1.1.

1 Definition of Fabrication

Fabrication, when used as an industrial term, applies to the building of

machines, structures and other equipment, by cutting, shaping and
assembling components made from raw materials. Fabrication shops
generally concentrate on the metal preparation, welding and assembly of the
vessel.

The most important characteristics to be considered when selecting a

material of construction are:

1. Mechanical Properties

• Strength-Tensile Strength
The tensile strength (tensile stress) is a measure of basic strength of a
material. It is the maximum stress that the material will withstand,
measured by a standard tensile test.

• Stiffness-Elastic Modulus (Young’s Modulus)

Stiffness is the ability to resist bending and buckling. It is a function
of the elastic modulus of the material and the shape of the cross
section of the member (the second moment of area).

• Toughness- Fracture Resistance

Toughness is a measure of the materials resistance to crack
propagation. The crystal structure of ductile materials such as steel,
 aluminum and copper is such that they stop the propagation of the
crack by local yielding at the crack tip. In other materials such as cast
irons and glass the structure is such that local yielding does not occur
and the materials are brittle.

• Hardness-Wear Resistance
The surface hardness is an indication of a materials ability to resist
wear. This will be an important property if the equipment is being
designed to handle abrasive solids or liquids containing suspended
solids which are likely to cause erosion.

• Fatigue Resistance
Fatigue failure is likely to occur in equipment subjected to cyclic
loading for e.g. Rotating equipment such as pumps and compressors
and equipment subjected to pressure cycling.

• Creep Resistance
Creep resistance is the gradual extension of a material under a steady
tensile stress over a prolonged period of time. It is usually only
important at high temperatures, for instance, with steam and gas and
gas turbine blades. For a few materials notably lead the rate of creep is
significant at moderate temperatures. Lead will creep under its own
weight at room temperature and lead linings must be supported at
frequent intervals. The creep strength of a material is usually reported
as the stress to cause rupture in 100,000 hours at the test temperature.
2. The effect of high and low temperature on these mechanical properties
The tensile strength and elastic modulus of metals decreases with
increasing temperature. If the equipment is being designed to operate at high
temperatures, materials that retain their strength must be selected.
Creep resistance will be important if the material is subjected to high
stresses at elevated temperatures. At low temperatures (<10°C ), metals that
are normally ductile can fail in a brittle manner. The phenomenon of brittle
failure is associated with the crystalline structure of metals. It is a complex
phenomenon and is dependant on plate thickness and the residual stresses
present after fabrication; as well as the operating temperature.

3. Corrosion resistance
The conditions that cause corrosion can arise in a variety of ways. It is
classified into the following categories:

• Uniform Corrosion
This term describes the more or less uniform wastage of material by
corrosion, with no pitting or other forms of local attack.

• Galvanic Corrosion
If dissimilar metals are placed in contact, in an electrolyte, the
corrosion rate of the anodic metal will be increased, as the metal
lower in the electrochemical series will readily act as cathode.

• Pitting
 Pitting is the term given to very localized corrosion that forms pits in
the metal surface. A good surface finish will reduce this type of
attack.

• Intergranular Corrosion
Intergranular corrosion is the preferential corrosion of material at the
grain (crystal) boundaries. Though the loss of material will be small,
intergranular corrosion can cause the catastrophic failure of
equipment. It occurs due to accumulation of impurities at the grain
boundaries.

• Stress Corrosion
Corrosion rate and the form of attack can be changed if the material is
under stress. Generally, the rate of attack will not change significantly
within normal design stress values. However, for some combinations
of metal, corrosive media and temperature, the phenomenon called
stress cracking can occur.Stress corrosion cracking can be avoided by
selecting materials that are not susceptible in the specific corrosion
environment or by stress relieving by annealing after welding and
fabrication.

• Erosion Corrosion
The term erosion corrosion is used to describe the increased rate of
attack caused by the combination of erosion and corrosion. If a fluid
stream contains suspended particles, or where there is high velocity or
turbulence, erosion will tend to remove the products of corrosion and
 any protective film, and the rate of corrosion will be markedly
increased.

