Year

12 Physics
EEI Report
Graphite Resistance
Joseph McGorry
Fabian Petroni
8/6/2017
Mr McLaughlin

Abstract
This experiment investigates the resistance of lead pencils and how changing thickness and
length influences the resistance. Pencils of varying thickness (HB to 8B) were connected into
a circuit therefore changing the resistance. It was found that resistance was proportional to
the thickness of the pencils and that when the amount of graphite found in lead pencils
increased the resistance of the pencils decreased proportionally. The higher the
concentrations of clay and the longer the resistor (i.e. the pencil) the more resistance there
was in the circuit

Year 12 physics EEI report 1 Joseph McGorry



1. Introduction
1.1 Background theory review

Resistance is the measurement that a substance offers in opposing a flow of electrons in an electric
circuit (tech target). It is the prevention of the flow of charge in a circuit. Resistance can be calculated
through Ohms law which describes the relationship between resistance, voltage and current. Ohms
law, which is given by the formula = . , can be rearranged to calculate resistance, this formula is
(
= .
)

(Formula 1) Where V =voltage, I = Current and R = Resistance (Nave, 2001)

A resistor purposely induces a resistance in an electrical component. Resistors are used in electrical
circuits to limit the flow of current through the circuit. Resistors can be produced in multiple ways,
the most common resistor found in electronic devices is the carbon-composition resistor (teach target,
2017). This resistor is made from fine granulated carbon, mixed with clay and then hardened.
Graphites structure is made from flat layered Carbon atoms which are called graphene sheets
(gcscience, 2015). Three of its valence electrons form strong covalent bonds to the three other carbon
atoms. The fourth electron is delocalised which means it is a free
electron. The fourth free electron allows graphite to conduct
electricity and heat (gcscience, 2015). When a voltage is applied to
the graphite an electrical field in the graphite causes these electrons
to move. They move from the negative side of the conductor to the Figure 1 Graphites structure
positive side carrying an electrical charge with them. This allows (gcscience, 2015)
graphite to easily conduct electricity making it a suitable resistor
(BBC, 2014).

Lead pencils used to be made from lead, now due to health and safety concerns a lead pencil is made
up of a combination of graphite, clay and wax. Different hardness of pencils have different amounts
of graphite and clay present, a softer pencil such as a 9H has 53% clay and 41% graphite. A harder
pencil being 9B has greater amounts of graphite 93% to clay which is 2% as seen in the figure below.

Figure 2 percentages of graphite and clay found in lead pencils (senior physics)

Year 12 physics EEI report 2 Joseph McGorry



Graphite is a better conductor of electricity than clay, this means as the concentration of graphite
increases, the resistance of the circuit should decrease because conductivity and resistivity are
inversely proportional. Clay is a better resistor of electricity than graphite due to the covalent bonds
holding the valence electrons in place. The resistance of the resistor depends on the quantities of
carbon and clay, the higher the ratio of carbon to clay the lower the resistance (physics and radio
electronics). This makes having more clay to graphite in the resistor the greater the resistance.

Determining resistance relies on three factors, the length, material and cross
sectional area of the conductor (Coats, 2007). This is seen in the equation
*+
= . This formula shows that resistance R is proportional to length L,
,
this means the longer the conductor the more resistance is present which Formula 2 resistivity
reduces current (Coats, 2007). A longer resistor have more resistance than a shorter resistor. The
cross-sectional area or A is inversely proportional to the resistance which means the greater the area
more current can pass though the conductor making it a bad conductor. The resistivity of the material
depends on the bonding structure of the material resistor.

Although the resistance of a resistor changes due to the size, length and resistivity, the resistance also
changes due to temperature. When there is an increase in temperature conductors tend to increase
resistance and insulators are likely to decrease their resistance.
When the temperature is changed, there is an effect on the
atomic structure of the material that makes the atoms vibrate,
the higher the temperature the more violently the atoms
vibrate (Cyber physics, 2017). Graphite already has many free
electrons already flowing through it, the vibration of the
atoms causes collisions between captive and free electrons
(BBC, 2014). For the element of Carbon the resistance Figure 3 diagram of free electrons
decreases with increasing temperature this is because of the (BBC, 2014)
atoms that are vibrating in the material. This causes more
collisions and hence a greater resistance is also created which restricts the flow of current.

