eee 1) (eB LT: Paved 44th Pty TRY c] 3ADVANCED MAIRIINIE ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE VOLUME I Vikram Gokhale N. Nanda NG ENGEE ENTERPRISESFirst Published March 1999 Reprinted June 1999 Reprinted September 1999 Second edition September 2000 Third edition June 2001 ©NG ENGEE ENTERPRISES Mumbai, India. Printed in Mumbai, India. Price : Rs. 320/- All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopy or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication), without the written permission of the copyright holder.S.Mukhopadyay, Marine Engineering & Research Institute, CEng, F.LMarE Calcutta. ‘Extra First Class Enginecr. February 1999 Foreword ‘re Marine Engineer today, has to deal with the complete spectrum of marine engineering technology found on board all modern vessels. Asa ‘general practitioner’, he cannot have a Specialist’s knowledge in all areas. Thus two things are essential. First, that he understands the language of the Specialist, so that effective communication can be made if required, especially when trouble-shooting problems Second, that he must have available good reference material, especially of the Specialist’s fields. This book covers the requirements outlined above, in the field of Marine Engine especially for candidates appearing for MEO Certificate of Competency examinations. It provides the understanding of the terminology and strives to be ‘the standard reference book’, both for the shipboard engineer, as well as for the superintendent ashore, who is a vital link in the chain. This has only been possible because the authors have varied experience, not only as Specialists in the marine field, but also as ship-board engineers tackling a variety of problems They have the necessary background, training and practical experience, that makes a Marine Engineer so unique T hope that this will be setting new standards for training, and proving that India now provides the most efficient and also the best quality man-power to all the merchant fleets of the world. I wish the authors, Mr. Vikram Gokhale and Mr. N.Nanda, both ex- students of this Institute, the best of success in this book, which I know must have taken them alot of hard work and patience to complete. I hope there will be many more books to follow. iMiphopadyay. Director, Marine Engineering and Research Institute (MERI), Calcutta - 700 088.Preface This book has been thoroughly updated and revised, to suit the recent changes made in the syllabus. All this has been possible only because of the overwhelmingly good response received to the earlier edition Marine Engineers should find this book invaluable, not only as a work of reference, but also as a complete text book, while preparing for MEO Certificate of Competency exams The object of this text-book is to present the subject matter in a concise, informative and lucid manner. ‘Many changes have occurred in the field of Marine Engineering, which are basically of an evolutionary nature. Thus it is important to grasp the basic principles, before an attempt is made to understand the present generation of marine engines and auxiliaries. The topics, which have been covered in this book have been carefully selected, and the extent of coverage of certain topics has been substantially expanded, to do adequate justice to the subject. It is earnestly hoped that this text-book will serve the needs of students & teachers alike. Any constructive suggestions for this book are always welcome. We would be thankful for any feedback, especially concerning possible errors and omissions. If these are brought to our notice, the required changes could be incorporated in revised editions, and help provide our readers with the best quality of technical literature, that they should always get We wish to thank all our colleagues, friends and well-wishers, especially those from the faculty of the Lal Bahadur Shastri College of Advanced Maritime Studies & Research, Mumbai, without whose support and encouragement, this would not have been possible Vikram Gokhale N.Nanda LBS College of Advanced Maritime Studies & Research, Mumbai, IndiaAcknowledgements vO he authors gratefully acknowledge the help, information obtained and contributions from various members of the Marine engineering fraternity, including the faculty of the Lal Bahadur Shastri College of Advanced Maritime Studies & Research, Mumbai We are particularly appreciative of the information obtained through various books, technical magazines and other articles, which helped to cover the subject at an advanced level. We would also like to thank Mr. AK Ramanujam, Principal of Varun Maritime School, Mumbai and Mr. V_P. Dater, of ‘MAN B&W Diesel A/s, who were extremely helpful, We would not attempt to enumerate al those who have contributed in some measure to this effort, since the list would be endless. This s more the result of anindustry effortTable of comtemnts Chapter I Internal Combustion Engines 1. Engine Types 2. Engine Matching and Selection 3, Tests and Trials 4, Fuel pumps, Adjustment & Injection 5, Fuel combustion 6. Fuel Characteristics and Variable Injection Timing 7. Indicator Diagrams 8. Power balancing 9. Combustion monitoring Chapter Ir ‘Scavenging & Pressure Charging 1, Scavenging 2. ‘Types of Turbocharging 3. Turbocharger design, fouling, 4. Surging and maintenance Latest developments in engine components - 2 stroke and 4 stroke. Chapter II Lubricating oil systems 1 Applications - Bearing and cylinder lubrication Additives Indication of additive starvation Cylinder liner wear & fitting Lubricating oil - analysis and sampling. Function and treatment of lubricants Cylinder oils - Low speed engines Engine factors affecting lubrication System oils - low speed engines Chapter Iw Marine fuels. 1 2 Properties Low temperature properties Corrosion and paints 1 Corrosion triangle & reactions Factors affecting corrosion Sacrificial anode system. Surface preparation standards Ignition quality Cleaning and treatment Homogenisers Galvanic cell Types of corrosion Impressed current system Types of paintsOperational problems and Maintenance 1. Slip in Crankshaft 2 3. Vibration 4 5. Crankease corrosion 6 7. Failure of crosshead bearings 8. 9. Crankease explosion, safety devices 10. Il. Startingairline explosion 3.5 2 13. Scuffing 4 15, Deposit formation in oil cooled pistons 16, 17 Piston seizure 18, 19. Chain slackening 20. 21, Turbocharger damage 2. Chapter vi Controls 1. Govemors 2 3. Classification society rules for starting air systems 4 5. Unattended machinery spaces 6 7. Vibration & noise monitoring, 8 9. Bridge control of main engine 10 Chapter VII Water Treatment 1. Boiler water treatment fundamentals <3 2 3. Factors affecting corrosion, scaling & carry-over 4 5. Tests for low pressure boilers 6 7. Interpreting test results 8 9. Boiler blowdown 10, 11. Boiling out, degreasing, descaling & derusting 2 13. Tests for cooling water 14 15. Reverse Osmosis Chapter WIIr Shafting,, propellers, materials and vibr: 1. Shaft system and thrust block 2. 3. Oil injection fitting 4 5. Cavitation & propeller maintenance 6 7. Propeller characteristics 8. 9. Service and spare propeller 10. 1, Bearing materials 12 13, Vibrational analysis 33, Chapter v Main engines with fretted chocks Valve deposits Bearing failures Bacterial infestation in system oils Scavenge Fires Piston ring failures Excessive wear of rings & liners Piston ring clearances Clover-leafing Gear damage Boiler tube repairs Starting and reversing ‘Main engine interlocks Condition monitoring Main engine control system Advantages of automation Elements affecting boiler treatment ‘Treatment for low pressure boilers Low pressure boiler system Boiler - wet lay up Chemical cleaning of boilers Cooling water treatment Degreasing of diesel cooling systems Stern tube bearings & seals Propeller removal - Pilgrim nut Controllable pitch propeller Propeller material & selection Material & processes Fusible alloysChapter 1x Surveys, regulations and pollution control 1, Certification and Surveys 2. Harmonised system of surveys 3. Continuous hull survey & machinery survey 4. Annual surveys 5. Enhanced survey system 6 Corrosion & coatings 7. Structural defects and their locations 8. Dry docking and lay-up repairs 9. Schedule & scope of dry-dock work 10, Technical aspects of drydock 11. Port state control 12, ISM code 13. Pollution control & Marpol 14. Oilpollution & OWS 15, Airpollution 16. Prevention of pollution 17. Garbage disposal 18. Oilpollution prevention 19. Sewage regulations Chapter X Fixed fire-fighting installations 1, Inert gas system 2. Carbon dioxide system 3. Carbon dioxide-gang release system 4. Fire in cargo spaces 5. Recentry into engine room 6. Carbon dioxide system calculations 7. Foam system - low expansion foam 8. Water spray system 9. Steam smothering, Halon systems 10. Fire main system Chapter XI Ausiliary Machinery Air Compressors 1 Definitions 2. Reciprocating compressors 3 Air filter & valves 4, Intereoolers, Aftercooler & Fusible plug 5 Oil system and relief valve 6 Bearings 7 Rotary compressors 8. Control air treatment Steering Gear 1 Regulatory requirements 2. Rudders and torque on rudder 3. Power developed by rudder 4, Steering Gear Assembly & Controls 5. Faults, Causes, Remedies 6. Fail-safe Steering & Steering failure 7. Tests, drills, examination 8 Non follow up Steering Deck Machinery 1, Anchor and windlass 2. Winches for cargo handling 3. Electrical power for deck machinery 4. Fin stablisers Refrigerating Machinery 2.0 1. Vapour Compression eycle 2. Properties of refrigerants ‘Types of refrigerants 4. Reciprocating compressors 5. Expansion valves 6. Operational problems 7 Lubrication 8 Alternative refrigerants Letter WritingForce Moment of force Work, energy Power Pressure ‘Temperature Volume Kilogram Gram Tonne Newton Kilonewton Newton-Metre Kilonewton-metce Joule Kilo joule Kilowatt-hour Kilowatt Watt Kilowatt Newton per metre? mill bar mm of Mereury mm of water Degree Kelvin Degree Celsius Cubic metre per second Cubic metre per hour Litre per hour kWh Nim? mbar mm Hg mm water m/s mh UnChapter 1 Internal Combustion Engines Marine engines of conventional design fall into low-speed, medium speed and high speed category. Low-speed engines are generally intended for direct drive, (without any speed changing device) and are restricted to an rpm range, for which efficient propellers can be designed. This is generally between 50 to 300 rpm, at rated power. Low speed marine engines are mostly two-stroke, Crosshead engines, with between four to twelve cylinders, in-line, turbocharged, and aftercooled. The stroke-to-bore ratio of low speed engines (in current production) usually varies from 2.5:1 to 4.2:1 or even more. These engines are called Superlong stroke engines, and are well suited to operation on very low-quality fuels, and prove to be economically advantageous. Medium and high speed engines, because of their higher rpm, drive propellers through speed-reduction gears, but may be directly coupled for driving generators. These are usually four stroke, trunk-piston engines, which may have up to ten cylinders in-line or up to 24 in a V or W configuration, and are mostly turbocharged and aftercooled. Stroke-to-bore ratios are not very high, because of the forces created by high speeds. The upper limit of the medium-speed category, and the start of high-speed category, is generally placed in the range of 900 to 1200 rpm, but there are no clear physical features that enable the distinction to be made. At ‘one time, the mean piston speed was used as a defining parameter, but the traditional boundaries fail for many engines. These engines tend to be lighter, more compact, and lower in acquisition cost than low-speed en- gines, with a proven heavy-fuel capability, but most evidence indicates that maintenance costs are higher, as compared to Low speed engines, that are run on similar fuels of poor quality. Some engines, especially those in the higher-speed category, are restricted to distillate fuels. compu APUONSTI mossune ADIABATIC EXPANSION (Rowen) ——— sre youu DUAL CYCLE ‘Modern Compression ignition engines, or ‘diesel’ engines, as they are commonly known, operate on the Dual combustion cycle. The theoretical Dual or mixed combustion cycle is a combination of the constant- volume (Oto) cycle and the constant-pressure (Diesel) cycle.Rudolf Diesel has been credited with the creation of the Diesel engine. Diesel formulated his original engiue eyele concept in 1892 in a paper called - ‘Theory and construction of @ rational hear engine.? From Camot’s theories, published in 1824, he saw that increased efficiency would be achieved by increasing the temperature difference in the engine cycle to give the maximum expansion in the cylinder. The high cycle temperatures required would only be achieved by very high maximum cylinder pressures [ peak pressures ] [At these high pressures intended, it was clearly not possible to compress the fuel together