind man whom a youth was leading',
' The man whom you seek is at. the door'.
N o te 1. T h e copulative p r o n o u n m a y also appear in a c.lause subordinate
t.o a relative clause: T h e a r m y that
he thought w a s distant d r e w near h i m .
N ote 2. T h e 1st a n d 2 n d persons appearing in the m a i n clause m a y reap-
pear in indefinite relative clauses a n d som e t i m e s in definite relative clauses
' Y o u are people w h o are ignorant,

(4. 2 :
Y o u are A d a m , w h o misled mankind'.

430. a) In an attributive relative clause with an adjectival predicate,
the adjective immediately follows the r e g e n s and agrees with it in case
and definiteness; liowever, it agrees in gender (number) with the appropri-

220 Syntax: Clauses
ate subject c o m i n g afterward. That, subject takes a copulative pronoun:

I saw a woman whose fae was pretty
' ^people whose harmfulness is severe', ' tlie to-be-
m e n t i o n e d chronicles'.
N o t e 1. At t i m e t h e c o p u a t i v ir o n o u n a p p e a r s w it h a n o t h e r p a r t o f th e
c la u s e : T h a t is t h e s t o n e w h i c h G o d th r o w s
a t t h e o n e w h o m Ire w i s h e s t o t h r o w it a t
.
b) This kind of relative clause may also function as a substantive:

one whose eyes are reddened , ...
' )The alms are oirly for the poor ... and those whose liearts slrould be
made to tend (to Islam)' (Koran 9:60).
j
Predicate Circumstantial Clauses
431. a) Circumstantial clauses, which modify and complement the gov-

erning verb (cf. 202 c; 408), occupy tire position of the circumstantial ac-
cusative (380 ff.): ' He sent to MuUwiyah to
ask for peace', ' He entered tlie room without greet-
ing me'.
b) With tlie imperfect, the circumstantial clause indicates action or

intent tliat is conc.eived to be simultaneous with or following the action
expressed by the governing verb: : y 'Then slie removed
her garments in ortler to bathe', ' I went out with my
fatlier witli tlie intention of hunting'. - Tlie perfect, s o m e t i m e s with qad,
indicates a condition t.liat already obtains: ( ' ) Tliey

came to you witli tlieir breasts constricted' (Koran 4:90). See 435 oil
nominal clauses.
c) ff tlie subject of the circumstantial clause is different from tliat of

the main clause, a copulative personal pronoun refers to tlie subject of
tlie main clause: ( h ' Tliey approaclied while their horses
galloped with them'.
432. Very often circumstantial clauses are governed liy verlis wliose literal
meanings have failed and which have come to indicate merely A ktion sarten ,
or modes of action (190).

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Circumstantial Clauses 221
a)
begin
:
I began to warn tliem
, He began
to blame him '1 ' Suddenly tlie people returned'.
b)
becom e
: The it came tp the point that
the people laughed at him
,
I shall end up
such that the bond between him arid me will have been Severed
.
c) 'persist':
He persisted in following her
,
'
Uthman remained for three days without being buried
.
d)
repeat
: '
They no longer recognized him
; cf. also
446.2.
N ote 1. T h is k in d o f c o n s t r u c t io n is e x te n d e d t o s o m e o th e r sem a n ti-
ca lly r e la te d verb s, w h ich o c c u r in c o m b in a t io n w ith

a n c la u e s (414), s o
th at b o t c o n s t r u c t io n s m a y b e u se d in te r c h a n g e a b ly : 0

S i r . T h e o s tr ic h ca n a lm o s t , o r
fly

T h e y w a n t e d t o k ill h im '.
433. A predicate circumstantial clause following tlie verb may refer to the
object, just as a circumstantial accusative in the same position refers to the
object (381): Iconsider myself to have spoken the truth,
' We will o tle t you go out', ' He found the
door already opened', ' I witnessed the Messenger of
God reading', i shall send our sister so t.hat she
will be with you'.
N ote 1. T h e s u b je c t o f th e c ir c u m sta n tia l c la u s e m a y a lso in .this c a s e b e

different fr o m tlie o b j e c t o f th e m a in cla u se: ' Y ou
s e e t h a t t h e c o l o r o f m y h e a d h a s c h a n g e d t o gra y '.
N ote 2. T h e v e r b o f th e c ir c u m sta n tia l c la u s e m a y 1'efer t o tw o n o u n s and,

as such, is in th e du al: H e le ft U rw a h w ith A fra
c h a t t in g w it h e a c h o th e r'.
434. After verbs of sense perception or intellectual activity, substantive

clauses which describe an event take tlie form pf a circumstantial clause, and
introductory anna is dropped (417.2): ' I heard
that your client said something bad to you,
.
222 Syntax: Clauses
I saw in the dream that Amr covered me n his robe

,
'We know that, the etiemy of God died', ' It was reported to me
that she s a id . . .
.
Note 1. After ma li- (285.1) and ma balu- 'why an asyndetic clause

follows instead of the c rumsnt al cusatve: 1
Why did I
not hear of you?',
Why is watCr pouring down
from your eye?
.
435. a) Predicate nominal clauses describe the condition of the subject or

object: 1' used t.o walk with him, while his hand
was in mine
referring tO the object: I met him when
he was wearing an ornate jacket'.
Note 1. Nominal clauses may appear in apposition to a circumstantial ac-

cusative:
The kingdom
will become diverse, partly strong and partly weak'.
b) If it comes it the beginning of the clause, tile subject of the predicate

nominal clause may appear in the circumstantial accusative:
' I used to walk with him liand in hand'. Similarly, an
adjectival predicate tends to come at the beginning and tlren is inserted as
a circumstantial accusative in the main clause (380):
' I saw Amr, his hands tied witlr a rope t,o his neck' (356 b),
.
He looked at Irim out of the corner
of his eye with liis face turned away , Your
request will be fulfilled, what.ever it be'.
A ppositional Circum stantial Clauses
436. In apposition, a circumstantial clause indicates a temporary condition

of the regens:' Whose are the dwellings that I liave come
to?' (Beginning of an old Arabic qasidah), ; jM ^ lik e the
ass that is carrying Irooks' (Koran 62:5).
Adverbial Clauses
437. Numerous suborrlinate clauses occupy the position of circumstantial

adverbial expressions. Among them are substantive clauses that are depen-

www.kiabosunnat.com
Adverbial Clauses 223
dent on prepositions or adverbial accusatives; e.g.:

'We did not see him any more, because he had died before',

I cam to her early, before morning appeared to US',
W were tormented before you came and af-
ter you cam e ,

Our Lord, do not cause our
hearts to ,stray after you have guided us right!' (Koran 3:8) (344.2),

They bound him tight as soon as he woke up
cf.
418.
N ote 1 . See 346; 420 on the adverbial accusative with genitive clauses.
On inundhu. mudh
since300, ladun (
an)
since306, qabla
before
346.1.
438. Clauses expressing intent or purpose are introduced by li-, li-'an

(295) or kay, li-kay 'so that, in order to' and the subjunctive (196):
'
I did not seize you with the intent of killing you
,
MJ : H wanted to frighten me, so that I would not return ,
Mi / My heart longs for you, in order to meet with
you'.
N ote 1. In preclassical Arabic, the imperfect sometimes comes after kay-

ma (345.1) and ka-md (418.2) 'so that, in order to
:
so that
she says
.
N ote 2. It may happen that a clause expressing intent is coordinated

wit a circumstantial accusative (380.1):
' The Messenger of God went out only to threaten the enemy and tO
let them know...'.
N ote 3. ^ or means not inclined to, not apt o, n n a

position to do something, not capable of doing something :
I
was incapable of touching her
.
439. a) 304) ) until, as long as: They

,
traveled until the sun came up He remained
alive until he reached the caliphate of Abu Bakr', i.e., 11 lived to see the
caliphate of Abu Bakr ; to the extent that, so much that :
That saddened him so much that he refused to eat break-

Syntax: Clauses
fast',

What did she do to deserv to be killed?'
sometimes the consecutive : !
so that I
saw tliat Heaven was parted for me so that I could enter it'. Frequently,
hatta leads up to a concluding action, 'until eventually, thereujjon, linally':
' He did nothing, until finally he closed the
door in his face ,
He came out and thereupon sat at t.he
fire'.
N o t e 1. After negative clauses, h atta has the sense of

before, not even
. . .when': '
I liad not come to you before yo.u.r let-
ters reached me'. It is also used to introduce a sudden occurrence:
' had not yet reached the door wlien I tieard . . .
b) Statement's of fact follow h atta in the perfect, infrequently in the
imperfect or as nominal clauses:
They are vis-
ited so often that their dogs do not snarl'. Expected or iittended actions
are described in the subjunctive (196):
iilT 1' Be pa-
tient until God will judge between US' (Koran 7:87),

We must' meditate before we speak, in order that
our words may be appropriate'.
N o t e 2. A clause introduced by ,in n a (339) and by kaa n n a (365) may

follow hatta.
440. a) : h atta frequently precedes a .clause introduced b y

idh a
(464)
' There is no repentence for tliose who do evil deeds until, when one
of tliem is visited by death, le says, indeed I repent' (Koran 4:18). ,idha
after h a tta usually lias a temporal function without t'he conditional implica-
tion common in
?:.- cla u ses (445); as a rule, the perfect comes after hatta
,id h a : (' Salma re-
mained angry at Sa'd; finally, however, when morning came, slie went to
Ilim and reconciled', ' He went to
his dwelling and, when the next morning arrived, came back out'.
N o t e 1. ,idhCl-ma (465) may also follow hatta.
>
- . k i t a b sunnat.com
Adverbial Clauses 225
b) Often the continuation of the h a tta clause is lacking after the >id h a -
clause. As a result, h a tta ,id h a as a fixed construction has the meaning
until finally
:
Then they went
out.until at last they were' before al-Rajh, and then they betrayed him',
5< They went away until th : third day arrived
,
...
God has been t.rue in his promise
towards you, ,. .until you finally lost heart' (Koran 3:152).
441. wherebegins adverbial subordinate clauses:

' He sliot tlie arrow where lie liad lieard the sound'; - to substan-
tiate or restrict, 'such that, as, inasmuch as':
'God was angry at them inasmuch as they would not be admonished'.
Prepositions like bi-, m in, ,ild, among others, come before h ayth u for
clarity:
I firovoked wliere it was listened to ,
*h the body insofar as it is a bod y , i.e.,
the body
as body, the body qu a body'.
Note 1. As with relative clauses (421 ff.), a copulative personal pronoun

may on rare occasion come after haythu, or h ayth u may appear with parti-
tive m in (425 c): ' I wanted to go back
to where I had come from
, Graze in our land
wherever you wish(with conditional implication: 461.1).
N o t e 2. In post-classical Arabic, the subordinate clause is at times re

duced to just a subject: ' I went into where tire grave was',

from tliere where the form is
, i.e.,
as to, with respect to,
concerning the form'.
442. a)' when, as' (280), as a conjunction, indicates a particular time,

usually in the past:

You treated tliem wrongly when
you imprisoned them', ' As (while) they protected
themselves with me from the spear-tijs, I did not recoil like a coward';
sometimes also in the future or present: Do they
hear you when you call?
, ; 1 If only I could
be alive when your people drive you out'.

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226 Syntax: Clauses
b) Not Infrequently, especially in post-classical Arafeic, ' expresses

a reason and means
since, because
: '
'You, since y o u did not treat your father kindly, will not treat, m e kindly'.
Note 1. In the Koran (2:126; 14:35), sometimes begins a main clause

and indicates a time in the past,
once, at one time':

And once Abraham said: My Lord, make this place
safe!
.
443. or ' when, after' followed by the perfect introduces an action

tha.t is a precondition of what takes place in the main clause:
When she shot at me, she hit me with her arrow ,
After he had drawn near me, he aised his hand and lappe
m e sometimes giving a reason: c lilf < '
'Since (because) his searcliing had no aim, he did not reach with it
the final objective'.
Note 1. The main clause sometimes begins wit.h >I d (280) or (329):

When they emerged, tliey were miss-
ing seventy men
.
444. ' while' begins a circumstantial clause (407.2409 ). The

subject comes inimediately after bayna-m d, bayna, the subsequent main
clause is ften introduced by
i , and occasionally by fa- or fa-n dha (280):
While I sat tliere one day, she approached
Uie', ' While we w e e walking along, a man
suddenly appeare ( , ' While they
resolved to go to war( they suddenly called upon one another for peace'.
Note 1. The .subordinate clause is sometimes reduced to just a subject:

While it was afternoon prayer, I
caught siglit of the poor man',

meanwhile
.
N o t e 2. In pre-classical Arabic, the suffix of the 3rd masculines occasion-

ally added: ' while he...',
while they .. .
N o t e 3. In post-classical Arabic, the perfect (without qad) occurs.