Temperature has an effect on most materials and therefore
resistance, because resistance changes with temperature a
= -./ [1 + ; -./ <]
linear approximation is used. The formula that is used to Where
help determine a more specific resistance is = -./ [1 + R = the resistance at the temperature T
Rref = the resistance at temperature Tref
-./ ]. In the formula, the temperature coefficient
= the temperature coefficient of
of resistance is normally 20C because this is the normal
resistance for the material
standardised room temperature. This value is put back into
T = the material temperature in Celcius
the equation to get = 78 [1 + 78 20 ]. The alpha Formula 3
(a) in the formula is a constant and is the temperature
coefficient of resistance, it indicates the change per degree of the temperature resistance change.
For graphite the coefficient is -5.6 x 10-4it is a negative number because resistance decreases with
increasing temperature (all about circuits, n.d)

In this experiment the cross sectional area of the pencils will be kept constant while changing the
length of the resistor will be investigated in relation to resistance. The hardness of the pencil lead
will also be changed which means that the resistance of the graphite and clay percentages can be
calculated.

Year 12 physics EEI report 3 Joseph McGorry



1.2 Aim
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the resistance of a lead pencil and explore how changing
the hardness and length of the pencil lead affects the resistance when voltage is kept constant.

1.3 Hypothesis
It is hypothesised that as the length and concentrations of clay in lead pencils are increased then the
resistance of the pencil increases. As graphite levels are increased then there will be a decrease in
resistance. This is due to clay being a better resistor than graphite and greater length equalling
greater resistivity.

1.4 Variables
In the experiment the controlled variable which is the variable that doesnt change was the voltage
through the circuit and the cross sectional area. The manipulated variable is the variable that is
changed in the experiment which is being tested by the hypothesis, this was the length and type of
lead pencil. The dependant variable which is being tested in the experiment is the resistance and
electrical conductivity.

2. Method
2.1 Materials

2 x multimeters
6 alligator clip wires
6 x pencils (Ranging from 2H 8B)
Light bulb
Power pack

Year 12 physics EEI report 4 Joseph McGorry



2.2 Procedure Figure 4: Circuit Diagram
I. A circuit was prepared as shown in Figure 4.
II. Both ends of the HB pencil were sharpened so alligator
clips could be attached to both ends. Resistor

III. The length of the pencil was measured using a ruler from
tip to tip.

IV. The pencil was then connected to the circuit

V. The power pack was then turned on at 4 volts, creating a

current through the circuit

VI. Two multimeters were used to record the current and

voltage, these results were recorded (seen in results
below).

VII. Steps I VI were repeated using various thicknesses of

pencils 2B, 4B, 6B, 7B, and 8B while keeping them the same
lengths

VIII. Steps I VI were then repeated again with the pencil

thickness kept constant at HB and the pencil sharpened to
different lengths of 175, 145, 125, 105 and 85 mm
(
IX. Using the results the formula of = ) . was used to

calculate resistance

2.3 Risk Assessment

Potential risks Precautions to minimise risks

Being burnt by touching the A precaution for this potential risk is to wrap the pencil with an insulator, so the
heated pencil when it is in individual will not come into contact with the pencil. If the pencil needs to be moved
the circuit. gloves should be worn to prevent skin contact.

Inhaling potentially toxic A precaution for this potential risk is using a voltage that does not result in the
smoke produced from the smoking of the lead pencil. If smoke is produced gloves, eye protection and masks
pencils when they are should be worn at all times. If the smoke is very strong then the experiment should
connected to the power be conducted in a fumigation cupboard.
pack.

Using electricity causes A precaution for this potential risk is to prepare before the experiment, all
many potential risks, they equipment should be checked and made sure it isnt faulty and none of the wires
include being electrocuted are broken or damaged.
or causing a fire.