with the inducted air, because of the possibility of premature self ignition. It thus became necessary to inject the fuel separately, into the air which had already been compressed, far beyond the ignition temperature of the fuel to be burt. This became the real distinguishing feature of the Diesel engine, Early gas engines used open flame ignition, then ignition by hot tube, followed by electric spark. Hot bulb engines, as developed by Priestman, Akroyd and others, achieved ignition, of the vaporised oil fuel, by the hot uncooled surfaces in the combustion cham- ber. Initially Diesel envisaged using Camot’s Isothermal expansion cycle, with maximum (but impractical) combuistion pressures upto 250 bar ; however, he eventually employed a more realistic level of 35 bar in his engine tests, nevertheless, this was still considerably higher than the hot bulb engine, using 10-15 bar. Diesel had to discard the impractical Camot cycle, in favor of one with constant pressure combustion, which was further modified to the Dual cycle. His second test engine ran successfully in 1897, achieving a maximum brake thermal efficiency of 30.2%, ata time when steam engines had efficiencies inthe order of 10-15%, and hot bulb oil engines were only a litte bit better. The first Diese! licensee was Maschinenfabrik- Augsburg AG (M.AN)), on 2Ist February 1893. This was followed by Krupp and Sulzer Brothers Ltd. in the same year. Burmeister & Wain (B & W) became licensees in 1898, By 1901, a total of 31 companies were licensed to build and sell Diesel engines. By 1902, some 359 Diesel engines were actually in use -mostly for stationary applications. The first marine diesels entered service in 1903 - the French canal barge Petit Pierre, powered by a 25 BHP, horizon- tally opposed piston engine, built by Dyckhoff. Being adapted from stationary applications, these early ma- rine engines were not reversible, and had to be used as part of a diesel- electric system, Direct reversing engines were introduced by Sulzer in 1905, followed by M.A.N. and others. In 1909, Sulzer started using Cross flow port scavenging for their two strokes, dispensing with cylinder head valves, a design that was continued till 1956, when Sulzer changed over to Loop Scavenging in the RD series. The application, of diesels to merchant ships, picked up from 1910 onwards. By 1912, there were 365 Diesel engined ships in service, The first motor ship [1910] was the Italian vessel Romagna, with twin, 4-cylinder, Sulzer engines, of 380 bhp. at 250 rp.m, The first ocean-going motorship was the Selandia [ 1912 }, which made her maiden voyage from Copenhagen to Bangkok in February 1912. The Selandia was powered by twin, 1,010 BHP, B & W, 8 cylinder, 4-stroke engines, which were direct coupled, had blast injection and were single acting, ‘The Monte Penedo, of 1912, was the first 2- stroke Diesel powered, ocean-going vessel, which had twin, 4-cylinder, Sulzer engines producing 850 B.H.P. at 160 R.P.M. Even so, by 1914, only about 0.47% of the total merchant gross tonnage used intemal combustion engines, buming diesel oil; while 89% were still coal buming vessels. By the mid- 1920°s, motor ships were designed to bum boiler-grade fuel in their main engines, however the commercial incentive to bum residual fuel did not exist, because of the low cost differ- ential between diesel and residual oil. During the early part of the twentieth century, practically all marine fuels were produced by straight distillation. In 1936, a secondary refining process was developed, called as ‘catalytic cracking’. This was introduced on a commercial basis during the early 1940s, to increase the gasoline yield. In the 1950s, a type of thermal cracking, known as vis-breaking, was introduced, which further increased the yield per barrel, with the result that the characteristics of the residual fuel varied consid- erably, depending on the source of the fuel and the types of refining processes carried out. Marine residual fuel today accounts for only about 4% to 6% of the barrel. There was intense rivalry, between 2- strokes and 4- strokes, uptil the 1930s; but by the mid - 1930s, the 2- strokes had dominated the large propulsion engine market. The earliest marine diesels were built like the steam reciprocating engines, comprising of heavy C.1 A-frames, mounted on a common bedplate. At first, the crankcase was left open: but, with the advent of pressure lubrication, cover platos were later fitted, Cylinder jackets wore cast integrally, on the individual A- frames and the engines of the Monte Penesio were the first to be equipped with interchangeable eylinder liners This arrangement formed the basis of Sulzer’s SD series ofthe 1940sSulzer Marine two-stroke engines The first Sulzer marine diesel was a 40 BHP, 2-Cylinder, four stroke unit of 260 mm bore and 4: mm stroke, installed in the cargo vessel Venoge. The SD/SAD series were developed from 1943 to 1954. A typical SD, the SD72 had a m.e.p. of 4.95 bar and s f0.c. of 159 gnvBHP-hr. The RSD type of 1955 had reciprocating scavenge punips, augmented by’ under-piston space scavenging. A diaphragm was fitted be~ tween the scavenge space and the crankcase. The b.me.p. was now 5.4 bar. The RSD were replaced by the RSAD of 1954/55. In the RSAD, the mechanically driven scavenge pumps were dispensed with. Ex- haust gas Turbochargers were now fitted, operating on the Pulse type of turbocharging, and also a rotary exhaust valve. This would close the exhaust ports immediately after the scavenging process. preventing a blow-back from other cylinders during scavenging, and keep the exhaust ports closed during the compression stroke, thus preventing exhaust gas from flowing back into the under-piston space, which was used as a scavenge pump. The m.e.p. was now 6.9 bar. The MCR of the RSAD 76 was 1175 bhp/ unit at 120 rpm. s.fo.c. was 153 gmv/ bhp hr. and peak pressure was about 60 bar. The RD of 1957, had loop scavenging pulse type of Turbocharging, and had improvements in the design of the Charge air Recciver, the turbo- charger, the scavenge cooler and the scavenge ports. The design of the rotary exhaust valves was also improved, The b.m.c p. was 8.64 bar, with an output of 2300 bhp/ unit (RD90), piston design was changed to take care of the higher thermal loads and piston cooling was done by water. via telescopic pipes and a sealing gland system (to take care of any water leaks.) In 1968, the RND type was introduced. using constant- pressure type turbocharging, with pistons having long skirts to blank-of¥ the exhaust ports - thus dispensing with the rotary exhaust valves, and used loop scavenging and under-piston spaces as scavenge pumps; additionally, there was double separation, between the under-piston space, and the crankcase, thus minimising the chances of contamination. The RND-M scrics of 1976 brought-in several changes. The two- part cylinder head, of the RD and RND, was changed to a solid, forged steel, bore cooled, single piece. cylinder head. The upper part of the cylinder liner was also bore-cooled. This was replaced by the longer stroke RL type engine of 1979, where the stroke-to-bore ratio was increased from 1.67:1 to 2.1:1. These ‘were designed for lower propeller spoeds and reduced specific fuel consumption, These were also the last of the loop- scavenged engines. For these engines, Sulzer introduced the V.LLT. sysystem, which improved the fucl efficiency at part-load operation. In 1982, Sulzer introduced the RTA series, with a number of radical changes from its earlier engines. ‘The RITA engines were first introduced as the 8 - Series: with uni-flow scavenging, through a single, centrally ‘mounted, hydraulically actuated, exhaust valve. The stroke-to-bore ratio was now 2,9:1, and piston cooling ‘was still with water. The piston was bore- cooled. Higher efficiency turbochargers permitted the omission of under-piston scavenge pumps. Separate Servo-motors were provided for the distributor, and fuel cams { one ‘Servo-motor for every two units], and the camshaft position remained unaltered, during reversing, since only the fuel cams were mounted on the Servo-motors. In 1984, Sulzer introduced the 2- Series of RTA engines, where the stroke to bore ratio was now increased to 3.45:1, and came in bore sizes of 520. 620 and 720 mm | the RTA 52, 62 and 72 J. The pistons were now oil-cooled, and the specific fuel consumption dropped to 122 igm / bhp-Hr, while peak pressures went up to 135 bar. In 1985, Sulzer introduced the RTA 84M, with power increased to 4700 bhp per unit. This was followed by the RTA 84C in 1988, with power boosted stil further to 5200 bhp unit, eylinder head material uprated and the geometry of the cooling bores changed, while the top piston ring was pre-profiled and plasma-coated to lower the wear rates. There were now three injectors per unit, and peak pressure was 135 bar. In June 1989, M.A.N. B&W tried to acquire Sulzer Brothers’ Diesel division, and call it M.B.S. Diesel engines, but this was not approved by the respective governments, and it reverted to Sulzer Diesel in January 1990, In July 1990, Sulzer Brothers sold a majority stake. of their Marine engine division, to a consortium of Bremer Valkan, H_D.W and D.M.R. of Germany, and Fincantieri of Italy, with a minority stake retained by Sulzer Brothers. The company’ was then called New Sulzer Diesel. In 1991, New Sulzer Diesel introduced the RTA 84T, which had a lot of new features. The stroke-to-bore ratio went up to 3.75:1. and peak pressure to 140 bar, while power went up to 5280 blp/ unit, and specific fuel consumption was now down to [19 gmv/ bbhp-hr. This engine was fitted with VIT, Variable Exhaust Closing [VE C.], and an electronic Governor. This swas followed by the uprated 2-Series, the RTA 52U, 62U and 72U, in 1992, where power was up by 8, \with the same specitic tse! consumption. and the top ning was now thicker, pre-profiled and plasma-coated. with claimed wear rates down to 0.04 mmy 1000 hr. Peak pressure was now 142 bar, In 1996, Sulzer - or rather, New Suizer Diesel. as it was called - was merged with the Metra Corporation, owners of Finland's Wartsila Diesel, to form Wartsila NSD. The latest 12 RTA 96 1s the largest, producing over 90.000 bhp.B&W Marine Two- Stroke engines ‘The Danish company, Burmeister & Wain (B&W), became licensees of diesel engines in 1898. In the period between the two World Wars, B&W together with their licensee Harland & Wolf, designed and built a wide range of marine engines. After the Second World War, B&W had discontinued double acting engines and concentrated on single acting designs. The first of the uniflow scavenged, two-stroke, crosshead engines came into service in 1939. These early engines, designated the VT2BF, had a short piston and cylinder liner, with separation between scavenge space and crankcase, The next change was in 1951/52, when exhaust gas driven turbochargers were introduced, The m.i p. was 8 bar. In 1959/60, a highly pressure-charged, large bore engine, designated the Type 84 VT2BF 180, was introduced, developing 2100 bhp/ unit, with a bore of 840 mm, anda s.f.0.c. of 158 gm bhp hr. By 1963, the VT2BF was built in bore sizes of 620, 740 & 840 mm, with a stoke/bore ratio of 2.1:1 to 23:1, anda BMEP of 8.6 bar. ‘The KEF was introduced in 1968, with a BMEP of 9.6 bar initially, later increased to 10.5 bar, and had an improved design of the exhaust valve, featuring a heat resistant Stellite layer, and operated by rocker arm, push rods and mechanical springs. This was followed by the KFF, of which the K98FF had a bore of 980 mm, output of 3800 blp/ unit, the peak pressure was 80 bar, and s.fo.c. was 154 grv/ bhp hr. In 1969-70, the KGF was introduced, the most visible difference being hydraulic actuation of the exhaust valve, using a hydraulic actuator on the camshaft. It aad a semi-built crankshaft, having a cast steel crankthrow; had pulse charging, improved exhaust valve seate of Stallite, a deep sactian welded hedplate, C1 crass girders, steel hacked shell bearings for crosshead, a forged steel cylinder head with bore cooling, a stroke/bore ratio of 2:1, producing 3100 BHP/unit [ K90GF }, BMEP of 11.6 bar, a specific fuel consumption of 152 gm/bhp-hr, and a peak pressure of 86 bar. The stroke length was further increased by 20-30%, with corresponding reduction in ‘engine speed, and these longer stroke variants were designated as the LGF series. The increased stroke and reduced speed resulted in an improvement in propeller efficiency of from 4.5% to 7.5%, with an improvement in fuel consumption figures. This was followed by the K/L GFC A in 1978, with constant pressure turbocharging, a scavenge pressure of 3.1 bar, steel backed white metal main/bottom-end bearings, a crosshead bearing having steel backed with 4% of tin alloy, a peak pressure of 89 to 93 bar, increase in b.me,p. to 15 bar, and a 16% reduction in specific fuel consumption ( to 128 gm/bhp-hr). The shape of the cylinder head and the dished shape of the piston crown in the GFCA engines formed an almost spherical combustion chamber, which minimised the risk of fuel jet impingement, thus reducing the possibility of excessive thermal stresses. In December 1979, a merger was announced between M.A.N. of Augsburg, and Burmeister and Wain (B&W), of Copenhagen. In 1981,2 joint company, M.A.N.