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    Swales & Feak - 1994 - CARS - Academic Writing For Graduate Students

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    Swales & Feak_1994_CARS_Academic Writing for Graduate Students

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    172.1 Academie Writing for Graduate Students ‘Be propared to discuss your fing in cass. Bring from you eld wir ou nui ae. Bring tho pamage Tesh Ten Prade a Rests ton om your own work ‘ork i xen Iyur rete ar a ecaahs eee ne fins oo tA, Jos may ope he Sel rraph ofthe Results ction forthe sentence enter min Ah Unit Eight Constructing a Research Paper II In this final nit, we deal with the remaining pars of «research per in the following order: Introduetion sections Discusion sections Acknowledgments Tiles tracts Introduetion Sections Tes widely recognized that writing introduction is slow, dict, tnd troublesome fr both naive speakers as well as nonnative feakers, A very long time ago, the Greek philosopher Plato re ‘marked, “The beginning is hall of the whole” Indeed, eventually Drducing « goad Tntrodseton section alwaye seems like a battle hand on, ‘Writing the Introduction of an RP is prticularly troublesome ‘The purpose of tie paper isto ‘This paper doverbes and analyzes My aim inthis pape is to In this paper, we report on Hono hind opening irre an unas in BP om een thar etcetera. rents like those above typically ome ator near the end of an RP Introduction, Why ie this? And what comes before? “We believe tha the answer o these question lies in ti intercon nected parts The fist half the answer es hee (GERRARD Io «teres paper assignment, the reader i et. tn 14 1 Academic Writing for Graduate Students in theory {aking the cate of one of thee few pa es start by describing the present ne entence ofthe Introduction ‘This study of the writing of 2 hese, faders and 1 third graders, ‘eemeered with iw lr lea the (Cordeiro 1988, 62), Task One Read our draft I roucton ou ni RP and cary ot th ‘that follow. aT Constructing « Research Paper Il 115 [TABLE 25. Moves in Reseach Piper Introductions Mere 1 Move 2 ‘The Position of Sentence Connectors in Academic English (C.B Foak and J M. Swales Intruation "Many commentators have noted that sentence connectors (¢, fowever) are an important and useful element in expository and 'shrumentative writing Frequency atadies oftheir occurrence in scademic English extend at least an far ack as Huddleston (197L. BSL writing textbooks have for many years regularly Included chapters on sentence connectors (eg, Herbert. 1965), ‘Most reference grammars deal with their grammatical Hatas, lassiicaton, meaning, and use. *Some atintion has also been ven to the postion of sentence connectors in elatats and sem ‘ences, “Quirk and Greenbaum (1973) observe) that the nora Prion is intial (b) that certain connectors, such as hence and eral “are restricted, or virtually restricted, onl postin? (2485; and () that medial positions are rare for most cone "ectors, and final positions even rarer. "The only tempt known 170-1 Academie Welting for Graduate Students tous to explin diferenoes in| postion on semantic grounds is an unpublished paper by Salers (1976) dicassed in Cele Marcia and Larsen-Freeman (1983) *The Salers paper deals only with advesatives like however and suggests that initial position re- Secs snuthingconrary to xpedaton, whe medal poston reflects «contrast thet isnot necessarily unexpected. "However, nether of these studios provides any descriptive evidence of the actual positions of sentence connectors in academic texts Inthe ‘resent paper, we report on a preliminary study of sentence- connector postion in 8 sample of twelve published stiles 1. Divide the text int the these base moves ° ie eimai ntstion wide 3. What kindof More 2d wou? 4. What Kindo Mir 30d we use? 5. Undetine o ila any words rexpreson in sentencs through 8 used to establish a research territory. 6, List the aie citations used in our draft introd raft introduction. (Salern is ‘ed iD you hae etic of etree oh pre ‘Where do these six citations occur in the sentence? this tellus? CS What doos sn Se eo TT This is also very true four oun mini-RP. I you look Tn fact, this isnot how the study started at all In Fall 1992, student in John Research Paper Writing es faked him if there Constructing s Research Papor I 177 yrw any rules for where to put the sentence connectors. Not ving wer mediate answer, John played for ime and asked what the a Most suid they always put them fst, ven though they la tied hat they didnot alas come fist i the books and arte they read. Then ane student, Arthor Hsien, sid chat papers bere sociology profesor tllngthe class never to put ve rer ninital positon, As English teachers, we were so struck {eth pice of eramatia folklore that we decided to investigate! Task Two Discus the filling issues with a group. 1 Do you tink the “true story behind our investigation should bo buile into the Introduction? If s, where and how? 2, Alternatively, do you think it should be made part of the Dit ‘cin? Or would the Acknowledgments be the best pace to tention bow the study eame about? Ora fotnate? Or shoud it te omitted altogether” 4, Do members of your group have comparable experiences to Felate-pethaps storie about how pieces of eecnrch started “moet by sect but are described as if they were planned? 