-.kitabosunnat.c.m
Conditional Sentences 227
Conditional Sentences
445. a) There are two types of conditional sentences in Arabic: 1. real

(or valid) conditional sentences, in which the protasis presents a statement
of fact that is believed to be generally valid and realizable at any time as
the precondition or premise (introductory particle >w 450 ff.); 2. unreal
(or unfulfilled, hypothetical) conditional sentences, in which the protasis
presents a specific hypothetical situation or action as tlie presupposition
(introductory particle la w 453 ff.). To be included among the former
type are also sentences with conditional implication (460 ff.), in which
again a statement of fact that is universally accepted as such is given as
the premise.
b) A s a rule, the protasis precedes the apodosis ( m a i n clause). Varia-
tions from this order are, horyever, not unusual: ' May I not
be saved, if he is saved!', ' I would have answered, if you
had only asked me'.
N ote 1. W h e n dependent on introductory particles like

in n a (338), tlie
subject of the protasis m a y appear before the conjunction at the beginning
of the sentence: W h e n -
ever I call t h e m that Y o u might forgive them, they put, their fingers into
their ears' (Koran 71:7). The subject of the apodosis may also come be-
fore the conjunction: 6-
4 ' Should m y possessions
disappear, I would sit d o w n as a story teller'.
446. a) In conditional sentences and sentences with conditional implica-

tion, the statement of fact in the premise (i.e., in the protasis), as it is
generally valid and not restricted in time, is described in the jussive or
perfect. In the apodosis, the verb is also in the jussive or perfect, insofar
as it contains a generally valid result:
Whenever you are
hasty, you will regret it', ' He who roams will reach something'.
For negative sentences., la m with the jussive is used: .' If
he does not vanish, I shall not be content'.
b) In sentences with conditional implication, A:ana, inflicating the past,

usually appears at the beginning of the sentence before the conjunction
and indicates that the entire sentence is in the past. As a rule, k dn a agrees
>
228 Syntax: Clauses
with the subject of tile protasis: Whenever you

considered your adversary stupid, he was'; see also 464 b. Sometimes kana
indicating the past appears before ,in.
N o t e 1. Verbs tliat indicate m o d e of action (432) are also used on occasion
to indicate tile past: in the apo d ssthe general perfect appears nsad 0
the predicate imperfect:

Then he began, whenever he passed by a tribe of the Arabs on the
road to Syria, to enter into a relationship with tile distinguished among
them
.
447. The apodosis, which follows the protasis, is introduced by particles

under the following specific circumstances:
a) fa- (329) begins the apodosis after 'in and after clauses with con-
ditional implication, if tlie apodosis does not contain a generally valid
st.atement in the jussive, perfect, or imperfect; i.e., f a - comes: 1. b e
fore nominal and copulative clauses (360 ff.):
If you scoff at US, we shall surely scoff at you, as you
scoff' (Koran 11:38), ' Wlien we com( asking,
lie is not among the stingy , If you do tliat,
you are an admirable young man indeed' (259 f.); 2. before clauses con-
taining commands and prohibitions:
If you see me
making a sign, do not enter!', ' In'whatever land
you wish, settle3 ;'. before the future particles sawfa, so-, la n (187):
' If you return, you ivill not encounter me': 4. before
t"l e verbal particle qa d (189) and ' it could be, perhaps' (342.2):
If they become Muslims, they are rightly guided ; 5.
before an abbrevia-ted apodosis (448) and in most cases before an afiodosis
that does not contain a direct logical conclusion (449).
b) la- (334) generally begins the apodosis of an unreal conditional

sentence: ' Ifl ad not known liim, I would have asked
about, him', ' Had I been with you, I would have
experienced your evilness'. In real conditional clauses, la- tends to be used
>
-.kitabosun.at.com
in both the protasis and the apodosis, and fa- is not used to introduce
the apodosis: 1
If you are
t.ruthful, you have killed me; but if you are a liar, you have exposed me'.
N o t e 1. S o m e t i m e s 1idhan then (284 b) introduces the apodosis:

1 kings lived forever, so w o u l d we'. It is typically alo fo nd
in the apodosis of a sentence with an u nspo k e n protasis:

I d o not follow your caprices; (if I did,) I w o u l d fall into error.
448. The apodosis may be abbreviated, if the missing component of the

clause can be inferred from the protasis (cf. 406). It. is then introduced by
fa-: If there is to be found good in any
of you, then (it is to be fou^d) in this one , He who
does a good deed, (does it) for himself' (Koran 41:46; 45:15).
449. The apodosis of real conditional sentences a.nd sentences with condi-
tional implication does not always contain an immediat-e logical conclusion,
but a reply, assessment, or confirmation of the assumpt.ion ma.de in the pro-
tasis: "If this is so, well, such and such is the case", e.g.,
If he is a thie, well, a brother of his was already a thief be-
fore(Koran 12:77),
Ifyon declare that we did
wrong, well, we had never donC wrong', 1
'If ever you (fem.) see that our blood does not cease (flowing), well, we are
just flesh for the sword.'
450. a) ' if, in case' introduces real conditional sent.ences. Tlie apodosis
for the most part is a generally valid and always realizable statement of
fact. The verb is in the jussive or perfec: If you
are patient, your Lord will help you', ' If my
wealth one day serves me, it benefits me today'.
Note 1. In poetry, the imperfect or energetic occurs in isolated cases:
Banish your cares, if y o u feel anguish because of
them'.
b) If the protasis puts into question a specific fact., kana (or yakun) is
used with the perfect or imperfect. The perfect tlien indicates a fact that
could have already been realized, while the imperfect indicates an expected

230 Syntax: Clauses
action: ( If his shirt has been torn from the

f nt, then she h^s spoken the truth(Koran 12:26), '

If he hears part of it, then perhaps he hears all of it
.
c) Any clause st.ructure is possible (see 447 a) in the apodosis, provided

it is not a generally valid conclusion. In preclassical Arabic, the imperfect
may appear along with the jussive and perfect (446 a) even in a generally
valid sense: 3 ['
And he is her heir, if slie has no
children(Koran 4:176).
N o t e 2. In a negative apodosis, la m appears with the jussive. In pre-
classical Arabic, la m a y occur with the jussive:

If you call t h e m to the guidance, they do not heed you' (Koran
7:193).
N o t e 3. See 456 If. on in in disjunctive, concessive, and oath clausra.
461. if, if ...ever' (< > n-ma 290) functions like 7:

' If you ever count the good deeds, I shall also speak
about them . Relatively frequently, the energetic follows:
' If you (fern.) ever see any mortal, then say (Koran 19:26)
N o t e 1. O n disjunctive im m a , see 459 on >imm.d-la, see 314.
452. a)
if not, unless(45) is used only in preclassical Arabic to intro-
duce negative conditional clauses. The jussive always follows:
j j f Unless you do tliis, t.here will be upheaval in the
land and a grea.t corruption' (Koran 8:73).
b) and if not, otherwiseoccurs as a negative alternative to a

posit.ive .in-clause whose apodosis (
then it is good, all well and g o o d ' ) is
usually left unexpressed. In tile apodosis, tlie prfect expressing a generally
valid conclusion follows w a-illa: ' If
you keep your promises (that is good), and if not, I sliall knock off your
head'. w th a similar meaning, w a-U la comes after a command:
5 ' Obey me, otherwise I will abandon you!'.
N o t e 1. See 310 for ilia as a particle of exception. See also 456.

-. k i t i l b o s u n n a t . c . m
Conditi.nal Sentences 231
453. a) '' introduces an unreal or potential conditional senten

which contains a hypothetical presumption of a specific unrealized event.
The apodosis is a.s a rule introduced by la-. Earlier stages of Arabic
used the perfect and imperfect with their aspect function after law (180
ff.): ' 1 we knew how to fight, we would follow you ,
' If they had caught me, they would have
giên up the pursuit of someone else ,
' If you call upon them, they will not hear your call; and i
they had heard, they would not have answered you' (Koran 35:14).
b) Frequently in classical Arabic and regularly in post-classical, the

perfect is used in a generally valid sense (446 a):
}'
If he had (were to have) loved passionately, he would not
waver (have wavered)'. T. express the past explicitly, k a n a may be used
with the perfect: f
If you had called US, we would
have heeded you'.
Note 1. T o express an absurdly unreal condition, law is sometimes
strengthened through the addition of )in:

' ever it were to happen that the uncle of Moses c a m e to you
as a convert to Islam, w h a t would you do to him?'.
N o t e 2. See 457 f. on law in wish and concessive sentences.
454. occurs in place of ,law when a nominal or copulative clause fol-

lows (36 ff.): 5
If I would come
to soand-so, the wine-merchant", maybe I could find some wine with him'.
N o t e 1. In poetry, law ,a n n a occurs as law-anna.

455. if noin classical Arabic is always followed by a noun in the
nominative:
If it were not for the love of your people,
I would not have come'. A substantive clau se,(414 f.) introduced by
an
or
,anna may also follow:
If you
were not perverting most of my subjects with, your words, I would not
have imprisoned you
, '
If the tongue of the
elephant were not turned upside down, he would speak'.
>
232 Syntax: Clauses
N o t e 1. T h e pe r so n a l p r o n o u n in t h e f o r m o f e ith e r an in d e p e n d e n t pron ou n
o r a p e r so n a l su ffix m a y follow : o r ' f i t w ere n o t for you, but

fo r y o u
.
Defective Conditional Sentences
456. Sentences containing oaths are usually introduced by ,in, ,ilia; in for
negative, . f a for positive oaths: ' By my life, if you
do not recite the verse for me!', i.e.,
Recite tlie verSe for me!'; frequently,
after verbs expressing oaths: ' I swear to
you by God that you sliall never leave tlris place!'.
N o t e 1. lamma m a y a p p e a r in p la c e o f ,ilia; again , th e p e r fe c t follow s:
' I ask you not to inform me' (334.1).
457,. Sentences expressing wishes are frequently int.roduced by law:

' If I only knew him!', ' If only you Irad a hlack
beard and liead!', ' ' If you had ^ske him to stay with
us!' (i.e.. Ask Ilim t,o ' lie would like
there to be a wide space between him and her'.
N o t e 1. In p re - cla ssica l A ra b ic, law-la an d law-md in in t e r r o g a tiv e sen-
f e n c e s liave th e m e a n in g
w hy not <
W ily d o y o u n o t b r in g th e a n g e ls t o US, if y o u s p e a k tr u ly ? (Ko-
ran 15:7),
W h y d id Ire n o t d e fe n d him?'.
458. .in and law clauses coordinated by wa- funct'ion as concessive clauses.
The verb is in the perfect, and in pre-classical Arabic at times in the jussive:
f
He has guided you, though formerly you
were gone astray' (Koran 2:198), ' Had
I krrown (it), I would have ruslied after him, even if he liad gone into
Ilellfire'. Often, only conrponents of the sentence t.lat supplement the
main clause follow wa-law:
Then the prince
commanded liitrr to be brought in, even t.hough Ire had to be carried',
1 Be steadfast in fairness, even if it goes
against yourselves!'.
459. a) Disjunctive conditional clauses are introduced by 'in... wa-

in or
,imma . .. wa-'imrrid: ^

wwuv.Wtabosunnat.com
' If his shirt has been torn from tlie front, then slie has spoken
the truth ...If his shirt is torn from behind, then she has lied' (Koran
12:26-27) (450 b). Before the second part of the sentence, w a-
in , w a-
im m d may be replaced by "aw (331): If you

draw near, we shall embrace (you), or if you turn away, we shall withdraw',
i.e.i 'Either you approach, tlien we embrace you, or you turn away, tlien we
withdraw'.
b) Disjunctive sentences beginning with in ... wa-

fr /
aw and
imma
...wa-
immd/
aw may appear instead of alternative conditional sentences
(452 b). Accordingly, the verb is in the generally valid perfect:
. ! ' E it h e r you come to me tonight, or I will do it (i.e., will come
to you)
. Frequently, an .au-clause follows 1immd (414) in sqch alternative
disjunctive sentences:
'He sent to tliem: Either lay down your arms or declare war'.
N o t e 1. Consistent with the conditionaj implication in alternative sen-
tences, the perfect usually also appears w h a w (331) or a m (333) in
disjunctive sentences: ' 'It is all the s a m e
for them, if you warn t h e m or do not warn them' (Koran 2:6; 36:10),
It does not matter whether they want or do not want',
W e shall drive you away, whether you are a liar
or speak the truth'.
c) As disjunctive particles,
in and
im m a (332) may also join alter-
native elements of the sentences: What is
said is said, be it truth or be it falsehood',

And others are deferred to G od
s commandment, whether
He chastises them, or turns toward them' (Koran 9:106).
S e n te n c e s w ith C o n d it io n a l Im p lic a t io n
460. In sentences in w h i c h the relationship of tire protasis a n d the apodosis
constitutes a generally valid condition (445), the verb as a rule, according
to 446, is in the jussive or perfect, regardless of w h a t formal structure they
have. Thus, it can b e said also for- clauses expressing c o m m a n d s , questions,
or wishes that if the apodosis follows theirr, their verb will b e in the jussive
'
ww . k i t a b o s u n n a t . c o m
234 Syntax: Clauses
(cf. 412):
Live wit.h contentment, and you will be a
king',' Do you wish to go to t e leader of the
Syrians? Then you will be given gifts' (cf. 296.3), ' If
only I had wealt'h, then I could spend it!'.
461. a) Relative particles (289) often begin generalizing sentences with

conditional implication: m a 'whatever (else)', m a n
w hoever
, etc. In the
protasis and the apodosis, the verb is always in the jussive or perfect:
' Whatever else I forget, I shall not forget your face
(450.2), ' Whichever of those two you wisli to, pay homage
to him!' (447 a), ' If ny ne ovejlo ks what is due
him, I shall not. overlook it' (449, ' If (when-
ever) you ask me about the most evil of mankind, I would say
Note 1. After haythu (441), the conditional implication is expressed by

the perfect:
May he go wherever he desires!
.
N o t e 2. On rare occasion, in may be used as an indication of conditional

implication with relatives:
If anyone
.
b) In constructions with conditional implication, the relative may of-

ten appear with generalizing m a (290):
. ' Whatever miraculous sign you might bring to enchant us
witli, we will not, believe you' (Koran 7:132), ' Wherever
I go, I meet Sa.d
.
N o t e 3. In constructions with other particle, ma also has a generalizing

function: h a y l u - m a
wherever(441). The imperfect may also come after
seldom-used Hdh-ma,
then whenever' (442).
462. ' while', occasionally also 'as often as', is followed as a rule by
the perfect: Anxiety answers as often as you call it .
The structure of the main cl'ause is arbitrary:
I shall not forget your crying as long as I walk on the earth ,
I lower my eyes while my neighbor (fern.) a p
^ a r s b'Cfore me'.
>
-. k i t i i b o s u n n a t . c o m
N o t ? 1. Sometimes, m a h m a (290) m a y be used in this function:

' As long as you do good, w e shall not dismiss you',
( Whenever he looks at any of the things in
existence, he recognizes the mercy of their crea.tor.
N o t e 2. In post-classical Arabic, this use of m o is clarified by the addition
of ' last, continue. After ' as long as', the predicate follows as a
predicate circumstantial clause or as a circumstantial accusative (382 b;
432).
463. ' every time that; whenever, as often as' as a rule occurs with
the perfect: ) J o ^
Whenever its messenger came
to a nation, they called him a liar' (Koran 23:44). When the elative
,follows (124 If.), k u lla-m a with the appropriate apodosis corresponds
to the use of
the more ... the m ore
:
'The m o e strange the n e w s was, the m o r e they w ere ;istounded b y it',
1
The more he spoke, the better lie g o t(446 b).
464. a) 'then when, if' begins temporal adverbial clauses (cf. 442) with
conditional implication. The always possible stated fact may occur once ('as
soon as') or several times ('as often as'). As a rule, the perfect appears in
the protasis, while the structure of the apodosis is free. When the state-
ment is conceived of as generally valid, the perfect may also occur in the
apodosis rather than the imperfect: (
' The believers are only those whose hearts are filled with fear when-
ever God is mentioned' (Koran 8:2), ' As soon as he
does this, we will form our opinion
, If you wish,
give them what they desire' (447a). In preclassical Arabic, the subject fre-
quently comes immediately after the conjunction: ' When
the stars are scattered' (Koran 82:2).
N o t e 1. In preclassical Arabic, the imperfect, and rarely the jussive, m a y
appear in the protasis: < r>jJ. '

As soon as the noble
one is irritated, he becomes angry.
.
w ^.k ita bosu n n at.com
236 Syntax: Clauses
N ote 2. In pre-classical Arabic, )idha is sometimes used without conditional

implication. )idha then lias the sense of ,idh. In classical Arabic, ,idha
coming aftei- also has tile same meaning. See 440.
b) kdna is regularly used before the conjunction (446 b) to indicate the

past tense: ' Whenever I complained, he showed me
compassion'. It may happen tliat kana, wlren it comes first, agrees witli the
subject o f the apodosis: 3
When people attacked
me, I attacked then '. This is the rule when the imperfect follows in t.he
apodosis (192):
The old woman used to
be silent before him whenever lie spoke to her'.
465. ' when, while' is treated like ,idha and occurs instead of ,idha,
if the events described in the protasis and apodosis occur simultaneously:
' When they (fern.) go away, they walk at a leisurely
pace', ' I said to Ilim, leave, while the stars
are out! ,
The witnesses sliould not refuse, when
they are called'.
)

Paradigms
1. Nouns with Pronominal Suffixes
Masculine Feminine
Singular N.m. Gen. Acc. Nom. Gen. Acc.
Sg. 1. P e r s . ; ;

2. m.

/

s. m.

3. }.

Du. s.
Pi t. 1
:
2. m.

. 2.
1 I

5. ?71.

s. f. Nom. Obl.
Dual Nom. Obl.

Sg, 1. P e r s .

. m.
' ]
s. m.
Plural Nom. Ob). Nom. Obl,
Sg. 1. P e r s . ^

2. m ^
5. m. 1

it.comibosunn.J^t
238 Paradigms
2. Nouns Ending in -a
Sg- Du. Nom. Obl. PI. Nom. Obl.

Sg. 1. Pers.
2. m.
3. m .
3. Nouns Ending in -I
Sg. Nom./Gen. Acc. Du. Nom. Obl. PI. Nom. Obl.

Sg. 1. PeTS.
2. m.

2.f.
)4. Basic Stem of the 3-Radica Verb (Active
(, )aPer )Imperf. (a .Sub. Juss. Energ. I Energ. II

Sg. 3. m. :
.3,
7
2. 171.
.2.
.
Du. 3. m. <
.3.
9
PI. 3. m. 1

.3.

\
2. m.
.. 7
;

7

.

.
Paradigms 23
Imperative
Sg. 771. 1 Du. , m. /
() ! !
() ! !
()
Active Participle
Sg. 771. P i m. Sg. 5. . !.
)5. Basic Stem of the 3-Radical Verb (Passive
Perf. Imperf. Sub!. Juss. Energ. I.

Sg. 171. .
. 8.
2. 171.
2. {. '
.
Du. 3. m. :
3, }. 0
2.
P i 3. 771.
. 5. 5
2. 771.
1
2. f. 1
.
Passive Participle
Sg. 771. PI. 771. 9. 5. . PI.

- . l itabosunnat.com
40 Paradigms
6. 3-Radical Derived Verbs
)!( Basic stem Form II Form III Form IV

PerJ. act.

P e rf. p ass.

Im p erf. act. :
Im p erf. pass.
Ju ss. act.

Ju ss. pass.
Im p cr.

A ct. part. ^ >v
P a ss. part.
V erbal subst.

Form V Form VI Form VII Form VIII Form X

P e rf. ac . ! !
P e rf. pass.
Im p e rf. ac .
_
Im perJ. pass.
~*

ass. act.

Ju ss. pass. -
Im per. ! !
A ct. par . 1

Foss, par . 1

Verb, su bst. ' ' '

Paradigms 211
IX Form X I Form
Perf. Imperf. Juss. Perf. Imperf. Juss.
Sg. s. m. / / ju ij //
. s. ! / / , //
2. 771. / / ( l i i //
.. ( 1
1. ( ' /'/
Du. 5. 771. 1 *
.3. !
2.
Pi 3. 771. 1 :
.
.8. ! !
2. 771.
1
if. , -
/ / ' / /
Im p erative sg. m. ! . Sg. m. . 1 //
P a rticip le sg. 771. /. Sg. 771. .
V erbal subst.
XII Form XIII Form XIV Form XV Form

Perf.
Imperf. jju

Juss.
Act. part.
Verbal subst. 1
-.i^îtabosunnat.com
242 Paradigms
7- II-Geminate Verbs
)Basic Stem (I
Active Passive
Perf. Imperf. JllSS. Perf. Imperf. Juss.
Sg. 3. m. / //
3. j. / /
/ 7 7
5. 771. 7 7 7 7
2. f.
'
. /// /'/
D u. 5. 771.
3. .
2. 1
Pi. 3. 771. ;
3. j. . ;
2. m. - .
2. f.

1. / / / 7 7 7
Imperative Sg. /./// 771. Du. PI. m. /.
Act. part. Sg. Pass. part. 777. ilj /. Sg. m. /
Form II
Perf. Imperf. Juss. Imperat. Part. Verb. Subst.
Active '
Passive
Form V
Perf. Imperf. Juss. Imperat. Part. Verb. Subst.
Active '
Passive

P a r a d ig m s
243
F o r m IV F orm III F orm V I F orm V II F orm V III F orm X

Perf. act.
Sg. 3. m.
2. 771. !
Perf. pass.
Sg. 5. m .

2. m.
Im p erf. act.
Sg. 3. TO.

PI. 5. m. '
3. j.
Im p erf. pass.
Sg. 3. TO.
PI, 3. 771.
3. j.
Juss. act.
Sg. 5. 771. // :/ / / // // / /
PI. 5. 771.

s. f.
Juss. pass.
Sg. 3. 77 / / // // // / / //
P i 5. 771.
3.[. ^!
Imperat. Sg. m. / / // / // / //
/.
Part. act.
P art. pass.
V erb, su bst.

-.kitabosunnat.com
244 Paradigms
8. Ih a m za h and I-W eak V erbs
I- R o o t s I- W R o o t s 1 R oots
F orm I F o r m IV F orm I F o r m IV F orm I F o r m IV
Pert. act.

Sg. m.

Pert. pass.
Sg. 3. m.

Im p e rf. act.
Sg. 3. m :

.
Im p e rf. pass.
Sg. 3. m. :
.
S u b j. act.
Sg. 3. m.
1
S u b j. p ^ s .
Sg. 3. m
1
Im p e r a t. sg.
P a rt. act. :
V erb , su b st.
I-. I toots 1-w Roots

VIII Form VIII Form
Act. Pass. Act. Pass.
Perf. Sg. 5. m. 1/
Imperl. Sg. 5. m. : ;

.
Subj. Sg. 3. T Y I.

Imperat. Sg. / -
Part.
Verb, subst. 1

Paradigms 245
9. The Verb .see

Active
Form I Form IV
Perf. Imperf. Juss. Perf. Imperf. Juss.
Sg. 3. m.

3.}. 5
2. 772. :
2. . -
1.
Du. 3. 772. . (.
s. !.
-
2. : ' :
. s. m. :
3. }.
2. 772. ' ,
.
if '
. :
Imperative Sg. 772. PI. m. Sg. 772. . 772. P
Du. Du.
. . /
Passive
F orm I F o r m IV IV F o r m I F o r m I & IV
Perf. P erf Im p e rf. Juss.
Sg. 3. 772. -

3.5.
2./.
Du. 3. m.
.Pi 771 .
3. 5.
246 Paradigms
10. II-W eak V erbs
)Basic Stem (I
P e r fe c t A c t iv e P erf. P a s s iv e
Sg. 5. 771.

...
3. j.
2. 171
2. f. .:
1. :
Du. 3. m.
3. j.
2. :
PI. 3. m.
3. }. :
2. m. '

: 'P-
2. f. k

I m p e r f e c t A c t iv e Im p e rf. P a s s iv e
Sg. 5. m.
3. j. '
5. m. '
2. /.

'

Du. 3. 771.
. 3.
2.
PL 771 .
. :
3. j. :
2. m .
2. f.
1. ;

Paradigms 247
S u b ju n ctiv e A ctiv e SubJ. P assive

Sg. 3. m.
s.
2. m. 1
s.f. '
.
Du. 5. m.
.3 .
2. ;UU
PI. 5. m.
.3.
2. m.
1
2. f.
'

Jussive A ctive Juss. P a ssive
Sg. 3. m.

. 3.

2. m.

2 /
1.

.
Du. 3. m. : '-
s.
U

. 5. m.
3.5.
2. m .
s. /.

1. .. t -

- . i^ ^ ita b o s u n n a t. c o m
248 Paradigms
Imperative
Sg. 771.

.
Du.
PL m.
/
Active Participle Passive Participle
Sg. m.

/

- .i^îta b osu n n a t.com
P a r a d ig m s 249
F orm II
A c t iv e P a s s iv e
Perf. fp
fp
Im p e rf.

Ju s.

Im p e ra t .

P art.

V erb. subs .
'

'
F orm III F orm V F orm V I
A c t iv e P a s s iv e A c t iv e P a s s iv e A c t iv e P a s s iv e

Perf.

?-
p '
! Im p erf. -
-

Juss.
..
Im p e r a t .

P art. 1

V erb , su b st.

250 P a r a d ig m s
I V F o rm I V F o rm V I I F o rm V III F orm X Form

P erf. act.
Sg. 3. m. 1
1. j [
Perf. p a ss.
Sg. 3. m. 'd '

'
. . 1
.
Im p e rf. act.
'
pass.
Ju ss. act. .
pass. .
I m p e ia t . Sg. m. ,

.

A c t i v e p a rt.

'
'
pass. ' '
V e r b a l su b st.
0 '

Paradigms 251
11. Ill-Weak Verbs
Basic Stem )!(

Perfect Active . PassivePer
Sg. 3. m.
s. }.
2. TO.
.
1
Du. 3. m.
s. j.
2. ;^.0
PI. 5. m.
. 3. .
2. f. P ^ '
.2.
1.
252 Paradigms
Imperfect Active Imperf. Pass.

Sg. 3. ra.
.3.
. 771.
.2.
.
. 5. TTX.
.3. 0
g 1
PI 3. m.
3. j.
2. m.
2}.

Subjunctive Active

;
1
Subj. Pass.
Sg. 3. .
. -
. 3 , '
2 . 171.
. S.
.
. 3 . 171.
3. 5 .
/
P . 5. m.
. 3 .
2. m.

M .

-.kitabosunnat.com
Paradigms 253
Jussive Active Juss. Pass.

Sg. 3. m.
./.
s. m.

2. .
1.

Du. 5. m.
.3.
2.
Pi 3. m.
.3,
2. m.
i 5
1.

Energetic I Active Energ. I Pass.
Sg. 8. m.
3, j.
2./.

. m. Du. 0
m.
3.5.
.
254 Paradigms
Form II Form III Form IV Form V Form VI

Perf. act.
. m. Sg.
1. <
Perf. pass.
Imperf. act.
pass.
Subj. act. :
Juss. act.
pass.
Active part.
pass. :

Imperat.
Verbal subst. UJ
Form VII Form VIII Form IX Form X
Perf. act.
Sg. 3. m. (
. 1 !
Imperf. act.
pass.
Subj. act.
<

Juss. act.

pass.
Active part,.

pass.
.
Imperat. !
Verbal subst. ,

Paradigms 255
Imperative
Sg. 771.

Du.
1
PL m.
1

. ,
Participle
Active Passive
Sg. m.

1 i\j

.Wtiibosunna .com
256 Paradigms
12. 1 -- I II- W e a k V e r b s
)Basic Stem (I
Active Passive
r'erf. Jmperf. Juss. Pert. Imperf. Juss.
Sg. 3. m.

.5. 3
2. m.

8. j.

1 .
Du. 3. m.
3.}.
z. 1 1
PI. 3. m.
3. j. 3
s. m. pi
2. j.
1 .
Imperative Sg. m. /. j . W. . 171 /
.m. Pass. part. 5 /. Act. part. Sg. ra. /

Paradigms 257
13. I I j, - III-Weak Verbs
)Basic Stem (Active

Perfect Imperfect Jussive
Sg. s. m. : 7 ;
Sg. m. / /
2. m.

l 7
7
1. /
Du. 3. m. / :
.3. /
2.
PI. 5. m. / ::/ 7
3. j. :0 .:
2. m. 7 7

If
a. j.
1. 7
f. Participle Sg. m.
Imperat. Sg. m. /. Du. Pi m. /.