- B&W GmbH, was formed to coordinate diesel engine design & ‘manufacture. The former M.A.N. works would concentrate on Four stroke engines, and the former B&W ‘works would look after the Two strokes; under the joint name of M.A.N.- B&W GmbH. The original M.A.N range of KSZ was discontinued, it being decided to continue the B&W K/L - GFC series; with the newly formed company, M.A.N.- B&W, producing all the future engines. In 1981, the L-GFC A was modified to the L-GFC B type, which had higher efficiency Turbochargers, which meant that mep could be raised from 13.9 bar to 15 bar, and the peak pressure increased from 89 bar to 105 bar, for the same engine speeds. The Pmax./ mep ratio remained unchanged, however the increased peak pressure raised the engine output by 15%, and the specific fuel consumption was reduced by about 3 gnv’ bhp hr A fuel optimised variant was the L~ GFC BE, with an improved fuel injection system, featuring an obliquely cut-off upper edge of the fuel pump plunger. This was the frst version of the VIT system, which improved economy at part loads, Early in 1982, the engine designations were simplified. The L-GFC B was re-designated as the LGB, whose main features were =a bmep of 15 bar, a Peak pressure of 105 Bar, while fuel consumption was 3% lower. The stroke to bore ratio was 2.4. 1. There were pneumatic springs for exhaust valve shutting In 1982, the LMC. was the first, of the so-called ‘MC - series’, which are still being produced today. ‘These were superlong-stroke engines having a stroke to bore ratio of 3.24 : 1. They were having from six to twelve cylinders, with the bedplate having a crossgirder, and with cast steel bearing supports: a crankshaft employing narrow gap submerged-are welding, or semi- built up. the main bearings of thick shell white metal the bottom end and crosshead bearings of the thin wall, aluminium-tin type, and the yuides of white metal piston had a chrome -molybdenum cast steel crown, a protective layer of Inconel being welded to the ‘outer part of the crown. the piston cooling was by oil, and it had a short cast-iron skirt; the crown being bolted to the piston rod, and the piston rod bolted to the cross head. The piston had four grooves. which were hard - chrome plated, while the skirt had a phosphatised surface. The power output was up to $241 bhp/unit - [for5 the L8O MC], and peak pressure was 125 bar, the BMEP 16.2 bar, the specific fuel consumption down to 119 gm/bhp-hr, the crosshead bearing had a one piece bottom shell. and there was a later version of Variable Injection Timing [V.1-T.| , called as super VIT, where the barre! was raised! lowered, for changing the injec- tion timing, unlike the earlier system, There was also the Fuel Quality Setting [F.Q.S.], which would compen- sate for the variable quality of the fuel that was being used A distinguishing feature of the ‘MC’ series was the reversing mechanism, which had pneumatically operated, self-locking, shifting rollers for the fuel cam. The SMC was introduced in 1987. The stroke/bore ratio was increased to 3.8:1, the BMEP increased to 18 bar, and was made with the following bore sizes - 260, 350, 500, 600, 700 & 800 mm bores at speeds of 80 to 255 RPM. The S 90 MC produced 6200 bhp/unit, and the specific fuel consumption was now 124 gm/bhp-hr. There was a two part water jacket. ‘This was followed by the KMC, where the stroke/bore ratio was initially kept at 2.9:1. It was made in 500. 600, 700, 800 & 900 mm bores, produced 5540 bhp/unit [ in the K90 MC], with specific fuel consumption at 126 gm/bhp-hr. ‘This was followed by the KMC-C version in 1988, having 5590 bhp/unit {for the K90 MC-C], a MEP of 16.2 bar, made in 800 & 400 mm bores, with a peak pressure of 135 bar, a stroke/bore ratio of about 2.55:1, and a specific fuel consumption of 121 to 119 gmvbhp-hr. This engine was produced for the container ship market, being used in faster ships with limited head-room, hence the lower stroke-to-bore ratio. The SMC series was further extended, with the addition of the S 42 MC in 1994, having an ultra Jong stroke of 4.2:1, and specific fuel consumption of 128 gm/bhp-hr. The ultra-long stroke, combined with the slow speeds, helped the engine to bum the lowest grades of oil. The K 98 MC is the largest, used for the new generation Post Panamax Container ships ( in excess of 8000 TEU) and the largest 18 cylinder K. 98 MC version is capable of generating 1,40, 000 bhp. oy LAYOUT DIAGRAM ce z - LAYOUT DIAGRAM MCE ENGINE MARGIN SERVICE MARGIN OMA CONTRACT POWER POWER w ‘ 100% ENGINE RPM ———> D sawer sas “MactniansIn the Otto cycle, the theoretical pressure-volume diagram is formed from two constant-volume and two adiabatic processes. The air in the cylinder is compressed adiabatically. Heat is added to the air at constant volume. Work is done during the adiabatic expansion and then heat is rejected at constant volume. In the Diesel cycle, the theoretical pressure-volume diagram is formed from two adiabatic operations, one constant-pressure and one constant-volume operation. Air is compressed adiabatically and then heat is added at constant pressure. Adiabatic expansion takes place and then heat is rejected at constant volume. ‘The theoretical air cycle can take place only in an engine based on theoretical assumptions. It is assumed that the piston is frictionless, the cylinder walls and piston consist of non-heat-conducting material, and that the cylinder head behaves sometimes as a perfect heat conductor and sometimes as a perfect heat insulator. We ‘must then imagine that the cycle starts with a cylinder and compression space full of pure air in compressing it and raising its temperature. During the compression stroke the cylinder head is behaving as a perfect insulator as are the piston and cylinder walls. Under these conditions no heat is lost during the compression stroke. At the end of the compression stroke, the cylinder head is assumed to become a perfect heat conduc- tor and heat is added to the compressed air from some extemal source (fuel). The addition of heat to the air (@t high pressure and temperature) forces out the piston against some resistance, and work is done at the expense of the heat in the air. As no heat has gone into the piston, cylinder head or walls, no heat can be given to the air and the expansion will be adiabatic, as was the compression. When the piston is at the end of the stroke the cylinder head is imagined to become a perfect conductor again. A cold body is then put against the head and some of the heat in the air goes into the cold body and continues until the temperature is back to initial temperature again. The process is repeated without changing the air. The heat added in the theoretical cycle is related to the heat content of the fuel injected into the cylinder in practice. The heat rejected is related to the heat lost in the exhaust gases. Generally diesel engines are so matched to their loads, that normal operations (in service) is at some high fraction of rated output , typically in the range of 80% to 90% of the maximum continuous rating (MCR), at a speed slightly below rated rpm. This region of operation usually coincides with the best range of specific fuel consumption. Anticipated component lives and service recommendations for inspection, maintenance renewal, and overhaul intervals are based upon operation in this range. The difference, between the power at MCR and the power level established for normal operation (which is sometimes called the CMCR or Contract MCR), is the Engine margin. RRM KW = na ' | 10} 1900 ne wel azo woo iy | 9 soo} 5008 : 2 Toa | enue suas 0 oo SHARIA e000 aie 00 ‘ ; nuynaanep i iu wl abe ate || geseaeee, | 7 ERROR, 204 1000 POWER CURVE: 1000 7 peo pctnrte 0 2 4 6 6 10 12% 16 18 20 120140 —— SHIP'S SPEED $+ SHIP'S SEA TRIALS Figure shows the speed-power curves for a ship. The curves can be projected at the design stage, The power absorbed by the propeller is less than the brake power because of transmission and shafting losses and attached loads. The average service condition curve reflects the fact that more power will be required for a given ship's speed to be achieved in service than on trials The allawance for services conditions, which is applied to the power estimate for the trial condition, is called the Service margin, and is applied in addition toz the Engine margin. The Total margin is the difference between the installed power (or MCR) and the power required to achieve service speed on trials, with the hull and propeller clean and smooth, and is equal to the sum of the engine margin and the service margin. In practice , many operators will accept the use of the power reserve that is incorporated in the engine margin to meet required service speeds as the hull perfor- mance deteriorates. In fact, the division between engine margin and service margin is not consistently de- fined, since the continuous service power is arbitrarily determined. The only important consideration is that the total margin be adequate, Engine matching and selection Relation between Ship Speed and Engine Performance If an engine were matched to run at 100% of rated rpm at the required service speed under trial conditions, it can be seen that, to maintain the required service speed, the engine would necessarily exceed its rated rpm increasingly thereafter, as the hull and propeller roughen. Consequently, propulsion engines must bbe matched on their propellers, such that the ship’s speed achieved at 100% rpm under trial conditions (the trial speed) exceeds the required service speed. An engine is normally limited in its power output by con- straints on thermal overload that are most conveniently expressed as an MEP limit. The MEP, like the torque, is proportional to the power developed divided by the rpm. Since the service speed is below the trial speed, it is normally the MEP limit that will be reached first as the hull and propeller performance deteriorate in service . Thus an engine can be forced into a condition of excessive torque and MEP without exceeding rated power. TURBOCHARGER OVERSPEED LIMIT 100% POWER (MCR) Z So AIR LIMIT ee 3 BS 2 ae cer Al al 59) TORQUE OR MEP LIMIT BIO) 2 g SD} 2 aq zg 8 g z IDLE SPEED PERFORMANCE LIMITS Required Engine Rating ‘The engine rating is generally determined so that, in the trial condition of the hull and propeller, at loaded draft and trim, the power required to drive the propeller, allowing for transmission and shafting losses, will be between 80% and 90% of the MCR, at rated rpm, This allowance will usually result in adequate marginsDerating Engines are derated, such that the power required under rated rpm at trial conditions is even less than 80% to 90% of the MCR, and there are various reasons for this, some of which are -the ship must maintain rigorous schedules or a large allowances for adverse weather conditions is required, thus the need for an adequate power reserve. -the long-term effects of increased hull and propeller roughness are expected to be large ~ extended stays in warm, seawater ports or anchorage, where increased hull fouling is likely - often the MCR rating does not give the most economical fuel consumption ‘When the rating is determined such that the power absorbed at rated rpm under trial conditions is less than the MCR, higher average power outputs can be utilized in service as the hull and propeller roughen, without excessive torque (as reflected in high MEP and cylinder exhaust temperatures), enabling higher ship speeds to be achieved. However, more power must be installed, and so acquisition cost and plant weight will be higher. Engine Selection Once the required engine rating has been established, other factors that affect the selection of engines for a particular application must be considered. Among these are the ship's type, the plant weight, the machinery space volume, fuel quality and consumption, acquisition cost, reliability, maintenance require- ‘ments, and present and future spare parts cost and availability. A requirement for low weight or minimum machinery volume may be achieved at the expense of high fuel consumption or high maintenance require- ‘ments. Selection of propulsion engines of light weight or low specific fuel consumption, for example may not result in the lightest or most cost-effective power plant. The operating profile of an engine assesses the time spent in various operating modes. All important modes must be considered, and periods of sustained idle or ow load operation must be included as well as those at high loads, For propulsivu engines, operating modes may include conditions of