4. Haw would you answer the flowing question? In any inveti- tation, certain events take place ina certain oder. Do yo. ‘hint ice eomenary to keep to that order when writing an R, tr is-an athor free to change that order to construc a more ‘hetrially etetive paper? ‘OF course, by this tie you may be thinking that all this retort ‘al work Introductions is only needed jn the soil sciences and the humanities There, eademics may indeed need to erate To tare spaces for themselves Surely, you may be thinking, the Gan endl fe not necessary in tre” science, Before coming to any sab concasion, easider the Gest haf of the Introduction to this paper from aerospace and atmospheric cienes 178.1 Academie Writing for Graduate Students High Angle Attack Caleulations of the Subsonic Vortex Flow in Slender Badies . Almotino een oe Sora npeisastnegceoe Speen ee ma fever cperp iets Pair eperemor ton mines ene a ee eeemerice es Svein ets cegenmna se Ee Seco een eres ee Smsre te ae es ee Tega rnin inline aes al Srna ween es iy avast corres rere meoz mz Find th three uses of interest inthis passage. What does this tll ‘es? What might the author sayin sentence 6? Language Focus: Claiming Centrality Note particularly the language used in the frst two sentences to cexpreis Move Ia, The increasing interet in... has heightened the need for OF particular interest and eamplesty are (This second ee Constructing « Research Paper It 179 ee Seren = ee ee eee os casccae cece Peer eee ena reece: ‘The study of has oeome an important aspect of ‘centralise in is ‘The. has ben extensively studied in recent years, Many investigators have recently turned to ‘The relationship between has been investigated by many r= searchers ‘Many recent studies have focused on Task Three Find «recent journal from your field of interest, Look at Ube open ings of up ta sx articles All he articles should come frm the ane Journal, How many f any, bagi with « Move Ia? IF any d, photo- ‘oy the openings or write them down and bring them to elass. (Or fend them to your instructor an electronic mi Reviewing the Literature ‘The CARS model states that Move 1b (introducing and reviewing toms of previous research inthe area is obligatory. Why should it be oligatory? Task Four ‘There ar, in fact,» surprisingly Inge numberof theories about the "ole and purpose of etations in academe texts. Six are given here, 10 / Academie Writing for Graduate Stodents Discuss witha group the vality of ech. Which do you think con- ‘ribute most to our understanding of why citations are used in aca ‘demic writing? Does your group have any other theories? 1. This theory is widely proposed in manuals and standard pra tice guides. Citations are used to and They area matter of ethics and in defense against plagiarism (ese Notes on Plagiarism in Unit Five! 2, This theory has many supporters, especialy in, well ‘established elds lke the sciences. Citations are used to ey recognize the history ofthe “The remaining theories have been proposed hy individual author. 8. Ravets 1971: Chaos oe SEER" a 4, Gilbert 1977 ve 5, Baveloe 1978: ations are used to Constructing « Research Paper It / 16 6, Sales 1900: Citations are used 3 ‘describing what has been dane, Now suppose that we have actually carried out «study ofthe reasons for using citations in academic texts and have begun to trite an RP. This the daft ofthe introduction so fr. Read it and “onside the questions that fallow. Citations are widely recognized as being an. important and distinctive property of academic txts Undood, the pretence or absence af citations allows the eacual reader to get an immediate sense of whethor a text is a "aca demic" o “popula” one, “Because citation is such an ob- 1a vious surface phenomenon thas been much discussed in the academic world. Indeed, there are several theories about the role and purpose of cations in academic texts wsox We now have to write Move tb, 1, How can we sequence our ax theories (plus any others that have ene up in your groupe)? Te key element in literature roview is that order i imposed onthe material, not so much erder in your own mind, but order in the readers mind 2 Clearly we need to start with the two major traditional views (Ghoores 1 and 21 How ean we order the remaining four (3-67? Should we organize in the chronological order as presented? Is ‘his~at leas in this case—a weak kind of ordering? Ia there nother way? (ne possibility might be to eateorize theares 8-6. Do you en sider the theories by Ravets, Gilbert, Bavelas, and Swale to be 182 / Academie Writing for Graduate Students ‘comomie theories? tociologcal theories? ‘hetorical theories? ‘Wie coud then decide to take next th case whore wo have tw ‘members inthe eafegory. One plan could look ike this, ‘Thoory 1 tablished major theories ‘Thoory 2 Rhetorical | Theories 4nd 6 | orion associated with individual Economic | Theory 3 suthors. Sociological | Theory 5 | Task Five ‘Writ either a short review ofthe citation literature ora short re view of