258 Paradigms
14. 4-Radical Verbs
Active
Form I Form II Form III Form IV
Perf. .
Imperf. :.
Jass. : :/:/
Imperat. - /? /?
Part.
Verb, subst.
)Form IV (Active
Perl. Imperf. Juss.
. TO .5. : : : / :/
/ ^ ^ /
Pi 3. m. :
. 3.
Passive
Form I Form II Form III Form IV
Perf. )
Imperf. > : :.
Juss. : : ::;
Part.

v.Jdt bsunnat.com
Selective Bibliography of Arabic Grammar

and Linguistics^
1. General and Reference Works
Salih j. Altoma: Modern Arabic Literature: A bibliography of articles,

books, dissertations and translations in English. Bloomington 1975
(Asian Studies Research Institute. Occasiona.. Papers; 3)
Julia Ashtiany, ed.... [et al.] 'Abbasid belles-lettres. Cambridge ; New York
1990 (The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature)
M. H. Bakallfi: Arabic Linguistics. An introduction and bibliography. Lon-
don 1983
Erika Bar: Bibliographie zur deutschsprachigen Islamwissenschaft und s&
mitistik vom Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts bis heute. 3 Bde. Wiesbaden
1985-1994
A. F. L. Beeston, T. M. Johnstone, R. B. Sergeant, G. R.. Smith [ed.]: Arabic
Literature to the End of the Umayyad Periotl. Cambridge 1983 (The
Cambridge history of Arabic literature)
Max van Berchem: MatCriaux pour un Corpus lnscript.ionum Arabicorum.
I 1.2 Egypte. II a 1-3. Syrie du Nord II b 1-3, Syrie du Sud. Ill Asie
Mineure. Cairo 1894-1956 (MCmoires publids par les membres de la
Mission archdologique franaise du Caire 19. 25. 29. 43-45. 52. 76-78
Gotthelf BergstraCer:
:
. Cairo 1969
Bibliograpilie der Deutschsprachigen Arabistik und Islamkunde : von den
Anfhngen bis 1986 nebst Literatur iiber die arabischen Lander der
Gegenwart hrsg. von Fuat Sezgin; in Zusammenarbeit mit Gesine
Degener... [et al.]. Frankfurt am Main 1990-1995. (VerOffentlichungen
des Institutes fUr Geschichte der Arabiscli-Islamischen Wissenschaften.
Reihe A, Texte und Studien; 21 Bd.)
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1945 signifies the third edition.

260 Bibliography
Regis Blachbre: Ilistoire d e la literature A r a b e des origines a la fin d u X V .
sifecle d e J.-C. Paris 1952-1966
Regis BlachGre el, J ean Sauvaget: RCgles p o u r editions et traductions de
textes arabes. Paris 1953 (Collection arabe publide sous le patronage
d e )'Association G u i l l a u m e B u d e )
Carl Brockelniann: Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, zweite den S u p
plementbfinden angepafite Auflage, 2 Bde., 3 Supplementbande. Leiden
19 3 7 - 1 9 4 9
Louis Cheikho: Les savants arabes Chretiens en Islam (622-1300). Texte
etabli et a u g m e n t e avec introduction, notes et index par Camille
H d c h aime. R o m 1983
T h e E n c y c l o p e d i a of Islam: A Dictionary of the geography, ethnography
a n d biography of the M u h a m m a d a n peoples. Leiden 1913-1938. Re-
print as: Brill's First E n c y c l o p e d i a of Islam 1913-1936, 1993
T h e E n c y c l o p e d i a of Islam: N e w edition prepared b y a n u m b e r of leading
Orientalist'S. l e i d e n / L o n d o n 1954-
Tile E n c y c l o p e d i a of Islam o n C D - R O M . Vol. 1-9. Leiden 1999
Enzyklopaedie des Islam, geographisches, etlinographisclies u n d biographis-
ches W O r t e r b u c h der m u h a m m e d a n i s c h e n VOlker, hrsg. von M . Th.
H o u t s m a , T, w . Arnold, R. Basset u n d R. H a r t m a n n , 4 Bde. Lei-
den/Leipzig 1913-1934, E r g d n z u n g s b a n d 1938
J o h a n n FUck: Die Arabischen Studien in E u r o p a bis in d e n A n f a n g des 20.
Jahrhunderts. Leipzig 1955
H a m i l t o n A. R. G i b b a n d J a c o b M . L a n d a u : Arabische Literaturgeschichte.
ZUricli-Stuttgart 1968 (Die Bibliothek des Morgenlandes)
G e o r g Graf: Geschichte der Christlichen Arabischen Literatur, Bd. 1-5.
Citta del Vat.icano 1 9 4 4-1953
D i a n a G r i m w o o d - J o n e s , D e r e k H o p w o o d , j. D. Pearson [edj: A r a b Islamic
Bibliography. Atlantic Highlands 1977
A d olf G r o h m a n n : Arabic Papyri in the Eg y p t i a n Library. 6 vol. Cairo 1934-
1962
E i n f U h r u n g u n d Chrestornathie zur Arabischen Papyruskunde. Bd. 1.
Einfiihrung. Prag 1954 (Ceskoslovensky U s t a v Orientaini V Praze.
Monografie Arcilivu Orientainiho; 13,1)

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: Arabische Papyruskunde. Ilandbucli der Orientalistik. Abt. 1. Erganz-
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Grundrifi der Arabischen Philologie. Bd. 1: Sprachwissenschaft. Hrsg. v o n
w . Fischer. W i e s b a d e n 1982. Bd. 2: Literaturwissenschaft. Hrsg. v o n

H. Gatje. W i e s b a d e n 1987. Bd. 3: S u p p l e m e n t Hrsg. v o n w . Fischer.
W i e s b a d e n 1992.
Gustave E d m u n d v o n Grunebatjm: Krit.ik u n d Dichtkunst: Studien zur ara-
bischen Literaturgeschichte. W i e s b a d e n 1955
H a n d w d r t e r b u c h des Islam, hrsg. v o n Arent J a n W e n s i n c k u n d j. Kramers.
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Index Islamicus, 1906-1955. L o n d o n 1956/60. rr h e Quarterly Index Islami-
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a Bibliography of publications o n Islam a n d the M u s l i m world since
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' U m a r R i d a Kahhala: 5 vol. D a m a s c u s
21958-1959
15 . vol. D a m a s c u s 1376/19 5 7 - 1 3 8 0 / 1 9 6 1
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Reynold A. Nicholson: A Literary History of the Arabs. L o n d o n 1907
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Korantextes. V o n G. Bergstrafier u n d 0. Pretzl. Leipzig 1938. N e u -
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Rudi Paret: Arabistik u n d I s l a m k u n d e a n D e u t s c h e n Universitaten. Deut-
sche Orientalisten seit T h e o d o r N Ol d e k e W i e s b a d e n 1966
RCpertoire chronologique d'epigraphie arabe. Publie par M . C o h e n (et al.)
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1931-1964. Index geographique d u repertoire chronologique d'epigra-
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,
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R u d o l f S ellh eiin : M a te r ia lie n zu r A r a b is ch e n L ite ra tu rg e sch ich te. T. 1.

W ie s b a d e n 1976 (V erzeich n is der O r ie n ta lisc h e n H a n d sch r ifte n in
D e u ts c h la n d ; Bd. X V II. R e ilie A. T. 1)

F u a t S e z g in : G e s c liic h te d e s a r a b isch e n S c h r ifttu m s ... b is ca. 430 II. Bd.
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L e id e n 1967, B d. 2: P oesie, P liilo lo g ie , U n te r h a ltu n g s lite r a tu r u n d er-

b a u liclre Sch riften . L e id en 1975, Bd. 3: M e d izin , P h a rm a zie , Zoolo-
gie, T ie r h e ilk u n d e . L e id e n 1970, Bd. 4: A lclie m ie , C h e m ie , Botanik,
A g rik u ltu r. L e id en 1971, B d. 5: h la th e m a tik . L e id en 1974, B d. 6: As-
tr o n o m ie . L e id e n 1978, B d. 7: A st.rologie u n d M e te o r o lo g ie . Leiden
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1984
M o r it z S tein sc ln ie id e r : D ie a r a b isc h e L ite r a tu r d e r Ju d en : E in B e itr a g zur
L ite r a tu r g e s c h ic h te d er A ra b er, g r o h e n th e ils aus h a n dsch riftlich en

Q u ellen . F r a n k fu r t/ M a in 1902. N e u d r u ck 1964
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b is c h e n S pra ch - u n d L ite ra tu rw isse n sch a ft. W ie s b a d e n 1966
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13 vol. B e ir u t 1389/1969 3. ed.
.
2. Historical Linguistics
Semitics
K. A lrrens: D e r S t a m m d e r sch w a ch en V e rb a in d e n se m itis c lie n Sprachen.

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X X X I)
: J a c o b B a rth : D ie N o in in a lb ild u n g in d e n s e m itis c h e n sp r a ch en . 2. Ausg.
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: D ie P r o n o m in a lb ild u n g in d e n sem it.isch en S p ra ch en . L e ip z ig 1913
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.
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H ans Bauer: Die T e m p o r a i m Semitischen u n d ilire Ausgestaltung in d e n
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chen Sprachwissenschaft; VIII, 1)
Patrick R. Bennett: C o m p a r a t i v e Semitic Linguistics : A M a n u a l . W i n o n a
Lake, Ind. 1998
Gotthell Bergstrhfier: Einliilirung in die Semitischen Sprachen. Sprach-
p r o b e n u n d grammatisclie Skizzen. Miincheri 1928 I m A n h a n g : Ztir
S y n t a x der Sprache v o n Ugarit v o n Carl B r o ckelmann. (Neudruck)
D a r m s t a d t 1963
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1
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Journal Abbreviations
AIEO Annales de l'Institut d'Etudes Orientates
( F a cu lte des Lettres d e l'Universite d'Alger)
ArOr A r c h i v Orientaini ( C e s k o s l o Y e n s k e A k a d e m i e ved: Orientatni -
Uststav, P r a h a )
B E O Bulletin d ' E t u d e s Orientates (Institut I-'

r a u as d e D a m a s )
BFA Bulletin of the F aculty of Arts, University of C a i r o -
M a j a l l a t Kulliyyat a l - A d a b
BSE Bulletin d e la SociCte d e Linguistique d e Paris
BSOAS Bulletin of the S c h o o l of Oriental a n d African Studies, f j o n d o n
JA J o u r n a l Asiatique, Paris
JAOS J o u r n a l of the A m e r i c a n Oriental Society, N e w H a v e n / A n n A r b o r
JNES J o u r n a l of N e a r E a s t e r n St.udies, Cliicago
JRAS J o u r n a l of the R o y a l Asiatic Society, L o n d o n
JSS J o u r n a l of S e m i t i c Studies, M a n c h e s t e r
M M A D M a j a l l a t a l - M a j m a ' al-'Ilmi a l - A r a b i b i - D i m a s h q
( R e v u e de l'Academie Arab, D a m a s )
M M L A M a j a l l a t M a j m a ' a !-Lu a h al-'Arabiyyah, a l - Q a h i r a h
M O L e M o n d e Oriental, U p p s a l a
M S O S Mi t t e i l u n g e n des S e m i n a r s fiir Orient.alische S p r achen, Berlin
MUSJ M e l a n g e s d e l'Universite Saint Josepli, B e y r o u t h
OLZ Orientalistische Literaturzeitung, Leipzig/Berlin
RSO Rivista degli Studi Oriental, R o m a
SI S t u d i a Islamica, Paris
W Z K M W i e n e r Zeitschrift fiir die ! ( u n d e des M o r g e n l a n d e s , W i e n
ZA Zeitschrift; fiir Assyriologie u n d v e r w a n d t e Gebiete, Berlin
ZAL Zeitschrift fiir A r a b i s c h e Linguistik, W i e s b a d e n
Z D M G Zeitschrift der D e u t s c h e n M o r g e n i a n d i s c h e n Gesellschaft,
Leipzig/Wiesbaden
zs Zeitschrift, fiir Semitistik, Leipzig
.

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Index
All numbers refer to paragraphs ().
Decimal numbers refer to paragraph notes.
>a- (interjection) 157.4; 159; 347; Adjectives 61: 113-123; 146 c;

(interrogative particle) 41 c; 361; 362; 377.1; 387; 388 a;
323.1; 333; 335; (prefixed 390.2; 398
m o r p h e m e ) 66 c; 100 Adverbial accusative 378-379; 417
,a- 49 e; 291.2; (prefixed Adverbial cla u s e 4 3 7 - 4 4 4
m o r p h e m e ) 63.5
Adverbial circumstantial
( orthography) 8 -10 expressions 293 b; 437
-( stem-final) 34; 35; 52; 60 b; A d v e r b s 315-317; 377.1; 378.1
117; 154; (vocative ending) 158;
Adversat.ive coordination 4 0 4 b;
s. F e m inine ending -a
407.1
-0 (stem final) 35 b; 69 b; s.
,a fa ' ilu (pi.) 94; 106 a; 127 a
F e minine ending -0
' a f a n lu (pi.) 95; 102; 106 a
&<) 'a b a ti 157.3; 158.2
afala (IV.) 162 d; 166; 217; 219
abawani 108 a
>a f a l u 153 a; (AdJ.) 119; 124.3;
Abbreviations 24
(elative) 124-127; 463
a b s a u 138.1
'af-aluna vr? 'A
Absolute object 37 6 - 3 7 8
' a fia lu n (pi.) 41.4; 86.3; 100; 122;
Abstracts referring to qualities, 134
attributes 75 a; 229; 397
' 138.1
a fc ila tu n (pi.) 100
,a b u 72 b; 150; 391 b
0 ?:/! (pi.) 100; 123 a; 153 b
,a b u n 71 b; 318 b

a f u l u n (pi.) 100
Accent (word, phrase stress) 32
Agreement, g r a m m a t i c a l 113-
Accusative 128; 130 b; 131; 135; 114; 115; 119.2; 352 b; 353; 354;
140; 200; 203; 206 b; 270.2; 310; 356-357; 362; 368; 380; 398; 399
323 a; 3 2 8 b; 338; 341; 367 a;
-ah (fern, ending) 8; 13; 56 a; 5 7 e
370.2; 372-384; (adverbial)
-ah (fern, ending) 13; 5 7 e;
133.1:315-316; 346; 378; 379;
(vocative ending) 158
417; (definite state) 318 c.;
(construct state ) 157 b; 291 a h a d u n 129.1; 146.1; 146 b; 358
b; (indefinite state ) 124.4; 137; 1a h a s t u 52.2; 234.1
141 c; 157.4; 261 b; 263; 287;
a h lu n 391 b
347.1; 349.1; 380-383; 385
,a jm a ' u 138
,ad.a 312
a k h a d h a 190.1; 192.1; 4 32 a
'a d a 190.1; 432 c
,a k h a r u 127 b
t
322 Index
tV r lY 2 , n a m m a n 45
ak ha, 1a k h u n 71 b; 150 318.2 a m m a t u n 137.1