deep and light draft, clean and fouled hull, calm and heavy weather, cruising and high ship speed, towing or icebreaking and running free, and operation with and without attached auxiliaries. ‘The plant design and engine selection will be affected if the profile includes frequent or extended periods of maneuvering or astem running. In selecting propulsion engines, consideration must be given to whether a single engine of the low-speed, direct coupled type is most suitable, or if requirements are better met by one cor more medium or high speed engines driving the propeller through gearing or electric drive, Tests and Trials ‘The construction of a ship is concluded by tests to demonstrate that the ship meets contract require- ments, Some of the more simple tests are those of a quality control nature, which are conducted to ensure the conformance of material properties to specified requirements, the soundness of castings, dimensional accu~ racy, and other such characteristics. The more complicated program of tests and trials that is subsequently conducted does, however, reflect the unique requirements associated with ship construction, This program includes shop tests, installation tests, dock trials and finally, sea trials. Tests are preferably scheduled as early as feasible during the ship construction process because early testing allows more time to evaluate and develop resolutions for design or material problems with minimal disruption to ship construction. Shop tests for purchased equipment are advantageously conducted at the manufacturer's facility where any corrections cor adjustments can be expeditiously handled. A major advantage associated with the use of modular- con~ ctruction methode in chipbuilding ic the ability to conduct off-ship tests an constniction modules that may include a number of components and their piping connections. Shop tests are conducted for purposes such as confirming that assemblies are correctly built, verifying strength and tightness requirements, and demonstrat- ing that controls and safety devices are functional and properly adjusted. Components can often be tested more economically under shop conditions, and the shop ‘test environment is usually cleaner and less con- gested than that of a ship under construction. Components that lave restrictive noise limits are commonly ‘operated in a noisetest shop to confirm that they have acceptable noise characteristics before they are installed, After shop testing, components are given a protective covering that is not removed until installation aboard ship. Installation tests are conducted to confirm that the installation is in conformance with specified requirements, cleanliness of piping systems, to demonstrate adequate access for equipment operation, main~ tenance, and removal, and to confirm that components and systems function as specified. To the extent practicable, all components and systems are subjected to operational tests under conditions typical of those9 expected in service, to provide confidence that the design and construction are sound. After the ship is launched and construction is essentially complete, and after the installation tests have been conducted, dock trials are scheduled to establish thatthe propulsion plant and its auxiliaries are ready for sea trials. During dock trials, the ship is secured to the pier with mooring lines while the main engines are used to drive the Propeller. The propulsion system is loaded, until a limiting condition is reached. With the ship secured to the Pier, the apparent slip of the propeller is 100 percent, instead of the 20 to 40 percent in service, with a ‘esultant effect on the power 1pm relationship of the propeller. Because of the high-slip conditions, for a piven tpm, the propeller develops a substantially higher thrust and torque than when in normal service. Conse- quently, the allowable thrust or torque may limit the power that can be developed during dock trials. Most shipboard components and systems can be subjected to tests in the shipyard that closely approximate service condition. There is no practicable way of demonstrating that the steering gear will function properly, without taking the ship out to sea. The performance of the steering is to be tested, especially since the magnitude of the torque required, to move the rudder while the ship is underway at full power, is very large. Some assur- ance can be derived from model tests, but analytical procedures that have been correlated with full-scale test results are the primary means used in the design stage to ensure that a steering gear has an appropriate rating. Fuel pumpsadjustment and injection ‘The most common type of fuel pump is the Bosch type, which with small variations is used in many diesel engines. One is fitted for each cylinder. The pump consist of a cam operated, single acting plunger of fixed stroke having a spring. to maintain contact of follower on the cam. Fuel injection commences at the Point on the up stroke when the top edge of the plunger blanks off the suction port. A helix or scroll is ‘machined on the plunger, which stops delivery of fuel, when the curved surface of the helix uncovers the suction port. This allows fuel pressure above the plunger to fall to suction pressure through a vertical slot or hole. The quantity of fuel delivered is regulated by the vertical length of the helix, from the leading edge, ‘where itis inline with the suction port. This quantity may be altered by rotating the plunger. A rack is fitted ‘o the fuel pump to engage with a pinion machined on the outside of a sleeve. The sleeve fits over the plunger and has slots engaging with keys. The fuel cam is designed to raise the plunger atthe rate required to build up fuel pressure and maintain this for the corresponding period of fuel injection. Since the pump only discharges On its up stroke, only one flank of the cam operates the timing. The trailing flank of the cam returns the plunger to the bottom of its stroke to allow the chamber to refill. ae Timing is controlled by the relative angular position of the cam with respect to TDC. It can be adjusted by moving the cam with respect to the shaft, Further adjustment is made by raising or lowering the pump Plunger with respect to its follower. Raising the plunger will make the fuel injection early, while lowering the Plunger will make it late. The fuel pump casing may be lowered or raised on its base, by means of shims, to sive the corresponding effect. The plunger must maintain sufficient clearances at the top of its stroke, Fuel Supply to the pump suction is by means of a booster pump, which causes flooding of the fuel pump chamber. 8 soon as the suction port is uncovered by the plunger. In some pumps, a non-return spring-loaded discharge valve is fitted. This is arranged, so as to reduce the pressure in the discharge line, at the end of injection, ensuring positive seating of the fuel injector needle, without any secondary injection due to pressure pulses,and also reduces cavitation within the pump. A priming or vent plug is fitted to the discharge. Plunger and barrel surfaces are a close fit, the small clearance allowing some leakage to lubricate the plunger. Larger clearances are necessary when buming heavy fuel, for the larger expansion due to the higher temperatures. Care must be taken that no leakage from the pumps can enter the camshaft lubrication system as this leads to fuel contamination ofthe lubricating oil. Cam timing should be checked periodically, as it greatly influences the fuel consumption rate. Fuel Pumps for MAN-B&W MC type engines operates on the same principle of control by a helix on the plunger, but have further adjustments, which make it possible to vary the Injection timing during operation of the engine (V1.T.), The pump barrel is moved within the pump casing, with respect to the Plunger, by means ofa VIT rack, which rotates a coarse-threaded sleeve, attached to the lower end of the barrel. Movement of the barrel will alter the timing of the start of injection and thus can be advanced more or less, $0 as to improve the specific fuel consumption at part load. The variable ignition timing linkage allows the engine govemior control to adjust all pumps collectively. A shock absorber is fitted to the pump chamber, to reduce pulses. The follower may be raised to cut-off fuel to a particular unit, if required. During the part of the cycle when the Pumps are not injecting the fuel, hot fuel oil recirculates through the line to the injectors, thus allowing the engine to be kept on heavy oil from pier-to-pier. f el EE ULZER FUEL PUMP. A valve timed fuel pump is used in large Sulzer RTA engines. The pump plunger is raised and lowered by a follower operated by the cam. Spring-loaded suction and spill valves control oil to and from the pump chamber. Each of these valves is opened by means of a pushrod, moved by a lever, operated from the plunger rive. Pivot points of the levers are mounted on eccentrics, and so positioned that one pushrod moves up as the plunger rises, while the other pushrod moves down. As the plunger moves upwards, the suction valve is closed, and injection commences. From this point, oil pressure is raised and injection continues as the plunger continues its up stroke. The spill valve pushrod is now activated, jerking the spill valve off its seat, releasing, the oil pressure and thus ending injection. The plunger chamber is recharged during the downward stroke The pivots of the levers being mounted on eccentrics, rotating these causes the timing to be altered. During ‘normal operation, the suction valve timing is constant, and thus the star of injection is fixed, while variation of the spill valve opening is used to control the amount of fuel injected. Variable ignition timing controls the suction and spill valve pivots, giving adjustinent of the timing of injection with respect to TDC. Heated fuel oil passes through the pump, even during the period for which itis not injecting, thus allowing continuous running ‘on heavy oil from pier-to-pier, The pump follower can be lifted clear of the cam, to shut off fuel to any unit,{ COMBUSTION Sum Combustion of fuel ‘The general indication of good combustion are similar in any operating diesel engine: a clear exhaust, correct amount of power produced and exhaust temperatures normal for the throttle setting. There should be ‘no uneven running, knocking from cylinders or any other fault in the fuel system, Viscosity or resistance to flow, in a fuel oil is important when considering combustion. It must be within the range to ensure correct atomisation at the fuel injector. Since viscosity reduces as temperature is increased, it will be necessary to heat heavy fuel oil to reduce its viscosity to about 10 - 15 Cst before injector for proper atomisation and combustion. Atomisation is the splitting up of the fuel into very small droplets by the fuel injector, forcing fuel at high pressure through small atomiser holes. The droplet size will depend upon the size of holes and the pressure difference between fuel pump discharge and that of the compressed air in the combustion chamber, and consequently the size of droplets may vary . Atomised droplets have a high surface area to mass ratio, giving good heat transfer and causing efficient combustion with minimum of unbumt fuel. Penetration refers to the distance the oil droplets travel into the combustion space before mixing with the air and igniting, This will depend upon droplet size (atomisation), velocity leaving the injector and the conditions within the combustion chamber, It is desirable that fuel should penetrate into the whole of the combustion space for efficient space utilisation and good mixing, but droplets should not impinge on the intemal surfaces before buming. The number of atomiser holes and their position will decide the spray patter. Turbulence is the movement of compressed air and fuel within the combustion space before combus- tion occurs. This may have several causes. Swirl is imparted to the air during its entry at scavenge ports. It may be further agitated by the fuel spray pattem and the shape and movement of the piston crown. Turbu- lence will improve the mixing of fiel and air for fective and rapid combustion. It is particularly dosirable for rapid combustion of heavy fuels in medium or higher speed engines. Compression Ignition is the term used to describe the combustion in diesel engines and they are often referred to as compression ignition engines. The combustion process may be considered as several consecutive phases. Inthe initial phase, the atomised oil droplets emitted from the fuel valve nozzle into the combustion space at the start of injection will evaporate and mix with hot, compressed air. The mixture willreach an ignition temperature and spontaneous combustion will commence. The time elapsed during this phase termed the ignition delay or ignition lag, In the next phase ignition and start of