• Corrosion Fatigue
• High Temperature Oxidation
Corrosion is normally associated with aqueous solutions but oxidation
can occur in dry conditions. Carbon and low alloy steels will oxidize
rapidly at high temperatures and their use is limited to temperatures
below 500°C.
• Hydrogen Embrittlement
Hydrogen Embrittlement is the name given to the loss of ductility
caused by the absorption and reaction of hydrogen in a metal.
In order to select the correct material of construction, the process
environment to which the material will be exposed must be clearly defined.
Additional to the main corrosive chemical present, the following factors
must be considered:
• Temperature
• Pressure
• pH
• Presence of trace impurities- stress corrosion
• The amount of aeration- differential oxidation cells
• Stream velocity and agitation- erosion corrosion
• Heat transfer rates- differential temperatures
The conditions that may arise during abnormal operation, such as at start up
and shutdown must be considered, in addition to normal, steady state
operation.
4. Any special properties required such as thermal conductivity, electrical
resistance, magnetic properties etc.

5. Ease of fabrication of the vessel. i.e. – forming, welding, casting

6. Availibility of the material in standard sizes.

7. Cost of the material

The actual cost of metals and alloys will fluctuate quite widely, depending
on movements in the world metal exchanges.
The quantity of material used will depend on the material density and
strength (design stress) and these must be taken into account when
comparing material costs. Moore (1970) compares costs by calculating a
cost rating factor defined by the equation
Cost Rating = (C x ρ ) / σd
Where C = cost per unit mass, £/kg
ρ = density, kg/m3
σd = design stress, N/mm2
Materials with a relatively high design stress, such as stainless and low alloy
steel can be used more efficiently than carbon steel.
The relative cost of equipment made from different materials will depend on
the cost of fabrication, as well as the basic cost of the material. Unless a
particular material requires special fabrication techniques, the relative cost
of the finished equipment will be lower than the relative bare material cost.
For example; the purchased cost of a stainless steel storage tank will be 2 to
3 times the cost of the same tank in carbon steel, whereas the relative costs
of the metals are between 5 to 8.
If the corrosion rate is uniform, then the optimum material can be selected
by calculating the annual costs for the possible candidate materials. The
annual cost will depend on the predicted life, calculated from the corrosion
rate, and the purchased cost of the equipment. In a given situation it may
prove more economic to install a cheaper material with a high corrosion rate
and replace it frequently, rather that select a more resistant but more
expensive material. This strategy would only be considered for relatively
simple equipment with low fabrication costs, and where premature failure
would not cause a serious hazard.
The more expensive corrosion resistant alloys are frequently used as a
cladding on carbon steel. If a thick plate is needed, for structural strength, as
for pressure vessels, the use of clad materials can substantially reduce the
cost.

Methods of fabrication

Process equipment is fabricated by a number of well established methods

such as fusion welding, casting, forging, machining, brazing, and soldering.
The size, shape and properties of the material influence the procedure that is
used.

Fusion Welding
It is the most widely used method for the fabrication of steel vessels.There
are two types of fusion welding that are extensively used for the fabrication
of vessels. These are
1. The gas welding process

A combustible mixture of acetylene and oxygen is used which

supplies the necessary heat for fusion.
2. The electric arc welding process.
The heat of fusion Is provided by an electric arc.
Arc welding is the preferred process because of the reduction of the heat in
the material to be welded, the reduction in oxidation and better control of the
deposited weld metal. Gas welding is the preferred type of welding for light
gages of materials which are difficult to weld by the arc welding process.

One of the most successful developments in Arc welding is the Submerged

Arc Welding process. The method involves submerging of the arc beneath a
blanket of granulated mineral flux. The arc beneath the metal generates heat
to melt the electrode and deposits the weld metal. A portion of the
granulated flux melts forming a protective layer on the weld metal, and
solidifies with the weld metal. In addition to completely protecting the weld
metal from the atmosphere it makes the weld metal completely free of
hydrogen (WHY????).As the arc is covered, there is no arc flash and lesser
quantity of smoke and obnoxious fumes as compared to the other welding
processes. As the weld cannot be observed by the operator mechanical
attachments are used to control the dimensions of the weld.