391 b 'A in r u n (proper n a m e ( 11.1
) g k h v a r u 124.2 , a m s a (IV) 190.1; 4 32 b
) a k t a i 138.1 a m t h a l u n , .
a/- s. article -an 53.3 d 57 : 1 5 4 158.1 ) .acc
a l - 49 c ending ( 11 ; 15.2 5 5 d 57 ; 147
,a-la, >la 335 b; 3 4 1 : 3 4 7 1 5 1 154 - 1 5 5 157.4 158.1

)suffix m o r p h e m e ( 63.5
1a l a (prep.) 49 c; 291 a; 292 c;
)energetic II( 11.2 2 1 5 2 2 1
295.5 302
254
a la k in a (h in t ( 346.2
-a n (suffix m o r p h e m e ) 65 a ; 82.1
'a/a - m a 285 b
b 93
al-d m 284 b
a n . 4 5 b 196 ; 3 4 2 ; 3 4 4 ; 3 6 1
a - la y s a 323.1 b 3 3 5 385.2 4 1 3 4 1 4 4 1 8 432.1 4 5 5
alfft.iija bihx b 459
ali.f m a m d u d a h (maqsuTahN 10.< a n (prep '.( 4 5 a; 292 a 291 ; 297

1-5 301
'a l i j a l- w a s l 19.2 20.2 2 1 - 2 2 ;
237.1 ' an a, ,a n a l .!
1a lik (Imperative ( 239.2 - a n i f - a y n i (dual ( 53.2 1 0 7 147 -

149
b 196 ;4 5 : 318.1
-a n i f m (rvisbaK ( 117
a l ia 342.1
-a n n a (energetic I( 2 1 5 254
a l l a d h i 18.1 ; 2 8 1 - 2 8 2 4 2 1 4 2 6 ;
428 a n n a 49 c ; 338.1 ; 3 4 1 3 4 4 3 6 1
385.2 4 1 3 - 4 1 5 417.2 4 1 8
allahiL 29.2 d 49
419.1 455
a l ld h u m m a 349.1
1a n n a 288
a l l a i 49 d ; 281.1
,a n n a - m a 3 4 4 . 1 4 1 5 . 1
Alternative clauses 326.1 3 3 3
A p odosis ( m a i n clause) of a
b 459
conditional sentence 445 b;
a lu 317
4 4 6 - 4 5 0 460
-( 281.1
Apposition 125 b ; 1 3 6 1 3 8 293
- a m (suffix m o r p l t e m e ( 63.5 b ; 393 - 3 9 7 ) A c c .( 1 3 5 137
a m 333 459.1 m in ) 299 a; (apjrositional( ;3 8 3
clauses) 405 b ; 4 1 7 436
, a - m a , >am.a 335 b ; 347
! I V ( 0 ( 4 2 b 239
.a m a m a 291 b
Article =al- 1 8 c 41 ; 4 4 c 49 ; 5 4 ;
a m m a 285 b '
a; 127 a 125 ; 129.4 b 130 ; 131
a m m a 3 3 6 a 369
133.2 142 - 1 4 4 c; 157 a 146 ;
a m m a 4 5 c 285 ; 301.2 244.1 2 5 9 268.2 2 7 7 2 8 1 ;

In d e x 323
363 b; s. d e fin ite n e ss ayyu-ma (-man ) 290

,asa 342.2; 447 a
azma, azuma 262
>asharru 124.2 ,azza 262
asbaha (IV) 190.1; 432 b

ba,da (ptep.) 291 b; 344 (ba'da
A s p e c t 180
1an, bafda iAh, bafda-ma)
A s p e c t s o f act.ion 181.4; 184.2;
a(rfw 317; 319.1
432; 446.2
bat dun 139; 146.1; 146 b
A s s im ila tio n 18; 37 b; 44-48
bill 326; 389.2
>ashyd'u 100.2; 153.1
banu 356.2; .'185.3
-atu, -atun, -atun s. F e m in in e
e n d in g B a s ic s te m (verb) 163; 174
-7
/ -
( pi.) 101; 103 b; 104- bayna (prep.) 165; 291 b; 308
105; 106 b; 113; 114; 147-149; bayna 49.1; 344; 444
154 bayna-ma 344: 444
A t t r ib u tiv e s 113-114; 129 b; 398- bayna yaday l i . 1
399; ( a ttr ib u tiv e cla u ses) 282;
- (prep.) 138.2; 199.2; 222; 294.4
413; 428-430
(bi-qhayri1 bi-la.)] 280 b; 291 a;
-d
u, -a
un 35; 117; s. F e m in in e 291.3 (323 ;294 ;(
- a; 344;
e n d in g 363.1; 365.1; 367 a; 395.1; 441
A u x ilia r y v o w e ls 19-20; 50.2; 53- (bi-HaytHu)
54; 56 c; 210 c; 218; 220 b; 235; 129.6; 130.2
246.2
bim, bima 285
.aw, 54.1; 196 b; 308 d; 331; 332;
bintun
333.1; 4 1 1 4 5 9
bvsa 259--261
-(1( rvisbaK) YYTA
B o d y pa rts, n a m e s o f 111 d; 112 a
>au,w,a w 127 b; 133 a; 344
awwala-ma)
( B r o k e n (internal) p lu r a l 83; 87-
100; 111 c; I 1 4 b ; 122
>awwalan 315 a
bwayda 291.4
,aya 157.4; 347
bunayya 81.2
'ayna 288; 289; 345.2
bura'u 90.3
ayna-ma 290
aynuqun 100.1 C a C - a t i a
,ayshin 286.2 C a r d in a l n u m b e r s 129-132
.ayyana 288 C a s e e n d in g s 4; 140; 147-156; 157
ayyatun 286.1 C a u s a tiv e 166; 374
>ayyatuha 157.1 CayyiC- <t
'ayyun 286; 289; 353; 387 a; 419.2 CiC-atun 7 a
ayyuha 157; 347
C ir c u m s ta n tia l a c c u s a t iv e 202 c;
278; 365.1; 380-383; 433; 438.2;

- '.ki abosunat.cm

In d e x
462.2 C o o r d in a t e c ir c u m sta n tia l

Circum st.antia.l cla u ses, predicat.e s e n te n c e s 407-409
462.2:417.2; 431-435 C o o r d in a t e cla u s e s 183
C ir c u m s t a n t ia l c la u s e s 278; 365.1; C o o r d i n a t in g c o n ju n c t io n s 328-
371 a; 407-409; 413; 431-436; 333; 401
444; 462.2 C o o r d in a t io n 328-331; 400-411
Cla.uses, c o o r d in a t e , s u b o r d in a t e C o p u la t iv e p r o n o u n s 368-370;
183; 310 d; 413 422; 429; 430; 431 c; 441.1
C la u se s, d e fin ite 281-282; 428 C o p u la t iv e se n te n c e s 337; 338;
C la u se s, in a p p o s i t i o n 405 b 351; 368-370; 415; 422; 447 a;
C la u s e s e x p r e s s in g inte.nt o r 454
p u r p o s e 438 OuC-atunTOa
C la u s e s f u n c t io n in g as
s u b s t a n t iv e s 413; 419-420 dakhila (prep.) 291 b
C o in c i d e n c e ( co in cid e n ta l damir ash-sha
n 338
o c c u r r e n c e , p e r fe c t verb) 181 c damm, damrriah 5; 56 b
C o lle c t iv e p lu r a l 83; 92.1 damuu 1
C o lle c t iv e s 83-86; 106 a; I08b; D a t e a n d tim e, e x p r e s s io n s o f
111 c; 114 a; 129.3 141.2; 295.1; 315 b; 346; 359.2;
C o lle c tiv e s , s in g u la r 83.1 360.1:379; 386.2; 420
C o lle c t iv e s ref. t o a m u ltitu d e , D a tes, n u m b e r s ref. t o 133.1

m a s s e s 85 Definit.e s t a t e 142; 148; 157 a
C o lle c t iv e s ref. t o p e o p l e 86 a D e fin ite n e s s 129.4; 132.2; 142-
C o m m a n d s , orders,, requ ests, 144; 146; 259; 363 b; 366; 381.2
e x h o r t a t io n s 195; 222; 316; 404 383 b; 387 b; 388 b; 397; 398.1
b; 412; 447 a D eix is, d ir e c t (th is ) 274; 276 a
C o m p a r a t iv e 125 D eix is, in d ir e c t ( " th a t) 275; 276
C o m p e n s a t o r y fo r m s 69.3 b
C o n c e s s iv e s e n te n c e s 458 D e m o n s t r a t iv e pa.rticles 284
C o n d it io n a l im p lic a t io n 412; D e m o n s t r a t iv e p r o n o u n s 274-279;

441.1; 446; 447 a; 448 b; 449; 386.2
460-465 D em o n stra .tiv es ref. t o m a n n er
C o n d i t i o n a l s e n te n c e s 445-459 (m od a l) 284 c
C o n ju n c t i o n s 343-346 D e m o n s t r a t iv e s ref. t o t im e
( tem p o ra l) 284 b
C o n s o n a n t a l v o w e ls 36
D e r iv e d v e r b a l s te a m s 164-178
C o n s t r u c t s t a t e 1'15-146; 149-150;
157 b; 269; 285 c; 291 b; 385 D e t e r m in a t io n 129.4; 132.2; 142-
144; 146; 259; 363 b; 366; 381.2;
C o n te n t, in d ic a t io n o f (w itli acc.,
383 b; 387 b; 388 b; 397; 398.1
gen., a p p o s.) 384; 390 b; 394 a
D e te r m in e d s t a t e 142; 148; 157 a

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In d e x 325
I 274.2; 283 E x te r n a l (in flected o r so u n d )

dhdka 275 a; 276; 278.1 p lu r a l 1 0 1 - 1 0 5 1 4 7 ;140 ;112.1 -
149; 154-155; 223
dhalika Tib 1'. . '
dhalikum 275.2; 278.2
dKatu
fa - 195.1; 196 b; 222.3; 260.1 {fa-
dhawa
ibu 41 a biha)\ 264.3 (f a-h w a,-h y a)\ 280;
. 274.2,283 314; 308.4; 329; 336; 365 a;
389.2; 402.1:404; 405.1; 410;
# .n .4 \T 7 4 1
443.1:444; 447 a; 448
didda (prep.) 291 b
fa ' d ' ilu (pi.) 67 a; 94.1; 98; 123 b
D im e n s io n , m ea su r em en t,
ilu (pi.) 95.4
f a ' 0,
in d ic a t io n o f 379; 390 b; 394 a
fa ' a l- 60; 62 b; 68 a; 118; fa ' a l u n
D im in u tiv e s 81-82; 100.3; 102;
291.4:317.1 50; 74; 86 a; 91 (pi.); 115; 153 f;
201.1:228; 236.1
D i p t o t i c in fle c tio n 152-153; 156
fa 'a l- 62 c; 63.1; 82 b; fa 'a lu n 50;
D ir e c t d e ix is ( "th is") 274; 276 a
74; 86 a; 91 (pi.); 115; 153 f;
D ir e c t d is c o u r s e 414.1 201.1; 228; 236.1
D is ju n c t iv e c o n d it io n a l se n te n ce s fa ' a l- ! c/ .\\ ' f a ' a V i m 4 '
459 121; 225.1; 257 b
D is t r ib u t iv e 143 a; 383.2; 402 f a " a l- , f a " a l u n 62 e; 63.1; 77; 102;
D is t r ib u t iv e n u m b e r s 135 115; 201.1
D o u b l e c o n s o n a n t s 19-22; 41 c; fa ' a l- 62 d; 62.5; 82 b
f a ' a l a (I) 163; 216

dhu 150; 283; 391 a; 389.1; f a " a la (II) 162 a. 164
(relative) 281.2; 421.1
f a ' a l a 75 b
D u a l 107-109; 114 c; 140; 147-
f a ' a l a 67 a; (pi.) 99; 116.3; 119;
149; 154-155; 356 b
122;
duna 291 b; 309
fa,'ala (III.) 162 b; 165; 308.1
duwayna 291.4
fa,'0,1 a l l
E la tiv e 108.1; 124-127: 203.3; f a ' a la n u n 65 a; 74; 229
293; 384; 387 a; 463 f a ' a la t u n 75; 257 a; (pi.) 89 b; 91;
E m p h a t ic q u a lific a tio n 259-263 100

E n e r g e t ic 198; 215; 221 a; 254; f a ' a la t u n (pi.) 91.4; 105 a
450.1; 451 fa ' a la t u n 75 a; 89 b (pi.); 228
E p e n th e sis, v o w e l 38 f a ' a l l 53.2; 225.1
E x p lic a t io n 299 a; 383 b; 421.2 99

!'a (pi.); 116.1
E x p r e s s io n s o f id e n tity 395b f a ' a lila t u n (pi.) 93 a; 96
E x p r e s s io n s o f t im e a n d d a t e f a ' a l i lu (pi.) 63; 93; 94; 95,1;