combustion will set up a flame front which will accelerate through the chamber, enveloping and buming all the other droplets present, causing a very rapid generation of heat with a corresponding rise in pressure and temperature. During the ignition delay, the injector continues to inject fuel and, if this has built up a sufficient quantity, the rapid ‘combustion and pressure rise will be quite violent, causing detonation, the shock loading creating a noise termed diesel knock. Following the rapid pressure rise, hot, turbulent conditions existing in the combustion chamber will cause the ignition and burning of the remainder of the measured fuel charges as itis injected. This is termed the controlled part of the combustion process as pressure is regulated by the rate at which fuel continues to be delivered. The cylinder pressure may start to reduce as the piston moves down after passing ‘over top centre, Ignition quality of a fuel is the term used to denote its ignition delay, combustion character- istics and tendency to cause knock, It depends mainly upon the form of the hydrocarbon compounds in the fuel and no precise unit has been derived to measure this. The most usual measure of ignition quality of distillate fuels is the Cetane number. This is found by comparison of theit knock producing properties to those of mixtures containing an equivalent percentage of Cetane when bumt in a test engine. A high Cetane number indicates a short ignition delay. Cetane numbers are not quoted in.normal fuel specifications or analysis. Slow speed, two-stroke engines can operate efficiently on fuels down to Cetane number of about 24 but medium speed, four-stroke engines normally require a figure above 34; high speed engines need higher figures, Another measure which is similar to Cetane number but found from different parameters of the fuel, is termed its diesel index. For residual or blended fuels the ignition quality can be expressed as a CCAI value (calculated carbon aromacity index) or CII (calculated ignition index). The lower the CCAI value, the better the ignition quality. The ignition quality of a fuel is particularly important for ease of starting an engine, or when operating at reduced power for long periods. It can be improved by advancing the timing (FQS), increasing the compression ratio of the engine or by pre-heating the scavenge ait. There will be design or ‘operational limits to these. Fuel combustion does not take place at the tip of the injector but at a distance away from it. The delay occurs because the individual fuel droplets must diffuse through the hot cylinder contents for a sufficient time to heat, vaporize, mix with air, and finally ignite. The combustion process in a diesel cylinder is considered to occur in four phases, which begin during the compression process and end during the expansion process. The four phases are a) the ignition delay period (when no combustion occurs), b) the uncontrolled or rapid- combustion period, c) controlled combustion, and d) the afterbumning period. rpc | aEreRa JRNING UNCONTROLLED COMBUSTION 7] RE ——=— ESSUI PRE! IGNITION CRANK AN sertcorntnanmtemren resteIgnition delay period ‘The ignition delay period isthe interval between injector opening and the start of ignition. During this phase the frst droplets to enter the cylinder are heated by the surrounding charge of compressed air as they Kisperse and vaporize, Until ignition occurs, there is no increase inthe cylinder pressure above what it would have been had injection not occurred. The ignition-delay period is primarily a function ofthe ignition quality of the fuel. which is related to its chemical composition. Fuels of lower ignition quality require more preparation time and the delay period is therefore longer. It is important to note that in a higher speed engine, the tume vailable for this preparation ofthe fuel for ignition is lower than in a lower speed engine, a fact which helps to explain the generally lower tolerance of high-speed engines for fuel of low ignition quality. Rapid-combustion period During the rapid combustion period, the fuel, which has accumulated in the cylinder during the delay period, ignites and bums rapidly. Because the accumulated fuel has already mixed with the charge ai, this phase is sometimes called the premixed combustion period. The rapid combustion is accompanied by a sharp Fase in cylinder temperature and pressure, Ifthe pressure rises too sharply, the combustion becomes audible, ‘a phenomenon known as Diesel knock. Controlled-combustion period ‘Once combustion has been established in the cylinder, the ignition of further fuel droplets entering the cylinder lags the injection rate by the time required for the fuel to mix, heat, and vaporize, Because the droplets bum as they diffuse into the cylinder, this phase is sometimes called the diffusion combustion period ‘This period ends shortly after the injector closes, when the last of the fuel has bumed. ‘The cylinder pressure usually peaks just beyond the TDC position and near the middle of the steady-combustion period. The cylin- der pressure then declines as the expansion process proceeds. Afterburning period If all of the fuel has bumed cleanly and completely by the end of the steady combustion period, the pressure profile will be smooth through the expansion stroke. There will be some pressure fluctuations resulting from the combustion of incompletely bummed fuel or of intermediate combustion products, and some delayed chemical reactions. It is during this period that soot and other pollutants are produced. Although the great majority of low-speed engines and many medium-speed engines are operated on heavy fuels, and although an increasing number of high-speed engines have been proven capable of operation on at least the lighter blends, there is still a balance to be struck between the lower cost of heavier fuels and the inconve~ nience and greater cost of fuel treatment and increased engine maintenance that inevitably result from their use, Distillate fuels are generally suitable for use in diesel engines, so that treatment can be limited to settling ‘and filtering operations. Residual fuel is blended with distillate fuel to form an intermediate fuel (IFO), which depending on the proportions used , can itself be described as light or heavy. A residual fuel may contain significant amounts of the undesirable constituents of the crude, and may be contaminated with catalytic fines. Variable injection timing (VIT) If an engine operates for long periods at reduced power or speed, the residual heat in the main compo- nents of the combustion chamber will decrease, causing a lower air temperature after compression. This will lead to an increase in the ignition delay of injected fuel, which will lead to a fall in the peak pressure and increase in fuel consumption, and may also cause knocking or “rough running’ in the engine, with consequent damage from shock loads. This problem can be reduced by the use of variable ignition timing to advance the start of injection, allowing for the longer delay but maintaining the same peak pressure and fuel consumption In large, two-stroke engines, variable ignition timing is automatically superimposed on the normal fuel pump setting from the engine govemor, Fuel pumps are designed to change the advance as per load automatically, while the engine is running, This control can also be manually regulatedto change normal timing, if itis known that fuel with low ignition quality is to be used (FQS) 13Fuel characteristics Viscosity ‘The viscosity of a fuel is the resistance to flow, and may, by itself present no difficulty, as long as the fuel can be heated sufficiently at each point in the system to permit pumping, settling, filtering centrifuging, and atomizing. At very high viscosities, the problems that could arise are : Fouling of Heaters, gassing of the fuel, thermal expansion of fuel pump components and clogging of filters. The volume of fuel bumed in an engine is small in relation to the volume that is available inthe piping, and in installations intended for operation on heavy fuels, the transit time between the heaters and the injectors could be sufficiently long, especially at low loads, for the fuel to cool. To prevent this undesired cooling, tracing steam is used and a flow rate is ‘maintained that is much higher than that needed for injection, that is, about two or three times engine con- sumption at MCR, with the unconsumed excess of the injection pumps recirculated back to the booster pump suction. Density The ability to separate water and solids from a fuel by setting and centrifuging is dependent on the differences between the density of the impurities and the fuel. The correct amount of heating is required, because the density of the fuel decreases more rapidly than those of the impurities, most notably water. Heating enables conventional centrifuges to achieve adequate separation of water from heated fuel, that has a specific gravity as high as 0,995. More sophisticated centrifuges can separate even heavier fuels (ALCAP), Injection pumps are volume-metering devices, thus rack settings vary for a constant engine output, depending on both the density and the heating value of the fuel Ignition quality ‘The ignition delay associated with fuels of low ignition quality results in @ late and, therefore, more explo- sive start to the combustion period. This pattem of combustion results in rough and noisy operation that, if sustained, can cause damage to the engine, cause high fuel consumption, and fouling of the combustion chamber. The ignition delay associated with a fuel can be reduced if the timing is advanced (FQS) and for operation on low ignition-quality fuel at iow loads, the temperatures of the jacket and piston coolants must be maintained at higher levels, and temperature of the charge air leaving the Scavenge air cooler should be increased. Carbon residue Fuels with a high carbon-residue index leave more deposits after combustion, which results in fouling and wearing of cylinder liners, piston rings, ring grooves, exhaust valves, and turbocharger turbine nozzles. The adverse effects on cylinder components can be reduced by the use of detergent cylinder oils. Turbocharger fouling is countered by frequent water washing, The deposits that accumulate on fuel nozzles are removed when the injectors are withdrawn for cleaning, Solid particles carried into the engine with the fuel can cause abrasive wear of fuel injection pumps, injectors, cylinder liners, piston rings, exhaust valve seats, and turbo- chargers. The larger solid particles can be removed by settling, filtration, and centrifugal purification. For smaller solid particles, including catalytic fines, the most effective procedure for reducing their presence involves the continuous use of centrifuges in series. The first centrifuge is set up as a purifier and the next unit as clarifier, followed by fine filters, fine filters, used alone, provide adequate protection only for engines that bum the cleanest fuels. When fitted as the sole means of protection for engines that use lower quality fuels, fine filters may clog 2t inconveniently short intervals, Sulphur Sulphur causes cold corrosion and acid contarnination of the lubricating oil. These effects can occur when the sulphur bearing products of combustion are cooled below their Dew point and form Sulphuric and Sul- phurous acids. Engine components that are most vulnerabie to cold-end corrosion include cylinder liners and pistons. The potential for this trouble is highest for engines operated at low power levels for sustained periods, but is countered by maintaining the temp: of the racket and piston coolants at high levels evenat low output, and by increasing the temperature of the air leaving the charge air cooler. In addition, the oil used for cylinder lubrication should have a high alkaline content (high total base number, TBN) in order to neutralize the acids that form. The latest engines such as RTA T-engines have a new type of cooling called as Load Dependant Cooling, which can effectively deal with this problem, ‘A converse difficulty can develop from using lubricating oils that have a high TBN, if there is insufficient sulphur present in the fuel to neutralize the alkaline ingredients of the lubricating oil, the resulting deposits of the alkaline ingredients can cause scoring of the liner and wear on the rings. This trouble arises when an ‘engine that is normally operated on high-sulphur fuel is supplied with low-sulphur fuel for an extended period ‘without changing the oil used to lubricate the cylinders. In crosshead engines the purely vertical movernent of the piston rod permits a packing gland/ stuffing box to be fitted to separate the combustion space from the crankcase, thereby preventing combustion blow-by and excess cylinder oil from reaching the crankcase. Crosshead engines do not, therefore require a crankcase oil of high TBN; instead a high-TBN