atleast five papers from your own field, Use the reference “ystem that you are most comfortable with. Ifyou review papers {om your fi, also hand in rough diagram showing how you have Imposed order on the mater taught in English castes) The allowing, therefore, are only general fuidelines for tense urage ‘Several studies have shown that at least two-thirds of ll citing statements fall into one of these three major patter. ‘Constructing & Research Paper It / 188 1 Past—researcher activity as agent dons (1987) instigated the enuses of literacy. ‘The cases of iliteray were inestgated by Jones (1987) 1, Present Perfect -researcher activity not as agent ‘Tho causes of literacy Aaor ben widely investigated (Jones 1967, Ferrara 1990, Hyon 1998) ‘There have deen several investigation into the causes of ‘rary (Jones 1987, Ferrara 190, Hyon 1984) Several researchers have studied the causes of iteray. "2 1 resto free to esearch ati "The causes ofliteracy ae complex (Jones 1987, Ferrara 1980, Hyon 1988) lkeraey appears fo havea complex set of causes Note thete common uses of these patterns ee tern Pater I ‘Also note that im patterns I and HI, attention i given to what pre- ious researchers di, while in pattern II, the focus on what has ‘een ound Finally note that diferent areas of scholars Aiforent preferences, Ihave somewhat Hoover, ll three patterns tend to ocrur in many exten: ve Ierature reviews, since they add arity to the text. We have seid that these three patterns cover about two-thirds of ‘ho cases. he reason this proportion x nt higher is Beenie writers ‘erature reviews can ave cin options in heck of nee ‘len: By ad ag thse css the pa 184 / Academic Writing for Graduate Stodents However, stated, concluded, claimed, te). With these reporting verbs, tense options are posible Jones (1987) concluded that iiteray can be related to ‘Jones (1987) has concluded that ‘Jones (1987) concludes that “The differences = there tanses sre eae ‘ose tothe writers own opinion, close tothe writers own research, for cove ta the current state eee Plato argues that Confosns saye "The Bible says The Constition states Comparable options exist in the eubordinate clause. ‘Jones (1987) found that illiteracy was correlated most closely with overs Sones (1987) found that il over he ESET hat ihe writer btiws tat SEA Ged cries ture net Ve cy is correlated most closely with jation in Reviewing the Literature In the language focus, we concentrated an the three main citation patterns. There are, of cours, some others According to Jones (987, the causes of literacy are clay re- red to poverty Constructing a Research Paper I 18 ones! research shows tha literacy and poverty ae inter-related (ones 1987) con ou come up with vome more? Good writers of literature reviews emplay a range of patterns in order to vary their sentones. As this is something that we have Sireody discussed in Task Twelve of Unit Six, you may want to view that section bafre doing Us next task Task Sie Here is rviow that uses ony citation pattern I As you can see ting the came structure all he time ean cause the reader to lose {terest Rewrite the passage so that it has mare variety. Your ver ‘Son wil probaly be shorter than the orginal—enather advantage! ‘The Origins ofthe First Scientific Articles "the first scientific journal was started in London in 1665, Ob uly, the firs ciel artiles had no diet models to build on, lind several echolars have discussed poruible influence. °Ard (1958) suggests thet the fis articles developed from the scholarly leer that scientists were accustomed to tending to each othe. ‘Sutherland (1986) showed that cary articles were also inf enced by the newspaper reports of that time Paradis (1987) de Seribed the inflenes of the philosophical essay. “Shapin (1954) Claimed that the ssientie books af Robert Boyle were another ‘model, ?Finally, Bezerman (1988) argued that dieussion among the slentsts themselves made its on contribution tothe emer ‘once ofthe seientife arte ‘Move 2—Establishing a Niche In many we ae the ngs that MOWED what has ben done seat ‘ke sr sera on MTS By the end of Mowe 2, the reader should have @ ‘ed ide of what is going to come in Move 3 186 / Academie Writing for Graduate Students Most Move 2s establish a niche by indicating a gap-by showing tutte carta se ect come ‘aril kind fei se Ui Usually Mahe29 GUILE, often consisting of no more than 1a sentence. Sometimes, however, Move 2 ean be quite complicated. Consider, for example, the Move 2 from the Almocine paper on the ‘calculation of vortex ows. (Move 1 appears earlier in thie unit.) Tash Seven Red the middle section af the Almoing introduction (containing Move 2) and then answer the questions that fllow The ist group of methods cannot treat SD flows and ie limited to very slender bodien. The second group of com putational methods* i time eonauming and therfore texpensive, and its separation prediction snot suliciently fceurate. "Both the methods inthis group andthe method ine suffer from the dependency on too many sem ‘empirical inputs and assumptions concerning the vortet wake and its separtion. The steady. 8D nonlinear m

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