295.1 1 0 2 .1 1 5 3 ;106.1 c

-.kitabosunnat.c.m
In d e x
fa'dlilu (pi.) 63; 93; 95; 99.1; '- a

102.1; 153 c fa'la-u 99 a; 119; 153 1)
Of airy0 fa'ldwatun 105 b
fa'dliyu 116.3 Ja-lul-
t r a in
Jamun Ti a
J t r a lla H Ja-qat >n
fa'anld, 62 g; 62.7; 63.4 fath, la tlia h 5
fa'anlal- 63 facul- 60 a; 62 b; 68 a; fa'ulun
) aijlal- 115; 201.1
fa il- 36.2; 60; 62 b; 68 a; 118; Ja'ul- . ' C
' Jcrulun 4\
fa'ilun 62.3; 74.1; 77 153 f; 115; 120; 201.1; 229
201.1; 228.1 Jau H e
fee it- 62 c; 82 b; 118: fa'ilun 68.4; fa'ul- 62 d; 62.5; 82 b
74; 88 (pi.); 90; 120; 201.1; 229
fa 'ila (I) 1 6 3 2 5 9 ;250 ;241 ;216
fd'il- 36.2; 62 d; 82 b; 247; 256 a; 262
fa'ilun 62.4; 68 c; 68.2; 86.2; 90;
fa'ulatun 75.2
133; 223; 247; 256
fd'ula-u 75 b; 153 b
J a il- b l
Jaw a.ilati \
A
fa'ila (I) 163; 216; 241; 250
fawa'ilu (pi.) 97; 123 b; 223.1
Jai,latun7b.i
fawa'ilu (pi.) 97
J a n la U iu lb a
fawal- 62 d
fd'ilatun 97; 99 b
fa 'wal- 63.5
J a i l a a
faw ala (I) 162.1
fa'l- 60; 62 a; 68 a; 69.1; fa'lun
74; 86 a; 115; 153 f; 225; 228;
fawqa (prep.) 291 b
236.1;248 a J a i q u 7\
-fa l 60; 216 Jay al-Jay 5,1- bA A

fa'la (I) 163.1; 259; 262-263 Jay ala 4 IbAA
fa'ld 75 b; 90.2; 99 a; 119; 122 fay
ul- 62 d
(pi) F e m in in e 83; 84.1; 86 b; 110-112
fa'lal- 63 113; 356
JaAal- ' JaAalun AAb F e m in in e e n d in g -0 35 b; 64; 75
fa'lala (I.) 162; 174 b; 93 b; 110; 117; 153.1; 154.3;
- 4; 56 a; 57 e; -153 d;
J c r la la t i .' u p
153.2; - wn 13; 36 a; 57 e; 64;
Jalalll-
6 9 . 3 8 9 ;75 ;73 a; 110; 113; 117;
fa'Ian-, fa'lanu 119; 153 a; 129 b; 232; 248 b; -atm 13; 57
JaAanuTi, JaAanaiun \1. e; 64.3; 64.4; 93 b; 0,-11 64; 75
fa'latun 75.1, 91; 195 a; 232; 248 b; 76.1:93 b; 110; 117; 153 b

In d e x 327
F em in in e q u a litie s (adj.) 113.1 f v la y a t u n (pi.) 105 b
^ ( p r e p . ) 291 a; 292 a; 296; f i - m d Jill, J i l l -
308.6; 344; f i - m a n 285 b J v b lH

fv a l- 60 b; 62 b; f v a lu n 50; 74; 77; f v liy d ' u 153
91 (pi.); 257 a
fv w a l- 6:1.5
1 1- J l" a ll
fv y a l- 63.5
fval- 62 c; 63.1; 82 b; ; fv d lu n
F o r e ig n w o r d s 19.3; 64.6; 71.1;
6 8 . 3 2 4 8 ;225 74 ; 77 ; 121 b;
104.1
(pi.) 88; 100; 122
F o r m u la ic e x p r e s s io n s 24
" - e\ 1.1', J l " a l u n
F o r m u la s o f a s to n is h m e n t 128
fi'a la tu n 75 a; (pi.) 89 b; 100
F o u r - c o n s o n a n t m o r p h e m e s 93
fv a ld t u n (pi.) 91.4; 105 a
f a 72 a; 150
a la tu n 75 a; 77; 89 b (pi.); 229
fi
fu 'a l- 60,3; 62 b; 90; 118; f i v a l u
62 -1 f; 63
9 1 .3 1 2 7 a; 153 a; fv v a lu n 50;
J l"a ll- 73.1; 91 (pi.); 121: 257 a
ft" - e al- 62 e; 6:1.1; f u c' a lu n 77; (pi.)
fu '
JVil- . 90; 122
flail- 62 e f w a l - 62 c; 63.1; 82 b; 90; f i v a l u
flail- 62 e; fia flm 115 135; 153 a; f w a l u n 69.3; 74; 77;

90 (pi.); 121; 229
fiaild 75.5
/t al- 62 e; f u a d l u n 69.3; 73.1; 77;
fi'ilatun (pi.) 105 a
82.2; 121; (pi.) 90; 122
f a l l - \f t f l m t
fw ala 77; (pi.) 90.2; 99.3; 119; 122
f v i l l d 75.5; 90.1 (pi.)
f x r a l a t u n 69.3; 73.1; (pi.) 90; 123
f v il l d n u n (pi.) 90.1 a
fi' illa t u n (pi.) 90.1 a la t u n (pi.) 91.4; 105 a
fu
u (pi.) 90.1
fiiilla a la t u n 75 a; 77
fu
/ 6 2 ;60 - a; 68 a; 69.1; f v lu n u 75 b; 153 b; (pi.) 90; 100
fu 'a l&
62.2; 62.3; 74; 77 153 f; 229; 123 a
257 a
JwaUl-, ' >
-fil 60; 216
fu ' a liy y u n 135.2
fv ld 75 b; 99 a
5)'1- -
f l a t -
f w a l l i l - 63
v ia l- - ' f v la l u n
J w a lliila t i >
f t laU -
f w a y l- 62 c; 6.3.1; 118; f u
a y lu n 81
f v ld n u n 65 a; 74; 92 (pi.); 229 a; 153.2
f r l a t u n 75 a; 77; 91; 105 a; 376; f v y a y l - 62 e; f u a y lu n 82.2
(pi.) 89 b; 92.1
fu a y la 8 1 b
u n 64.5
fi' ld
-
-.kitebosunnat.com
328 In d e x
fwaylatun 81 b G en d er 110112
fwayld'u 81 b Genera.l d e n ia l (n ega tion ) 318 c;
2 , -, 1 - ' a 367.2
jw ayyilun 82 b; 153.2 G e n e r ic c o lle c t iv e s 84; 111.2
fw ila (I) 210; 246; 255 G e n it iv e 1 2 6 1 2 9 b; 132 b; 145-

146; 203; 206 a; 269; 287; 292;
}wl- 60 a; 60.3; 62 a; 68 a; 69.1;
385-392; ( in tro d u cto r y ) 337;
Ju'lun 62.1; 74; 115; 134; 153 f;
389; (epexegeticus ) 392;
229; 257 a; (pi.) 92; 119; 122
(generic) 387 a; (objectivus )
-f ill 60; 216 146 c; 386 b; (partit.ive) 387 b;
fw la (I) 210.1; 255.1; 259; 262; (q u a lify in g) 390-391;
263 (sp ecificity ) 146 c; 388;
jw ld 75 b; 99 a; 127 a (subjectivus ) 38 6 b
fu llal- 62 g; 63; 63.2 G e n itiv e cla u s e s 346; 420
fuildl- 62 g; 63 q h a A l, ghadun 7'.

fw lanun 65 a; 74; 115; 229; (pi.) qhayra )anna 310 d
92; 119 ghayru 146 b; 285 c (.ghayru-ma );
fw latun 75 a; 77; 91; 105 a 294.4; 299.3; 311; 317.2; 324;
352 a; 367 b; 388 b,; 398.1
fu'layatun (pi.) 105 b; 127 a
fu'liyyun 119.4
fu clul- 62 g; 63; 63.2 ha- 63.5; '162.2178 b
fu clul- 62 g; 63 hd 274; 275.1:279 b; 347
fwlull- 63 ha
, hd
a 349
fwul- 36 a; 62 b; fu
ulun 50; 62.1; hd-
ana,-dhd 279 b
7 4 .2 1 3 4 ( ;pi.) 8 8 1 0 0 92 ; liabba, kabba-da
112.2 ; 122 KadAa
)('
fwul- 37 a; 62 c; fu
ulun 74; 229; |
2,74- 2.7!
257.1; (pi.) 88; 122
hadhaka 2.7>,\
fulfil- 62 e
H i t , HadKiht 7.4', 274
fwuldtun (pi.) 105 a.
h a K ia , Vialvunaka 2 4 a
fu ila t u n 75 a; 76; 89 b (pi.); 229
ha-nnua-AKd 27A
f u f u l i i a t i 7
hdka 349
"11- -Ju uttun c
hakadha, 2%4
hal 335; 296.3; 351.1
' ,> 2 .
hal ( co n d itio n : c ir c u m sta n tia l
fuwayqa 291.4 acc.) 380
318.1; 335 b
G e m in a t io n 26.1; 50; 51.2; 53.1; H a l f i a 4

55; 56; 59; 233-236 hamu, hamun 71 b; 150
fatabosunnat
Index 329
h a m z a h 4 ; 13 - 1 4 1 5 30 4 0 - 4 3 'ibnun 21; 22; 72 c ; 141.1 b 391

5 9 65.2 ) verbs with h a m z a h ( id a fa h g h a y r h a q jq iy y a h
237-239
Id en tity, e x p r e s s io n s o f 395b
Kan, h a u u n , h a n a t i 72 &'l ( U
idh, 280 b 343; 442 idh-ma;444
harakst 27.1 461.3
h a r a q a 178 b ; 249 *idti-dhaka, u d h ia U k a 2 4
harf 27.1 'I 280 b; 365 a; 369 a 343;
h a s b u 317.2 b 365 443.1 464 ' idha-ma 343.1
h a s h a 312.2 440.1 ; 465
h a s n a , h a s u n a 2&2 Hdhan 196.2 b 284; 447.1

h a t i 349 -Hdhin 284.2
) prep.) 291 a ; 292.1 3 0 4 'idlun 388 b

a-ma); (subjunctive)2 8 5 b ((i ifw a lla (4 rad. IV) 21 d '; 162.5
b; 308 b 196 ; 310.3 3 4 5 4 3 9 H fa
alla (4 rad. IV ) 21 d ; 162.5
) h a lt a |
,ifah alla (4 rad. IV) 21 d ; 162.5
h a w a la (prep.) 291 b; 292 c

if'ala. (IX) 21 d a 178; 251.1
h a w la (prep.) 291 b
(if1alalia (4 rad. IV) 21 d; 162 a :
h a y h a t a (-i / - u ( 53.2 348 177; 218
h a y th u 3 4 5 4 4 1 461.1 ifa lla (IX) 21 d; 162 a ;171 201 ;
h a y th u - m a 2 9 0 461.3 218
h a y y a (I) 258 b ,ifa lla (XI.) 21 d; 162 a ; 171 201
h im 284.2 3 4 6 ; 420 218
h in a - m a 346.1 ,ifalatun 248 b
,
. h ir u n , h i a t u u 72.4 \( \ .\ ifalu n 102 225 248.2 259
h u b b a 263 H fanla (XV) 21 d; 162 i ; 173
208.1, 218.1 251.2
h u m u 7.5 264.2
ifan lala (X IV - 4 rad. Ill) 21 d
:
H i a , H u n aka, h u n a lik a 2%4 a
i 162; 173 176
hurUf 27.1
H fa w a la (XII) 21 d c 162; 173
lurQf q a m a r i y y a h ( slams i y y a h (
44.1
ifaw w ala (X III) 21 d; 162 c ;173
ifv d lu n (XII) 21 d ; 225
h u s n a 262
n j lm (1I c \2\\ 2.2.(
Hypothetical (unreal) conditional
sentences 445 a; 4 4 7 b 1
; 45 3 - 4 5 5 ifilalun (XI) 21 d ;225
,ifillalun (4-rad. IV) 21 d : 226
'n. ij,.
<prefixed m o r p h e m e ) 66 c( -1
,ifinlalun (X IV - 4 rad. I ll) 21 d ;
i - 7.4 157.3 ) stem-final( 34 - 3 5
225 226
5 2 a; 60 b 56 ; 155 2 5 2 c 256
,ifin ld
un (XV ) 21 d 225
ib n u m u n 37 b >; 151

In d e x

ifiwwalun (X III) 21 d; 225 ref. t o (nomina unitatis) 83.1

iftvala (V III) 21 d; 162 g; 170 84 a
i|ti. Q,li (21 \\ d\ 22

infa'ala (VII) 21 d; 162 h; 169

ila (prep.) 291 a; 291.3; 292 c; nnjvalun (\\T\\j 21 <1, 22
303; 308 b; 344 (>Ua- an ); 441 In fle cte d (son n d o r ext.ernal)

ilia 45; 310; 318.1; 409.1; 452; p lu r a l 101-105: 112.1; 140: 147-
456 149; 154-155; 223
-irn (suffixed m o r p h e m e ) 63.5 inna 49 c; 265.1; 338; 339; 366.1;