cylinder oil may be used in a separate cylinder oil system. In contrast, sulphur contamination of the crankcase oil can be troublesome with trunk piston engines; these therefore, are usually supplied with crankcase oils that have a high TBN. Vanadium During the combustion process, and especially in the presence of sodium, gaseous oxides of vanadium form, some of which change phase and form solid deposits that adhere to surfaces at temperatures as low as ‘500°C or even lower. These surfaces include piston crowns, exhaust valves, and turbocharger turbine nozzles and blades, When the deposits occur on the seating surfaces of the exhaust valves, the adverse effects may become immediately apparent as the valves overheat and bur through, Vanadium troubles will be minimized where temperatures of the surfaces are kept below 500°C. Valve cooling is usually not difficult in large low speed engines, but is difficult in high-speed engines and some medium speed engines Sodium Most of the Sodium in fuels is introduced through seawater contamination. The principal trouble with ‘Sodium is its combination with Vanadium, as the eutectic compounds then formed will adhere to surfaces at temperatures well below those of the simple Vanadium oxides. Sodium content should be less than a third of the Vanadium content, Flash point The temperature of Fuel tanks is usually kept below the flash point to limit the hazard of fire. A hazard can arise in a plant burning heavy fuel ifthe fuel leaving the centrifuge in turn raises the Service tank temperature In some installations, particularly where plants have a change-over from diesel to heavy oil, the heated fuel oil retums from the engine are retumed to the day tank, heating it above the flash point. A preferred arrange- ment includes a Mixing tank, so that its high temperature is less hazardous. Pour point Pour point is the temperature above which the liquid can flow. To keep the temperature of fuel above the pour point, heavy fuel tanks are heated, and heavy fuel lines are steam-traced Compatibility ‘An incompatibility among the constituents of 2 fuel is revealed by sludge accumulations in tanks, filters, and centrifuges, by fluctuating pump discharge pressures. The fuel supplier is expected to ensure that fuels blended ashore do not contain incompatible constituents Aboard ship it is important to avoid mixing fuels from different deliveries, or blending fuels, without first undertaking a spot test for compatibility.Problems created by burning residual fuel ‘The buming of poor quality residual fuel in marine engines has either created some new problems or aggra- vated existing problems, Problems are: 1. The high sulphur content of fuel (up to about 4-5 per cent weight) has greatly increased the risk of cylinder liner and piston ring wear. 2. Ash, either soluble or insoluble in the fuel, can increase abrasive wear of piston rings and liners. 3. Mineral acids, formed as a result of condensation of sulphur oxides produced during combustion, create a serious corrosion hazard if they find their way into the crankcase. 4. Incompletely burt heavy ends of the fuel can cause excessive deposits in the piston rang zone. 5. Shorter exhaust valve life may be expected due to deposit formation or corrosive attack by Vanadium, Sodium, Sulphur and other chemical compounds present either in the fuel or in lubricating oils. 6. Greater tendency for the deposition of solid deposits and/ or corrosion of turbo-charger nozzles and moving blades. 7. Trumpet formation, spray hole blockage, leakage and corrosion of injectors. Corrosive wear This is caused by acid formation, but by improved design (Load controlled Cooling) and especially by the introduction of specially developed alkaline cylinder lubricants, wear is now well within acceptable limits Abrasive wear Large particles between rubbing surfaces cause abrasive wear. This is inter-related to corrosive wear. Removal of extraneous foreign matter, by efficient pre-treatment of fuel, reduces the problem, Ring zone deposits Despite careful attention to good fuel cleaning, injection at a suitable viscosity, correct injection timing and ‘g00d injector maintenance, it is impossible to burn completely all the residual fuel. The heavy ends and ash forming constituents are incombustible at normal cylinder temperatures. Although a considerable proportion pass out of the cylinder with the exhaust gases, some find their way down the piston, causing objectionable deposits on the piston lands and skirts, but more especially in the piston ring grooves where in time they will cause sticking of piston rings with blowby, buming away of the oil film, excessive wear and ultimately seizure. MAN-B&W have recently introduced a Piston Cleaning ring, which is located in the cylinder liner, and claims to remove such deposits effectively. Specially developed cylinder oils and detergent oils have gone along way to overcome this problem too. Injector problems As combustion of residual fuel is slower and somewhat different from that of distillate fuels, the nozzle tip and body reach must higher temperatures. This is aggravated by the fact that the fuel passing through the injector is preheated to a high temperature. The use of high temperature hardened steels for the injector body has eased the problem but current practice is to re-circulate fuel oil. A further adverse effect of high injector tip temperature is to crack the fuel thermally as it leaves the injector. The incompletely burnt heavy ends and incombustible ash frequently form ‘trumpets’ on the tip$ around the spray holes, These may partially or completely choke the holes. This will result in distortion of the spray patter, resulting in bad combustion and deposit formation Exhaust valve failures Trouble starts with a thin but extremely hard build up of deposits on the valve seat and especially on the valve face. Unless this glass hard coating :s chipped or broken, the valve appears to function quite normally If, however, hard foreign matter is trapped between the closing valve and its seat, the coating gets chipped or i i i | | | Icracked. If this continues across the contact area during combustion, gases at a temperature of about 1,927° C pass through the fine gap creating a wiredrawing effect, so that local overheating occurs, leading to erosion and complete failure in a short time. A further point is that if the exhaust valve seat temperature is kept below about 550°C, experience indicates that adhesion of ash compounds and corrosion is not trouble- some. This emphasises the value of positive cooling of exhaust valves and their seats. Positive valve rotation is also beneficial in prevention of deposit formation Indicator Diagrams ‘An indicator diagram is a Préssure Vs. Volume graph, taken from the Indicator cock on the cylinder of a working engine. It is plotted either as a continuous line showing all pressure changes during one complete engine cycle which is called as a power card, or as a Pressure Vs, Crank angle or Draw card. Indicator diagrams can be of great assistance in understanding the combustion characteristics of an engine. Examina- tion candidates are required to be familiar with the information which may be obtained from the shape and dimensions of the diagram, as also the typical faults that can be identified from them, In many modem engines sophisticated measuring devices may be fitted to record cylinder pressures, or there are portable indicators which can store data that can be down-loaded to PCs for further analysis. There are several advantages to electronic devices, such as elimination of errors due to mechanical springs (used in conven tional indicators) which limit the use to slow speed engines. Modem indicators using pressure transducers ‘can now be used on engines ranging from slow (50 RPM) to high (2000 RPM), without any significant errors. ‘Another advantage is the ability to superimpose curves taken at long intervals so as to study any changes (e.g. card taken during one loaded passage can be compared with another taken much later during a subse- quent loaded passage), and without any possibility of human error, which can be there in mechanical indica- tors. Calculation of indicated power, specific fuel consumption, peak pressure, compression pressure and so on is done by the microprocessor, and is thus easy to obtain and extremely accurate. The T.D.C. postion of No.1 unit is sensed by some type of sensor, usually located close to the flywheel, and which passes on the data to the unit. CYLINDER LING INDICATOR Engine Indicator This consist of a spring loaded piston on which the spring is compressed in proportion to the cylinder pressure acting on it. This piston moves a pen attached to an arm through a parallel link mechanism. A card with a sensitised surface is wrapped around the indicator drum. The indicator cock for the chosen cylinder is first blown through to clear it of carbon and the indicator is then connected to it. The cord on the indicator 40°) By blending with coal tar, vinyl tar paints are produced. These have good resistance to acids, alkalis and oils. However with light topcoats, the solvent dissolves the undercoat which then discolours the topcoat. Vinyl paints give good corrosion protection, are weather resistant, abrasion resistant except at high tem- peratures and adhere well between coats. However when applying it to smooth, bare steel, it is preferable to ‘use an etching primer first which contains acid, eating microscopically into the steel and holding fast onto it. Epoxy Paints Epoxy paints are of the chemically curing two pack type. They cure by reaction between the binder which is the epoxy resin and a hardener such as a polyamine or polyamide, The correct proportion is important especially when mixing less than a full pack. The components must be thoroughly stirred to achieve uniform composition throughout otherwise the result will be poor quality. Once mixed the paint must be immediately applied as it will harden and cure in a few hours depending on the temperature. This period is known as the “pot life” of the paint. It varies from approximately 24 hours @ 5° C to 4 hours @ 40° C. ‘When completely cured, the paint becomes very hard giving good resistance against abrasion, chemicals, oils, water and many solvents. Epoxy paints are very expensive and proper surface preparation, mixing and application must be carried out in order to obtain long-lasting protection. The paint aulieies well to steel which must be cleaned to Sa 24 ~ 3. Temperatures should not be below 10°C. and relative humidity should not be above 80% during application. When exposed to sunlight epoxy paints tend to chalk and tum matt. However this does not affect its weather durability By mixing coal tar with epoxy, epoxy tar paints are formed, The'solid content is higher in these and itis possible to apply them in a higher thickness without sagging. Epoxy tar paints have good elasticity, hardness and weather resistance properties but when overcoated with light colours, bleeding may occur of the tar, causing discolouration Polyurethane Paints These are also of the chemically curing two-pack type consisting of a polyester resin and isocyanate hardener. The paint is more expensive and superior to epoxy in many ways. It also requires stringent application procedures and proper weather conditions. Polyurethane paints are mainly used as tank coatings on chemical ships due to its excellent chemical resistance, hardness and other qualities, However although it is abrasion resistant, it is susceptible to me chanical damage which may cause it to chip and crack, making it expensive and unsuitable as a deck paint 'thas a high gloss and does not tum matt or yellow in sunlight.Undercoats Undercoats are highly pigmented paints which follow the primer and any filler or stopper and provide the necessary ground for the finishing coat. ‘An ideal undercoat would possess the following properties. Good adhension to the primer. Statisfactory opacity Good flow and levelling, ie. the dry film should show no brushmarks Fairly rapid set to avoid sagging and pulling away from sharp edges, yet remain open long enough to be joined up to other areas. ‘An egg-shell finish to the dry film, so that the finishing coat can adhere stisfactorily. 6 Acolour similarto, but preferably alittle lighter than the finishing coat It is extremely difficult ot embody all these desirable properties in any one undercoat and it is usually necessary, as with most paints, to produce the best compromise. The main difficulty is to produce the desired flow properties with the high pigmentation required to produce an eggshell finish. Pigmentation and flow properties are closely interrelated and merit brief dicussion before considering undercoat formulation. Boot-topping paints The boot-top of the hull is that area which is exposed when the ship is empty but imsered when laden. It is bounded by the topsides paint above and the bottom composition below. This area is the most difficult ot maintain in good condition, When at sea it can be completely immersed in slightly alkaline sea-water (pH-8.0 to 8.2) or exposed to sun, wind, and salt apray. It is constantly buffeted by a moving stream of fully aerated sea-water, and when in port is subject to the rubbing of fenders and to attack by floaring debris. ‘The requirements of the paint are 1, Good adhesion. 