Casting
Casting is a mass production process which involves molten materials (such
as metals, plastics or resins) being poured into a mold, allowed to solidify
and then extracted for use.

Forging
Forging technology occupies a very important place among all the
manufacturing processes as it produces parts with excellent properties and
with minimal wastage. In the forging process the metal is heated up by
applying compressive force and given shape by plastic deformation. The
compressive force is applied by hammer blows using a power hammer or a
press. Forging has the capacity to refine the grain structure and improve the
physical properties of the metal.

Soldering
Soldering is the process of a making a sound electrical and mechanical joint
between certain metals by joining them with a soft solder. This is a low
temperature melting point alloy of lead and tin. The melting point of the
solder is about 190 C.
While soldering care must be taken that both the pieces of metal which need
to be soldered to each other are heated to an equal high temperature.

Brazing
Brazing is the joining of metals through the use of heat and a filler metal –
one whose melting temperature is above 840°F(450°C) but below the
melting point of the metals being joined. Brazing is ideally suited to the
joining of dissimilar metals. You can easily join assemblies that combine
ferrous with nonferrous metals, and metals with widely varying melting
points. It provides considerably high mechanical strength.

Machining
Machining is the broad term used to describe removal of material from a
workpiece, it covers several processes, which we usually divide into the
following categories:
• Cutting
• Grinding
• Turning
• Milling

Non-Destructive Testing (For Intro)

Nondestructive testing (NDT) are noninvasive techniques to determine the

integrity of a material, component or structure or quantitatively measure
some characteristic of an object. In contrast to destructive testing, NDT is an
assessment without doing harm, stress or destroying the test object. The
destruction of the test object usually makes destructive testing more costly
and it is also inappropriate in many circumstances.
NDT plays a crucial role in ensuring cost effective operation, safety and
reliability of the product. NDT is used in a wide range of industrial areas and
is used at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of many
components. The mainstream applications are in aerospace, power
generation, automotive, railway, petrochemical and pipeline markets.

There are several methods of NDT, each with its own advantages and
limitations. The reliability of the method is an essential issue. By use of
artificial flaws, the threshold of the sensitivity of a testing system has to be
determined. If the sensitivity is to low defective test objects are not always
recognized. If the sensitivity is too high parts with smaller flaws are rejected
which would have been of no consequence to the serviceability of the
component. As important as the sensitivity of the instrument is the skill of
the personnel handling it. Correct assessment and interpretation of test
results requires a high level of training and experience.

The most common methods of NDT are as follows:

Ultrasonic Testing:

The ultrasonic principle is based on the fact that solid materials are good
conductors of sound waves. Whereby the waves are not only reflected at the
interfaces but also by internal flaws (material separations, inclusions etc.).
The interaction effect of sound waves with the material is stronger the
smaller the wave length, this means the higher the frequency of the wave.
This means that ultrasonic waves must be used in a frequency range between
about 0.5 MHz and 25 MHz and that the resulting wave length is in mm
Radiographic Testing:

The principle of RT is based on the principle of absorption of X-rays by

solid materials as given by the expression I = Io (-μt); where I and Io are
intensities of transmitted and incident beams, μ is the absorption coefficient
and t is the thickness of the material.
This means that those parts of the material that have less thickness, such as
defects and edges transmit more radiation than the bulk material. The
transmitted beam is recorded on a film, which displays the internal structure
of the material.

Magnetic Particle Testing:

The Magnetic Particle Inspection method of Non-Destructive testing is a
method for locating surface and sub-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic
material. It depends for its operation on the face that when the material or
part under test is magnetized, discontinuities that lie in a direction generally
transverse to the direction of the magnetic field, will cause a leakage field,
and therefore, the presence of the discontinuity, is detected by use of finely
divided ferromagnetic particles applied over the surface, some of these
particles being gathered and held by the leakage field, this magnetically held
collection of particles forms an outline of the discontinuity and indicates its
location, size, shape and extent.