404 b (/a-.mna); 439.2; 445.1
"im sabahan 241.2

innama 313
im a la h 29.1
In n er (a b solu te) o b je c t 205: 376-
imma 45; 332; 343 a; 451; 459 b
378

imma-la 314
Inst.rum ent, n o u n s o f (nomina
I m p e r a t iv e 220-222; 253 c; 412
intrum enti ) 79-80
I m p e r f e c t 180; 184-188; 189 b; In tern a l (broken) p lu r a l 83; 87-
192; 212; 216-218; 409 a; 431 b; 100; 111 c; I 1 4 b ; 122
439 b; 446.1:450; 453 a; 464
In te r je c tio n s 347-349
" I m p r o p e r a n tie x a t io n (gen.
I n te r r o g a tiv e p a r tic le s 41 c; 323.1
c o n s t r u c tio n ) 146.3
333; 335
'wr
,ra>(],tw
, 21 a; 17 \y 72 e
I n te r r o g a tiv e cla u s e s 326.1; 333;

im ru
un 21 a; 37 b; 72 e; 151 335; 415.2; 419 b
358
I n te r r o g a tiv e s 285-288; 351.1; 427
-in 11; 53.3; 55; 57 b; 147; 151;
In t r o d u c t o r y g e n it iv e 337; 369 a;
155 a
389

in 45; 339.2; (
in ...wa-
in) 332;
n s m i 'IV - TZ c,
343 a; 445; 446 b; 447; 450;
453.1; (
in law), 456; 459;
istafala (X) 21 d; 49 b; 49.2; 162
461.2; (n ega tive) 52.1; 322; 367 e; 162 g; 172258 ;245.2 b
n stiH a ti c 2 0V d\ 24 <
-ina 53.2; 116.2; s. -unaf-ma istifalu n (X) 21 d; 2252 48 .2
'inda (prep.) 291 b; 307 nstira 2,1 ' TZ .
In d e fin ite s t a t e '141; 147; 152-153;
itfaâla (V) 21 d; 47; 162.4
285 c; 362; 363 Htfafala (VI) 21 d; 47; 162.4
I n d ir e c t d e ix is 2 7 5 2 7 6 b >itta
ala (V III) 21 d; 238; 242 b;
I n d ir e c t q u e s t io n s 415.2; 419 b 243
Indirect, s p e e c h 419 -iy (nisbah) 65 b; 116.1; 155.1; -
In d iv id u a l n o u n s 85.1; 86 b iyatun 65 b; 93 b; 76; -iyd
u 65
)-)
In d iv id u a l p lu r a l 83; 89.1; 91.4;
92; 106 1); 111.2 -iyy (nisbah) 35.3; 65 b; -iyyun 86
b; 116-118; -iyyatun 65 b; 76
In d iv id u a ls in a class, n o u n s
,
v.kitibosunnat.com
In d e x 331
iy y a - 272; 310 c; 328 b

khalfa (prep.) 291 b
iy y a k a 272.2; 328.2
khayrun 124.2126.2
khudh 42; 238
j a ' a l a 192.1; 432 a
kila-, kilta- 64.1; 109; 395 b
i n 41 a; 247.1
jd
K in d, n o u n s o f (nomina speciei)
j a l l a 262 77; 376
ja m ' d'U 138 kul 42; 238
j a m v u n 137 kulla-ma 344; 463
ja z m a h 5 kullun 136; 352 a; 295 b; 387 a
J u ssiv e 194-195; 198.1; 214; 221 .tali 7.5; 268.4
b; 253 b; 412; 446 a; 450; 452;
460; 461; 464.1
- 198; 334; 339 b; 342.1; 447 b;

ka- 291; 292.1; 293 b; 297; 344 453 a; la-ma 334.1
an) 352 a; 353.1
(ka-
la 142 a; 182 b; 184.1; 195 b; 196
a n n a 344; 344.1 (k a-'an n a-
ka- a; 317.2; 318; 367.2; 450.2
m a); 365 b; 418 b; 439.2
la'alia 338; 342; 344.1 (la'alia-
a y y in 287.1
ka- m a); 369 a
k a b u r a 262 lada (prep.) 291 a; 292 c; 305
k a d h a . k a d h a k a , k a d h a b k a 2 ,4 < c, ladun (prep.) 291 a; 292 a; 305;
k a ) J a t i \ 7 .1 315.2; 345
k a ' in 287.1 la-
in 450 b
k a lla 318.1 lakin, lakinna 338; 340; 344.1
k a m 287; 387 a (lakinna-ma); 369 a
k a - m a 297.2; 344; 418 b; 418.2; lam 1 8 1.3 19 4 a: 319; 446; 450.2

438.1 la-ma 334.1
k a - m | U 7 c lam-alif
k a n a (y a k u n u ) 128; 190; 191-193; lamma 194 a; 319; 334.1; 343 b;
197; 222.2; 244.1; 360; 382 a; 443; 456.1; lamma an 343.1;
446 b; 450 b; 453 b; 464 b 443
kasr, k a sra h 5; 56 b lan 187.1; 196 c; 320; 447 a
k a t h ir a n m a 315.1 lata 324
k a t h ir u n 120.1 law 343 a; 445;Zi o n n a 454
k a w n u n 416.3 law-la 318.1; 455; 457.1
k a y 196 b; 318.1 (k a y - la ); 345; law-ma 457.1
438; k a y - m a 345.1; 438.1 layalfQ 3.3; layaliya 346
k a y fa 288; 289; 345.2 laysa 202 b; 209; 323; 367 a
k a y t a 284 c layta 338; 341; 344.1; 347 (layta
k h a la 312 shvri); 350 (laytun); 369 a
-.kitabosunnat.c.m
332 In d e x
li- ( p r e p .( 146.1 199.2 203.2 mafal- 68 a; maf'alu 135; a 152

206.3 a; 292 b 291; 295 mafalun 78 a ; 230; 248.3 257.3
)s u b ju n c t i v e ( 19 b ; 345 ; 438 ; rnafalatun 74.4 b 78; 89.4 230;
)p a r ticle ) 195 a 248.3257.3
a n 438 li-
li- a n n a 344 m a B l - \ maJnluTi
,
L ig a tu r e s ( o r th o g r a p h y ( 3 248.3
li- k a y , li- k a y - m a 345 438 mafilatun 78 b ; 230 257.3 248.3
lim , l i m a 285 b mafalatun 78 b ; 230 ) p j .( 89.4
li- m a 289.1 90.1
L o a n w o r d s 19.3 64.6 71.1 104.1 ma/'ula

u (p i .( 90.1
L o c a l d e m o n s t r a t iv e s 284 a maf
ulitn 66 b ; 66.1 95.3 102
223 ; 247
L o n g v o w e ls 7- 10 54.2 55 60
mah 285 b
mahma 290; 462.1
m a 23 b 285
makutha 432 c
m a - ( p refix ed m o r p h e m e ) 66 b
man 285 296.3) r e la tiv e ( 289
m a 23 285 m a l i - 28.5.1 295.2 421 423 425 a 461
434.1 ) rela.tive) 289: 308 c (m a
M an n er, n o u n s o f (nomina
b a y n a ( 421 424 , 425 . m ( 128
speciei( 77 376
a t - ta ' a ja b iy y a h ) ; ( in d efin ite (
maratu, m aru 72 e ; 151
141.4 c 285; 290 337.2 424.2
461 ) s u b o r d in a t i n g ( 344 ; 361 M a s c u lin e 110
413 416 418 ) N e g .( 181.3 202 mata 288 289 mata-md( 290(;
b ; 310.3 321 ); m i >m ( 322 345
neg.) 367 a; 382 (m a ( (! ,.M a teria l, in d ic a t io n o f (w itli a c c
)sub. c o n ju n c t io n ) 343 b : 462 gen., a p p o s .( 384 b; 394 a 390
)m a d a m a ( 462.2
ma>n 7 .la
m S a l- t ija z iy y a h 367.1
,M e a su rem en t, d im e n s io n
n a a l- m a ?d a riy y a h 416.1
in d ic a t io n o f 379 .b; 394 a 390
m a' 291.1
mi- (!.,refixed m o r p h e m e ) 66 b
m a m (prep.) 291 a ; 298 ; 344
mifala,tuT 7l
m a ' a d d 312
mifalun 79 121
ma a f' a la 128
mif'alun 66.1 c 78; 79 121
m a ' a n 315 a
mtfilun 121
m d - d h a 285 a
mil- 49 c ; 291.2
ma hasha 312.2 min ( p r e p .( 45 c; 125 b 49; 146.1;
ma khala 'AVI 199.1 b (mimman 285( 287
m a d d a li 16 m im m a ) ; 291 a ( 289.1; 292
a ; 293 299 303.2 317 352
mafa'ilu ( p i .( 94 ; 102
a : 353.1 a 367; 383.1 241.2
mafd'ilu ( p i .( 95 102; 121.1 223.1
In d ex 333
)minima, mimman); 425 c ; n ( m o r p lie m e ( 45 h; 162 i 162;

441.1 min {ala, 291.3; min 'an 63.5 no, -n o 49 c - 141 145
301.1 min ha'di 291.3 299
Tiafsun 111 d ; 273 294.8 b 395;
b; min bayni 308.3 min duni
395 1
min fawqi ;309.2 291.3 299
nahwa (prep.) 291 b
\min J g q u y \ \ min. g h o f i
299.2 min haythu 441 min N a m es, p e r s o n a l 141.1; 153 f
lada 291.3 305 min ladun N am es, p r o p e r 81.3 102.1 b 111;
291.3 305 345 min qibali 141.1 143.1 d - f 153 277.1 385
291.3 c ; 386.1 a 390; 392
mithla-ma 4\ N a m e s o f a n im a ls 111.1
mithlu 146 b; 297 c; 388 b N a m e s o f c o u n tr ie s 111 b
M o d a l d e m o n s t r a t i v e 284 c N a m e s o f o c c u p a t io n s , v o c a t io n s
M o r p h e m e c a t e g o r y 58 77 116.6
M o r p h e m e p a tter n s, s u p p le tiv e N a m e s o f s u b s ta n c e s 112 a

I 1 3 b ; 119 N a m e s o f trib es, p e o p le s 86 b;
mil- ( prefixed m o r p h e m e ) 66 b ; 356.2 385.3
80 224 nazirun 146 b; 388 b
mudh 52.2 300 345 N e g a tio n 318- 327 335 367 439.1
mufa' alatun 225; 230.1 -n i,- n i 49 c ; 145
mufai l i m , J a " a J n ',
2,4 ni'immd 261.1
m j,Ja'al.un, m'U.JSfilnn
2'2,4 nvm a 259- 260) nvma-ma ( 261
mujoflalun, mujal i l i 114 N isb a h , fo r m a t io n o f 73 c ; 74 ; 86
muj'-alalkn,, muf a i m 114 b 95.2 96.1 99.2 ; 102; 116-
118; 388.1
mufallun, m u f dllun 224.1
N is b a h en d in g, s e e -iy, -iyy
mu}{aim 80 224
N o m in a l d e m o n s t r a t iv e s 283
muj'anlalun, muj anlilun '214
N o m in a l fo r m s 61
mu}ilun 102 224
N o m in a l se n te n ce s 190.2 a 323;
mufta'alun, m u j t a n l i 4
338 351 360- 367 c 409; 414
mufulatun, muf'ulun 80
a 447 ;435 ;415 ; 454
mundhu 25.2 300 mundhu ( 306.1
N om in a t.ive 140 206 265 a 352;
ladun (
, 345 mundhu ( 345.1 362- 364 455
)an ,
N o u n s e x p r e s s in g a s in g le a c t io n
m i j a ' a l i , m u n ja 'ili m (nomina vicis) 2 3 2 3 7 6
mur 42 238
N o u n s o fin st i- u m e n t (nomina
mustaf all,mustaj' ilun .2,14 intrumenti)
mntttjttalnn, mtitaja'ilnn 114 N o u n s o f k in d o r m a n n e r (nomina
. ,mntttjamlnn speciei) 7 7 3 7 6
mntttjttlttlnn, mntajttlilnn 114
' -
In d e x
N o u n s o f p la c e {nomina loci) 78; P a s s iv e 199-200; 210; 219; 246;

204.1 255; 358; 405 b
N o u n s ref. t o in d iv id u a ls 85.1; 86 P a u sa l lo r m s 55-57
b P e r fe c t 48; 180-183; 189 a; 191;
N o u n s ref. t o in d iv id u a ls in a 193; 197; 207- 208 ; 244 409.1;
c la s s (nomina unitatis) 83.1; 431 b; 439 b; 444.3; 446 a; 450;
84a 452 b; 453; 456.1; 459 b; 460-
N u m b ers, abstract. 129.5 465
N u m b ers, c a r d in a l 129-132 P e r fe c t in g e n e r a lly v a lid

s ta te m e n ts 446 a; 450; 452 b;
N u m b ers, o r d in a l 133
453 b; 459 b; 461-465
N u m b ers, ref. t o d a t e s 133.1
P e r m u ta tiv e a p p o s it io n 395
N u m b ers, s y n ta x 136.2; 354; 399;
P e r so n a l c o lle c t iv e s 86 a
401.1
P e r s o n a l n a m e s 141.1; 153 f
N u m b ers, w o r d s fo r 129-135
P e r so n a l p r o n o u n s 264-267; 279;
N u m e r a ls 25
355; 364-365; 381.2; 444.2;
445.1; ( a n d 2nd p e rso n ) 283
Oat.hs, p a r t ic le s e x p r e s s in g 294.2; b; 422.2; 429.2
347
P e r so n a l su ffix es 143 a; 203.1;
O a th s, w ish e s 182 1); 198; 327 b; 268-270; 292; 338; 358.1; 376.2;
334.1; 456 379.2; 382.1; 386.2; 388 a;
O b ject. 270-271; 294.1; 295 a; 391.1; 393.1; 455.1
373- 375 376 ; 378 ; 417 P h o n e m e 26
O b j e c t p a r tic le s 272 P la ce, n o u n s o f (nomina loci) 78;
O c c u p a t io n s , vocat.ions, n a m e s of, 204 1
77; 116.6 P la c e n a m e s 111 b; 357.1
O rd e rs, c o m m a n d s , requ ests, P lu r a l 5.2; 83; 87-100; 101-106;
e x h o r t a t io n s 195; 222; 316; 404 l l l c ; 122; I29b; 132.2; 358 a;
b; 412; 447 a 385 c
O r d in a l n u m b e r s 133 P lu r a ls ref. t o in d iv id u a ls 83;
O r t h o g r a p h y 4-24 89.1; 91.4; 92; 106 b; 111.2
P r e d ic a t e 202; 265; 293 b; 294 d;
P a r o n o m a s t ic c o n s t r u c t io n s 425 b 351; 352 b; 355-357; 361-364;
P a r t it iv e g e n it iv e 387 b 370; 417
P a r t ic ip le 78.3; 102; 146 c; 153 f; P r e d ic a t e c ir c u m s ta n tia l cla u se s

200.1; 210-204; 223-224; 230; 462.2; 417.2; 431-435
247; 256; 358 b; 380.1; 386.3 P r e d ic a t e c o m p le m e n t s 283; 371

P a r t ic le s e x p r e s s in g o a t lis 294.2; P r e p o s it io n s 23; 291-309; 315.2;
347 373.3; 422.1; 442
P a r t ic le s in t.rod u cin g cla u s e s 278- P r e p o s it io n a l p h r a s e s 200 b; 204;