2. Maximum salt-water resistance 3. Good abrasion resistance under wet conditions. 4. Good weather-resistance System which have given satisfactory service are epoxy, chlorinated rubber, polyurethane and vinyls, The extent of the boot-top area varies considerably from one type of ship to another, In passenger liners it is a comparatively narrow band round the vessel, but in oil tankers it extends to almost deck level. 5. Toxins are sometimes incorporatd into boot-topping paints to check the growth of fouling Rubberised paints Chlorinated rubber is a non-convertible binder and, as is common with this class of material , difficulties can be encountered in applying a second coat by brush. The solvent in the latter softens the first coat and ‘pick-up’ or ‘lifting’ occurs. The inclusion of a proportion of non-solvent such as white spirit reduces this pick-up very considerably The raw rubber molecule contains a number of unsatiraed linkages and will react with chlorine to yield a solid product known as chlorinated rubber. Neoprene reacts in a similar way and is used in the process. Both addition and substitution reactions take place, the latter resulting in the formation of hydrochloric acid . In ‘manufacture, the rubber is dissolved in carbon tetrachloride in an acid resisting vessel fitted with means of heating and cooling. Chlorine is passed into the solution, and on completion of the reaction the solutin is washed free from hydrochlorie acid with aqueous alkali. Finally the chlorinated rubber is precipated by addition of methanol, washed and dried Isomerised Rubber is used as a film forming material and is readily compatible with the chlorinated paraffin waxes, It is a tough solid material, soluble in aliphatic hydrocarbons and available in a number of wascosity grades ‘The general chemical resistance and exterior durability of cyclized rubber is not as high as with chlori- nated mabber.Chapter V Operational problems & Maintenance in Crankshaft Break down of the crankshaft might be caused by extreme over load of the shaft, resulting in relative slipping in one or more of the shrink connections, between the shaft pieces and the crank throws. Reasons for extreme over loads might be- racing of the engine due to failure of governor, momentary shock loads due to stopping of propeller (being stopped by solid objects e.g. ice, timber ). This might result in one or more slippages in the aftermost shrink connections, between main bearing joumals and crankshaft throws. If the crankshaft is built up by shaft pieces and crank throws, at both main bearing journals and crankshaft pins, the momentary overload might result in smaller slipping at the crankshaft pin. Slipping at the main bearing jour- nals may range from 15 to 300 mm, which can be observed by sighting the marks on the shrink surfaces. For smaller slips, the engine can continue operation after an adjustment of the timing of fuel injection, but it is important that the crankshaft is checked for vibration, in order to ensure no torsional vibrations, by changing the barred speed range, Another reason for extreme over-load of the crankshaft is, the accumulation of liquid in the cylinder, caused by cracked piston, leaks from liners and so on. The firing of the remaining cylinders may result in sufficient torque to overload the shrink connection, thus causing overload and slip- ping, Slipping might cause non-linearity of the main bearing joumals, on each side of the slipping, (On the break-down of a large component, such as the crankshaft, the crankshaft has to be removed and taken ashore, to be rebuilt, which is complicated, costly and time consuming, Sometimes, an attempt is made to correct the slippage in-situ. The repair demands thorough planning and specialised knowledge, carried out by experts provided by the engine makers, under the supervision of the classification society. Tuming of the engine is carried out, by cooling of the shaft piece and heating of surrounding crankshaft throw, to get the marks back in allignment. The cooling is carried out by means of liquid nitrogen until the shaft material is cooled down to -50 to -100 * Centigrade, whereafter the crank throw is heated by means of large special ‘bumers, until the shrink fit is relieved toa level, which makes it possible totum the two parts of the crankshaft to the right position. It is necessary to control temperatures thoroughout, so that the material is not weak- ‘ened. This is an approved repair method by the classification societies and the engine can then be retuned to normal service Permanent repair to main engines with badly fretted chock landings and chocks In carrying out permanent repair, the aim is to bring the bedplate back to its original alignment, to reduce stresses on welds, and then correct any crankshaft misalignment that may have developed. The method of repair is to discard the original chocks and replace them with a resin chocking system. The landing surfaces con cast-iron or steel chocks are approximately 30 to 36 mm wide over the length of the chock, which may be about 150 to 250 mm, When fretting occurs, the surfaces of the underside of the bedplate in contact with the chocks become recessed, and in a similar manner the tank top becomes recessed and the chock becomes thinner. The sum effect of this isto allow the bedplate to sag in the areas where fretting has occured and then the crankshaft becomes misaligned To effect repairs, the holding ~down bolts are slackened off, in and on each side of the damaged areas. ‘The bedplate is lifted with a series of steel wedges, during which time the top surface of the bedplate (surface where A-frames land) is kept under observation with optical alignment equipment. The bedplate is lifted until the line of the bedplate is brought back to its original position. The damaged area of the bedplate and tank top is cleaned with chemical solvents down to bare metal. By using rubber or neoprene moulded strips a mould is formed between the wedges, the bedplate and the tank top, ina similar manner tothe shuttering for a cement box. The holding-down bolts and the rubber strips are lightly greased so that the chocking resin does not adhere to them. The steel surfaces to the bedplate and tank top are sprayed with a very thin coat of chemical which prevents the resin adhering. The volume of the mould is calculated, so that the correct amount of pourable resin is mixed, The resin is supplied in two packs ‘which, when mixed, bogin to euro, Ae 200n ae the bate and catalyst are mixed, they are poured inte the ‘mould so that contact is made between the bedplate and the tank top; this is done by making the outsidemould rubber strip higher than the thickness of the chocks. A slight head is then created so that the resin fills the chock cavity completely. The resin is then allowed to cure completely, taking about 48 hours, when the temperature of the surroudings is 16°C and proportionately longer, ifthe temperature is lower. After the resin has completely cured, the supporting steel wedges are removed and the holding -down bolts are tightened ‘The bedplate is then again checked. The crankshaft alignment is checked and any necessary correction is made by remetalling or machining the lower halves of the main bearings. The area of the resin chocks supporting the engine must be greater than that of the cast-iron chocks. The area can be calculated from the weight of the engine and the initial stress in the holding-down bolts, and the load-bearing characteristics of the resin used. The resin used must be approved by the appropriate Classification Society. Vibrations in crankshafts Crankshaft vibrations can lead to serious break-downs. In slow speed two stroke engines, the flywheel is always slightly behind the crank, during the firing stroke, whilst during the compression stroke itis ahead of the crank. Should the firing impulses be in step with the natural vibrations of the shaft, the effect will be cummalative and if allowed to continue would lead to fracture. This condition will usually be detected by a change in tune of the engine; a low rumble in driving gears of camshaft or if chain driven, waving of the chain and consequent rubbing on guides. Engine manufacturers endeavour to ensure these conditions do not occur but if this is not possible a Detuner is fitted and this has the effect of reducing the vibration stresses by about 60 to 80 per cent, Shaft torsional vibrations depend upon number of impulses per minute, weight and elasticity of revolving parts and position of these on the shaft length. If the values of the masses or stiffnesses vary, as parts get into swing, then the frequency will change, and be out-of-step with the impulses. Resonance is thereby interrupted, and building up of vibrations is checked. The detuner provides a connection between a group of masses, which alters the stiffness with the swing THROTTLE VALVE DETUNER i a fl , SY \ \ SL) ronwarn’ CRANBSHAET ELANGE AXIAL DETUNER7 Valve deposits Accumulation of deposits on exhaust valve heads and stems is comparatively common in four stroke engines especially those buming residual fuel. Basically, the causes are either poor combustion or over lubrication, Excessive quantities of oil may reach the exhaust valve direct, through the clearance between valve stem and guide, as a result for example of overfeeding the lubricant. Altenatively, oil that has found its ‘way past the piston, or down the inlet valve stem, are carried to the exhaust valve with the exhaust gases during scavenging. The deposits formed on the valve seats and the valve heads consist largely of combustion products from the excessive quantities of oil reaching this area, and a high proportion of ‘ash’ deposits formed from combustion of the metallic additives are present in the oil. The metallic components in residual fuel, especially Vanadium and Sodium, lead to deposit formation on exhaust valves and turbochargers. At temperatures of 625°C, sodium and vanadium combine to form sodium vanadyl vanadate which is highly corrosive to exhaust valve seats and turbocharger blades. The problem can be largely overcome by improved ‘engine design to provide better valve cooling, including the use of water-cooled valve seats and cages. Valves Totators also provide more even wear. The critical temperature is around 5$0°C and valve designers try to ensure that this is not exceeded, even under prolonged full-load conditions. ‘Crankcase corrosion When water is present in a chargo of crankeazo oil, bright ferrous surfaces of the engite may rust Cossosion occurs if the water is able to wet areas of the metal surface and remain in contact for some time, Even fresh water, especially if it contains air in solution (as it normally does). can corrode ferrous metals, if the oil is contaminated with salt water, the effect may be more severe. The presence of salt water, the effect may be more severe, The presence of salt in solution considerably increases the corrosive effect. The ccrankcases of diesel engines in marine service become contaminated with salt water through condensation of moisture in a salt-laden atmosphere and sometimes sea water gains entry into the:-oil system through leakage at coolers. The presence of corrosive sulphur-containing derivatives ofthe fuel (in particular sulphuric acid) in the crankcase of a trunk-piston engine can usually be due to inability ofthe piston rings from sealing, and preventing the contaminated cylinder oil drainings from entering. These acids can also sometimes enter the system oil of low speed crosshead engines if there is a leakage of cylinder oil drainings past the piston rod gland, Crankcase oils for trunk-piston engines nowadays invariably contain alkaline additives, introduced specifically to neutralise the sulphuric acid derived from fuel combustion. Provided the TBN or Total Base ‘Number of the oil is maintained at an adequate level, there is little possibility that such additives will cause any serious corrosion within the crankcase. The use of an alkaline system oil is also desirable in crosshead ‘engines, since most instances of corrosion occur when a straight mineral oil, or an oil containing inadequate additives is in use. : Causes of Bearing failures Commonly used bearing materials include white metal, lead-bronze, aluminium tin and coppér-lead, al ‘backed with steel ; and unsupported phosphor bronze and lead bronze for such items as small end bushes. Damage or failure may typically be ascribed to (@) Dirt and inclusions (©) Oil starvation (©) Cavitation erosion (@) Bad