Eddy Current Testing:

Eddy current inspection usesthe principal of “electromagnetic inductionsis
for conducting examinations.
When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a
magnetic field develops in and around the conductor. This magnetic field
expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the
current is reduced to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the
close proximity to this changing magnetic field, current will be induced in
this second conductor.
Eddy currents be used for crack detection, material thickness measurements
as well as conductivity measurements for heat treatment monitoring.

Liquid Penetrant Testing:

This method employs a penetrating liquid, which is applied over the surface
of the component and enters the discontinuity or crack. Subsequently, after
the excess penetrant has been cleared from the surface, the penetrant exudes
or is drawn back out of the crack is observed. Liquid penetrant testing can be
applied to any non-porous clean material, metallic or non-metallic, but is
unsuitable for dirty or very rough surfaces. The penetrants can contain a dye
to make the indication visible under white light, or a fluorescent material
that fluoresces under suitable ultra-violet light
1.2.1 Definition of Heat Treatment

Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their
physical and mechanical properties without changing the product shape.
Heat treatment is sometimes done inadvertently due to manufacturing
processes that either heat or cool the metal such as welding or forming.

1.2.2 Objectives of Heat Treatment.

i. Improvement in Ductility.
ii. Relieving Internal Stresses.
iii. Refinement of Grain Size
iv. Increasing Hardness or Tensile Strength and achieving changes in
chemical composition of metal surface as in the case of Case-
Hardening.
v. Improvement in Machinability
vi. Alteration in Magnetic Properties
vii. Modification in Electrical Conductivity

1.2.3 Heat Treatment Processes for Steels

i. Stress Relieving
Stress Relieving as the name suggests, is employed to relieve internal
stresses. There’s no micro structural change during the process.
The process of stress relieving consists of:
1. Heating steel uniformly to a temperature below lower critical

temperature
2. Holding at this temperature for sufficient time
 3. Uniform cooling, which is of utmost importance.

ii. Annealing
Annealing, in general, involves heating to a predetermined
temperature, holding at this temperature, and cooling at a very slow
rate. The heating temperature and holding time depend on factors such
as chemical composition of steel and final properties desired.
Depending on heat treatment temperature, annealing treatment can be
divided into
1. Full Annealing: Above upper critical temperature.
2. Partial Annealing: Between upper critical and lower critical

temperature.
3. SubCritical Annealing: Below lower critical temperature.

iii. Normalizing
Normalizing is a process of heating steel to about 40-50 °C above
upper critical temperature, and then cooling in still air or slightly
agitated air to room temperature.
After normalizing the resultant micro structure should be perlitic.
Since the temperature involved in this process is more than that for
annealing, the homogeneity of a austenite increases and the grain size
is finer in normalized structure rather than a annealed structure.

iv. Hardening
Hardening treatment consists of
 1. Heating to ‘hardening temperature’ (that is dependent on the

chemical composition of the material)

2. Holding at that temperature,

3. Followed by rapid cooling such as quenching in water,oil or

slat baths.
The term rapid cooling implies that the cooling rate is equal to or
more than the upper critical cooling rate.

v. Tempering
Tempering is a process which consists of heating hardened steel
below the lower critical temperature, followed by cooling in air at any
desired rate. Tempering treatment lowers hardness, strength and wear
resistance of hardened steel marginally. However, this marginal loss is
adequately compensated by advantages gained by relieving of internal
stress, restoration of ductility and toughness.
The purpose of tempering is to reduce the brittleness in hardened steel
and to remove the internal strains caused by sudden cooling in the
quenching bath.

vi. Carburizing
The introduction of carbon into the surface layer of steel that has a
low carbon content. In this process carbon is diffused into steel by
heating above the transformation temperature and holding the steel in
contact with the carbonaceous material which may be a solid liquid or
gas.