279; 280; 334-346; 416.2 206.1:293; 351.1; 371; 393.1;

| , ...-, ----
In d e x 335
394.1:398.2 R e a l (valid) c o n d it io n a l se n te n ce s
P r im a r y a-djectives 115-118 445 a; 447 b; 499; 450-452
P r im a r y s u b s ta n tiv e s 71-72; 103 R e p e t it io n ( a p p o sitio n a l) 396
P r o h ib it io n ( n e g a tiv e o rd er) 195 R h y m e 56

b; 221 b; 447 a R e la tiv e cla u s e s 352 a; 385.2; 413;
P r o n o u n s, d e m o n s t r a t iv e 274-279; 421-430
386.2 R e la tiv e cla u ses, a s s u b s ta n tiv e s
P r o n o u n s, p e r s o n a l 264-267; 279; 421.-.427
355; 364-365; 381.2; 444.2; R e la tiv e p r o n o u n s 18.1; 281-282;
445.1; ( I st a n d 2nd p e r so n ) 283 289; 461
b; 422.2; 429.2 R e s u lt cla tises 412
P r o n o u n s, relat.ive 18.1; 281-282; R o o t 58-59
289; 461
R o o t c o n s o n a n t s 58
P r o n o u n o f tire fa c t 338
R o o ts , s t r o n g 59 a
P r o n u n c ia tio n 27-32
R o o t s w ith I-40-41; 59 c; 237;
P r o p e r n a m e s 81.3; 102.1; 111 b; 238
141.1; 143.1; 153 d-f; 277.1; 385
R o o t s w ith 1-weak 33 b; 94.2; 59
c; 386.1; 390 a; 392
d; 240-242; 243
R o o t s w ith 11-gem. 50; 59 b; 67 b;
qabla (prep.) 291 b; 344 ( qabla- 233-.-236
rna, qabla-'an), 346.1
R o o t s w ith 11-weak 36; 49; 59 e;
qad 189; 191 b; 365 b; 409 b; 431 68; 88.2; 90.4; 91,1; 92; 94.1;
b; 447 a 100.1:115.1; 124.1; 244-248;
qadrun 388 b 258
qala 414.1; 419 a R o o t s w ith III- 43; 67 a
qalilan ma 315.1 R o o t s w itli Ill- w e a k 34; 36 a;
qalilun 120.1 43; 59 f; 60 b; 69; 82.6; 93.2;
95.1 ; 105.4 117; 154-156 ; 240
qalla-ma 262.1
b; 250-258
qibala (prep.) 291 b
!'loots w ith IV -w eak 59.3; 93 b;
Q u a lific a t io n 390-391; 377
93.2:95.1; 154-156; 251.3
Q u a n tity , q u a n t ita tiv e e x p r e s s io n s
rubba 337; 369 a; 389; rubba-ma
61; 124-139 337.3; 344.1
qubayla 291.4 rubbata
qubaylu 317.1 ruwayda 316 b
r
a 42; 239 b sa- 187 b; 196.3; 414; 447 a;
R a d ic a l 39; 58 (prefixed m o r p h e m e ) 162 e
rajulun 358 5a
a 262
raytha 346; 346.1 {raytha ma) sa
ala 239 a

-.kitabosunnat.com
336 In d e x
sahibun 159: 391 b 3 5 5 4 6 4 ;417 ;369- 368 35

samdwdtiin 35.2; 105.3 S u b je c t, la ck o f 199 b; 202.1; 204;
sanatun 37.1; 70 b 359
sara {yasiru) 382 b S u b ju n c t iv e 196-197: 213; 253 a;

410-411:414; 418.2;439 b
sawfa 187 b; 196.3; 447 a
S u b o r d in a t e c la u s e s 310 d; 413
S en te n ces, t y p e s 351
S u b o r d in a t in g md 344; 361; 413;
S e n te n c e s e x p r e s s in g w ish e s 182;
416; 418
457
S u b s t a n t iv e c la u s e s 352 a; 413;
l a d d a h 17; shaddah 262
414-418; 434; 437
shafatun 70 b; 72 d
S u b s t a n t iv e s 61; 70 a; 110-122;
sha
naka 361 b; 328.2 352; 363
sharrun 124.2; 126.2 S u b sta n tiv e s, cla u s e s fu n c tio n in g
sharwa 388 b a s 413; 419-420
sh a ll m S u b s t a n t iv iz a t io n (form s
shfvun 72 a fu n c t io n in g as, tr e a te d a s
su b sta n tiv es) 113.2; 126 b;
shibhun 146 b; 388 b
144.2; 297 b; 350; 352 a
silah 19
S u b s t a n t iv iz e d r e la tiv e c la u se s
S in g u la r c o lle c t iv e s 83.1 421-427
s ir ana, su r ana 262.2 sukQ n 5; 7; 18
siiua 311; 325; 388 b S u p e r la tiv e 126; 387.1
S o n a n t s 51; 55-56; 57 a
S u p p le t iv e m o r p h e m e p a t te r n s
S o u n d ( in flected o r ex tern a l) 113 b; 119
p lu r a l 101-105; 112.1; 1 4 0 1 4 7 -
S y lla b le s tr u c tu r e 51
149; 154-155; 223
S p e c if ic it y (acc., gen.) 146 c; 384;
388 - (prefixed m o r p h e m e ) 46; 47;
Status constructus 145-146; 149- 162 g
150; 157 b; 269; 285 c; 291 b; (fem. en d in g) 64.1
385
ta- (prefixed m o r p h e m e ) 49 a; 66
Status determinates 7<4\ \4&- \ a; 162 f; 211.1; (oa th pjirticle)
294.2
Status Indeterminatus 141\ 147% td 274
152-153; 285 c; 362; 363
ta'dla 349
S t e m s w ith v o w e ls 34-35; 52;
tafa"ala (V) 162 f; 167
154-156
tafti
ala (VI) 162 f; 168
S t r e s s (w ord, plira se) 32
tafa'ilu (pi.) 94 f
S t r o n g r o o t s 59 a
tafa<ilu (pi.) 95: 102
S u b je c t 206; 266; 267; 352-353;
tafa
lala (4 rad. II) I62f; 175

v.kitab sunnit.com
In d e x 337
t a ja ' l u l i (4 Tad. \?2 1

tuha t a 2 4 .\
alun 231 - tu m u 7.207.4 \
ta filu n ( taja"uliin (VY) 2.27 T w o - ia d ica ) s u b s ta n tiv e s 70 a

t a f ila t u n 69.3; 231.1; 257.2
>! - 36 b; 41 b; (prefixed
t a H la t i 222
m o r p h e m e ) 66 c
taf'ilu n 69.3; 102; 231
-7.5 : (stem -final) 34-35; 60 b;
tafiqa 422 a 252
tafkhim 29.1; 29.2 ' 4 c
taf'ulatun 231.2
,u f a y a lu n (pi.) 82.4
tafulun 231.2 u f a y i l u n (pi.) 82.4

tahta (prep.) 291 b ' u j ' u l a t i 77
tahtu 247 u f u l l u n 66 c

tala-ma 262.1 ,u f u l u n 66 c
tanwin 11-12; 141
u k h tu n 64.1; 72.1
to? marbutah 42
4 . mJaL 7 7 - 274\
tarkhim 159 -urn (prefixed m o r p h e m e ) 63.5

T e m p o r a l d e m o n s t r a t iv e s 284 b
u m m a t i 157.3; 158.2
,u m m a t a ,
thamma 284 a -un 11; 55; 57 b; 147; 151
T h in g s, n a m e s o f (adj. e n d in g ref.
-unaf-ina (pi.) 53.2; 89.1; 101;
to) 114 a
103; 113; 114; 116.2; 131; 147-
thintani 64.2; 129 a 149; 154-155
thumma 196.2; 330 U n sp e c ifie d o b j e c t 373.3
thummata 330.1 U n sp e c ifie d s u b je c t 358
- (prefixed m o r p h e m e ) 66 a U n rea l ( h y p o th e tica l) c o n d it io n a l
274.2 s e n te n c e s 445 a; 447 b; 453-455
tif alatun, tif alun 224.2 - (su ffixed m o r p h e m e ) 65 c
tijl' lm 227.4 -uwatun 93 b

ttht7.4-
274.2 'uzma 262
T i m e a n d d ate, e x p r e s s io n s o f
141.2; 295.1; 315 b; 346; 359.2; . V e la r iz a tio n 31
360.1; 379; 386.2; 420 V erb a l a d je c t iv e 293 ;203.3 ;201.1
T o ta lity , e x p r e s s io n s o f 136-139; V erb a l p r e d ic a t e 355-357
353; 395 b V e r b a l s e n te n c e s 351; 355-359;
T d ip to tic in fle c tio n 147-152 414
u- ( p refixed m o r p h e m e ) 66 a; V erb a l s t e m s 161-178
243.3 V e r b a l s u b s ta n tiv e s 102; 155.2;
tuj ulati 224.2 204.1; 205-206; 225-231; 236;
240 c; 248; 257; 271.1; 293;

338 In d e x
375.1; 376-377; 417.3 waylummi 349.1

V o c a l s t e m s 34-35; 52; 154-156 waylan, ujaylati, njaijKtu
V o c a t iv e 142 a; 145.1; 157-159; W ea k r o o t s 59-60; 6 7 - 7 0 2 5 8 - 237
189.1 W islies, se n te n ce s e x p r e s s in g 182;
V o c a t iv e p a r tic le s 347-349 457
V o w e l a lte r n a tio n 37.1; 151 W ord s, c it in g (gender) 112 b
V o w el a s s im ila t io n 37 b wu- > 'U 36; 41 b
V o w e l e p e n th e s is 38
V o w els 5-'10; 28-29; 52 ya- (prefixed m o r p h e m e ) 66 d
V ow els, lo n g 7-10; 54.2; 55; 60 yd 142 a; 157; 159; 221.1; 263.1;
337.1; 341; 347; 347.1 ( la-)
yd )ayyuha 157; 347
- 196.2; 294.2; 328; 369 a; 389;
tjaduu Ti
400; 401.; 404; 405.1; 407-409;
410.1; w a - h w a , w a - h y a 264.3; yaf&ilu (pi.) 95
M d 452 b; i -
w a- in 458; w ad- yaf
alu 163
195.1; w a - la 318 b; 32-4.2; wa- yafcalun 66 d
la w 458
yaj'ilu \
w a 158; 347
yaMlun 66 d
w a lid a 135
yaf'ulu 163
w a h id u n 129.1.; 131.1
uaj'ulun, Ijafuluu ><d
"1 - la k m , " i - l i r i t 4
Ija ffa alu
w a r d ) a (prep.) 291 b
y a f f c t a lu m
w a r 317
yaku 244.1
w a s la h 19-22
yakunu 193; s. kana
w a sta (prep.) 291 b
yawma 346; yawma-
idhin 284.2;
a.l-Trw'i' ija h 1. < 315 b
waj, 348 Y ears, n u m b e r s ref. t o 133.1
w a y h a 348
wayla 348; 350 zalla 52.2; 190,1; 234.1; 432 c

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WOLFDIETRICH

THIRD REVISED EDITION

YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW HAVEN & LON DON

Third Revised Edition

Translated from the German by

YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Copyright 2002 by Yale University.

All rights reserved.

Tliis book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illus-

Designed by the translator.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Printed in the United States o f America

Suffixed Pattern Morphemes (64-65) ...................................... 39

Use of the Energetic (198) 110

Negation (318-327) .............................................................. 171

Adverbial Clauses (437-444) 222

JOURNAL ABBREVIATIONS 319

The transliteration of the Arabic examples is based on the system em-

The idea to undertake the translation of Fischer's invaluable resource

The translator is pleased to acknowledge the indispensable and patient

Well-deserved credit is due Wolftiart Heinrichs, who willingly and pa-

The contribution of Peter T. Daniels, who volunteered to undertake the

This work was produced with Eberhard Mattes' typesetting program

This work is dedicated to two towering figures of American scholar-

For German readers, Carl Brockelmann's Arabische Grammatik lias

Earlier grammars had borrowed tlieir system of description from the

A grammar tliat is intended to be used mostly as a teaching and refer-

Those who wish to embark on training in classical Arabic and those

as elaborately and completely as possible all the grammatical material re-

A consistent arrangement with numerous cross-references whenever

Earlier grammars usually offered the terminology of the Arab gram-

Erlangen, April 1996

As a result of the conversion of Arabs to Islam and tlieir establish-

The "classicalperiod of this learned literary language occurs in the

Vintage texts of pre- and early Islamic poetry served preeminently as

Despite tlie prescriptive preoccupat.ion of Arab philologists and gram-

From tlie beginning of its tradition, from the pre-classical language of

Despite some modification, t,he structure of classical Arabic, wliich had

used Aramaic as their written language, began writing Arabic. The 22

N ote 2. In the Maghribi style of writing, is used in place of ( fa

Table of the Arabic Writing System

Isolated From Medial To TTan- Letter Numeric

For pronunciation, see 27 ff.

3. Calligraphy prescribes the use of ligatures to join certain letters:

a) Initial forms of when joined to and create

N ote 1. For typographical reasons, certain ligatures containing

as , etc., are employed.

b) The lam-alif ligature is written and >1 , respectively; lam-mim,

c) Before final , and are sliortened to:

d) In combination with and final , the medial form o f

5. Th e short vowels a, i, w are rendered by diacritical marks placed above

6. ) suhln) marks the absence of a vowel after a consonant. At

N o te 1. On tile dropping of sukun with a, i, , see 7. For other examples,

7. Long vowels are represented by: 1: a, = i, U) where the

N o te 1. For representing I, ay and , a, see 3.4; 10.

N ote 4. Final -fin dhihi, hadhihi, tiki, hdtihi 'these' (fern.),

N ote 5. Final - in humu, kurnfi,' -tumu (264.2) is not written.

N ote 1. For technical reasons, sometimes just ifatha) is printed in place

9. Some words ending in atun have preserved a liistorical spelling with an

10. At the end of a word, -a is frequently written with ) 3.4(: rama

N o te 1. An arcliaic spelling has been preserved in the proper name "Amr:

N o te 2. The writing I 1 occurs both in idhan, alongside ndhan,

N ote 1. Spellings with and I alternate frequently in nouns: ,asan

13. The origin of the orthography of the feminine singular ending