fitting and fatigue (©) Corrosion Dirt and inclusions In a newly built or overhauled engine, the bearings may be contaminated with materials such as swarf or large particles of metallic debris or from castings that have not been cleaned properly. In a new white-metal bearing, or a hard copper-lead bearing with an overlay that has not been work hardened, large particles tend to become buried in the bearing material. If this happens, bearing metal is forced into a ridge (surrounding the hole) and subsequently wiped level with the bearing surface. Dirt circulating in an engine will not necessarily Haffect all the bearings in the same way. Main bearings, for instance, often remain satisfactory even when the big ends are damaged, the usually tighter clearances of the main bearings act as a filter and trap the dirt particles before they can do any harm. Dirt does not necessarily impair the bearing’s ability to operate ‘satisfactorily Oilstarvation This term is used to describe what happens when the oil film in a bearing is either wholly or partially broken down. The main cases are (i) no oil pressure, due to low oil level or ingress of air into the pump. (ii) fluctuating or low oil pressure, due to faulty relief valve, partially blocked oi seals. (iii) temporary oil starvation, usually at starting, owing to high oil viscosity. This can be due to use of the wrong grade of oil (for the temperature conditions), or to viscosity increase caused by heavy contamina- tion or oxidation. (iv) lack of load carrying capacity in the oil film, usually due to contamination with water. ter, wom bearings or Cavitation erosion This is phenomenon whereby small portions of a bearing surface are removed in well-defined areas because the negative pressure regions in the oil film rapidly collapse. These negative pressure cavities can be developed by vibration, oil flow pattems or the presence of entertained air in the oil. They are often due to design features, so cavitation erosion tends to be more of a problem with prototype or development engines than with those in regular service. When the problem occurs in service, itis due to the development of some abnormal conditions that have disturbed the oil film and caused a negative pressure void to form, for example () the presence of air bubbles in the oil the generation of vortices in the oil film, due to the presence of score marks or pits (resulting from the passage of dirt through a bearing). (i) transinission of vibration through the il film. (iv) Use of a bearing at higher sliding velocity, then that it was designed for. Cavitation erosion pits tend to develop quite rapidly once the process has started, because the debris from the pits passes through the bearing and can cause subsequent pitting and scoring. Moreover, the damage to the surface causes over loading and overheating of undamaged areas and gives rise to fatigue failure Bad fitting and fatigue Fatigue failure of a bearing surface is be due to overloading a portion of the bearing surface beyond the designed limit for a long time. Overloading of the whole of the bearing surface is rare, but local overloading is common. In diagnosing a case of fatigue failure it is necessary to consider what factors could have Contributed to local overloading. All the bearing problems already illustrated namely those caused by dirt, oil starvation and cavitation erosion, can promote fatigue by reducing the effective load carrying area of a bearing surface. If the highly loaded half of the bearing is satisfactory and the other half has failed in fatigue, the load carrying of the oil and the overall fatigue strength of the bearing metal can be eliminated immediately as possible causes, Some causes of fatigue failure are discussed below - Inadequate load carrying capacity of the bearing metal. This is likely to occur only because of changes in the bearing material due to abnormal engine conditions. For instance, material may be selectively removed from a bearing running on oil of too low a viscosity (or at too high a temperature). This can only be estab- lished by metallurgical examination, but evidence elsewhere in the engine, such as signs of oil starvation or cavitation erosion helps to establish the sequence of events. Inadequate support of the bearing metal. This is usually due to bad bonding of the bearing metal to the steel shell. Although very common when white metal bearings were cast locally and handscraped, it has become much less common with the introduction of precision shell type bearings, but may still occur occa sionally. The fatigue failure is usually confined to one bearing, not necessarily in the most highly loaded location FDistortion of the bearing resulting in local overloading. This is a common fault and may be due to a variety of factors. Sometimes the locating tongue has been wrongly positioned, or the ends of the shells have been either butting or too slack, so that bearing either buckles or oscillates within its housing, Swarf or other debris left on the bearing housing at assembly also causes local distortion. The back of the bearing will show signs of bad fitting in the housing, in the form of indentations or score marks, or lacquer stains or patches caused by oxidation of trapped oil between the mating faces. Corrosion Damage to bearings in service is sometimes attributed to corrosion of the bearing metal by acidic oil. All heavy duty oils are required to perform satisfactorily in corrosion tests that employ unflashed copper lead bearings and are run at very high bulk oil temperatures. If the oil does not contain an antioxidant, these conditions promote severe corrosive attack of the bearing’s lead phase. If bearings are found to be corroded, it is essential to check the condition of the oil in use, and if possible the history of its behavior. Unflashed copper lead bearings are used in the corrosion tests, whereas the bearings used in service are almost always flashed with a thin layer of lead-tin that is highly resistant to corrosive attack even if oxidation acids are present in the oil. Only if this film wears through to the bearing metal is corrosive attack possible. Bearing corrosion due to inadequate oxidation stability of the oil is consequently rare, corrosion resulting from oil oxidation or contamination, however can sometimes occut. Another specific type of corrosion that occasion- ally occurs on white metal bearings is tin dioxide formation. This is more often encountered on turbine bearings; its occurence in diesel engines is comparatively rare and it appears to be generally restricted to systems using an uninhibited oil. The characteristic feature of this ype of corrosion is the formation of a hard black layer, sometimes only on the working surfaces, but generally on all exposed bearing surfaces. The presence of this hard layer is of concer for four reasons. (the growth reduces bearing clearance; i it is hard and may damage to adjacent rotating stee! components; (iil) it may flake away and circulate as hard abrasive particles in the lubricating oil (Gv) after flaking, the unit loading on the bearing is increased, Formation of tin oxides is electro-chemical in origin, and so requires an electrolyte (often salt, though acids from either oil oxidation or blow-by may contribute). Consequently, it can be considerably reduced by good maintenance of coolers, careful cleaning and drying of the lubricating oil, and properly installed breathers, The oil should be changed at the recommended intervals, and regular oil analyses made with a view to preventing the build-up of high acid concentrations Failures of crosshead bearings ‘The crosshead bearings in the majority of large low-speed engines are made of white metal, though more recently other materials such as aluminium-tin have been successfully used. Thin-walled shell-bearings are also favoured nowadays in preference to the carlier cast in types. The shell type bearings are finished by fine ‘machining, and should never be scraped in by hand. They have the major advantage of being easy to replace and the white metal layer, being thinner than in cast bearings is more resistant to fatigue. The crosshead is difficult to lubricate, because of the relatively small oscillating motion and the absence of load reversal during the working cycle in two-stroke engines. An adequate oil film cannot, therefore, be readily maintained be- tween the bearing surfaces. There may also be some distortion and consequent local overloading of the crosshead assembly when the engine is operating under load, though designers have largely overcome this problem by means of either a flexible pedestal to accommodate deflections or by an extremely stiff assembly. Hairline fatigue cracks sometimes appear on crosshead bearing surfaces, eventually forming a ‘mosaic’ Despite their appearance, bearings affected in this way may still be capable of many thousand of hours of further service, but in extreme cases the fatigue may eventually cause them to break-up. With modem crosshead designs and bearing materials such failures now appear to be comparatively rare. The lubricating, oil is not usually held responsible for problems with crosshead bearings. It is important to keep the oil clean, however, and adequate treatment is necessary to remove water and other contaminants, The presence of water in the oil reduces load-carrying capacity and in some circumstances, might be direct cause of bearing failure 79Bacterial infection in system oils Severe corrosion and sludging is caused by the presence of bacteria in the oil, especially the system oil of low speed engines. The bacteria cannot grow unless water is present in the oil. and they are often derived from the water contamination itself. Such contamination may come, for example, from the coolers, or from the cooling water system of water cooled pistons. Bacteria can be present without causing any problems, and there is some evidence that bacterial problems are more likely to occur with straight mineral oils, or rust and oxidation inhibited oils, than with alkaline system oils. The main solution is to keep water out of the oil, and to remove the oil as soon as possible if it does become unavoidably contaminated, Heating the oil to a tempera- ture sufficient to destroy the bacteria may also be beneficial. As a last resort, there are various biocides that may be added to the oil, but there is not yet sufficient information on their possible side effects. Crankease Explosions The cause of a crankcase explosion is a hot spot or overheated part within or adjacent to the crankcase of an operating engine. Under normal running conditions the air in a crankcase will contain oil droplets formed by lubricating ol splashing from the bearings onto moving surfaces. This mixture will not readily bum or explode. Crankcase lubricating oil should normally have a high closed flashpoint (above 200°C) and this ‘must be maintained in order to reduce risk of explosions. The most common cause of lowering the flashpoint is contamination with fuel oil. A local hot spot may arise due to overheating of bearings, piston rod gland, timing chain, hot combustion gas or sparks from piston blowpast in engines where no diaphragm is fitted or from fires in Scavenge spaces. Such sources can be eliminated by proper maintenance, correct lubrication and oil condition, cleanliness and by avoiding overloading the engine. The general use of white metal bearing materials which have moderate softening and melting temperatures also helps to avoid a rapid rise in tem- perature, If a hot spot exists, some cil will come into contact with it and will be vaporised and circulate to cooler parts of the crankcase and there condense to form a white mist of finely divided oil particles well mixed with air. Thie mict ie combuctible within certain concentrations. Ifthe mict chould now circulate back tothe hot spot in such concentrations, it will be ignited and a primary or minor crankcase explosion will occur. This explosion causes a flame front and pressure wave to accelerate through the crankcase, vaporising further oil droplets in its path. The pressure shockwave may build up sufficiently to rupture crankcase doors, unless otherwise relieved. In this event, the low pressure wave following will draw air back into the crank- ccase where it will mix with vaporised and buming oil to cause a secondary or major explosion of such intensity as to cause widespread damage. It may start fires in the vicinity and injure personnel. Should a hot spot arise within the erankease, a watchkeeper may detect by irregular running, increase in the temperatures, by smell and by the appearance of the dense white oil mist. Detection by instrument is by use of temperature sensitive probes within the crankcase near the bearing oil returns, or more commonly by the use of a Crankcase oil mist detector. This operates visual and audible alarms in the event of a white mist being formed MEASURING TUBE OIL MIST DETECTOR