Year 12 physics EEI report 5 Joseph McGorry



3. Results and Analysis

3.1 Results

4V 172mm
HB Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Average
Voltage (V) 0.005 2.93 2.94 2.95 2.94 2.94
Amps (A) 0.0005 1.632 1.634 1.628 1.630 1.631
Resistance (W) 1.795 1.799 1.812 1.804 1.803

4V 172mm
2B Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Average
Voltage (V) 0.005 2.71 2.79 2.74 2.70 2.735
Amps (A) 0.0005 1.656 1.652 1.656 1.649 1.65325
Resistance (W) 1.697 1.688 1.715 1.698 1.654

4V 172mm
4B Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Average
Voltage (V) 0.005 2.50 2.46 2.48 2.46 2.475
Amps (A) 0.0005 1.674 1.664 1.669 1.666 1.66825
Resistance (W) 1.493 1.478 1.486 1.476 1.484

4V 172mm
6B Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Average
Voltage (V) 0.005 2.11 2.13 2.15 2.10 2.0975
Amps (A) 0.0005 1.679 1.682 1.683 1.678 1.6805
Resistance (W) 1.257 1.266 1.277 1.192 1.248

4V 172mm
7B Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Average
Voltage (V) 0.005 1.87 1.88 1.92 1.89 1.89
Amps (A) 0.0005 1.692 1.690 1.694 1.691 1.69175
Resistance (W) 1.105 1.112 1.133 1.118 1.117

4V 172mm
8B Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Average
Voltage (V) 0.005 1.62 1.66 1.64 1.63 1.6375
Amps (A) 0.0005 1.702 1.704 1.700 1.702 1.702
Resistance (W) 0.952 0.974 0.965 0.958 0.962

HB Pencil Lead with 4V
Length of pencil (mm) 0.5mm Voltage (v) 0.005 Amps (A) 0.0005 Resistance (W)
175 2.78 1.648 1.687
145 2.72 1.628 1.671
125 2.67 1.615 1.653
105 2.68 1.604 1.640
85 2.59 1.595 1.624

Year 12 physics EEI report 6 Joseph McGorry



Graph 1. Resistance vs hardness of pencil

2

1.8 y = -0.1727x + 1.9824

R = 0.9946
1.6
Resistance (W)

1.4

1.2

0.8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hardness of pencil

Graph 2. Resistance vs Length

1.7
y = -0.0157x + 1.7021
1.69
R = 0.99863
1.68
Resistance (W)

1.67
1.66
1.65
1.64
1.63
1.62
1.61
1.6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Length of pencil (mm)

Year 12 physics EEI report 7 Joseph McGorry




Table 1
Different hardness of 172mm Pencil Lead with 4V
Graphite % Clay % Theoretical Recorded Difference % Error Resistivity Wm
resistance W Resistance W
HB 68 % 26 % 1.827 1.802 0.025 1.3684 % 3.29 x 10-5
2B 74 % 20 % 1.651 1.654 0.003 0.1817% 3.10 x 10-5
4B 79 % 15 % 1.474 1.483 0.009 0.6106% 2.70 x 10-5
6B 84 % 10 % 1.297 1.248 0.049 3.7779% 2.28 x 10-5
7B 87 % 7 % 1.121 1.117 0.004 0.3568% 2.04 x 10-5
8B 90 % 5 % 0.944 0.962 0.018 1.9068% 1.76 x 10-5
The theoretical values were calculated with the formula y = -0.1767x + 2.0041, this formula was the
result of the linear trend line in graph 1. The theoretical values were the values found on the trend
line for the particular x value.

Table 2
Different length of HB Pencil Lead with 4V
Length Voltage Amps Theoretical Recorded Difference Percentage
of pencil (v) (A) 0.0005 resistance Resistance (W) error
(mm) 0.005 W
0.5mm
175 2.78 1.648 1.6864
1.687 0.0006 0.03558%
145 2.72 1.628 1.6707 1.671 0.0003 0.01796%
125 2.67 1.615 1.655 1.653 0.002 0.1208%
105 2.68 1.604 1.6393 1.640 0.0007 0.0427%
85 2.59 1.595 1.6236 1.624 0.0004 0.02464%
The theoretical values were calculated with the formula y = -0.0157x + 1.7021, this formula was the
result of the linear trend line in graph 2. The theoretical values were the values found on the trend
line for the particular x value.

Graph 3. Resistance of graphite

2
1.9
y = -3.8675x + 4.4847
1.8
R = 0.98381
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
Resistance

1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%
Graphite percentage

Year 12 physics EEI report 8 Joseph McGorry



3.2 Analysis

Examples of calculations for HB pencil, this way of calculating resistance, error, resistivity and
averages in voltage and current. These calculations were used for calculating all different hardness
of pencil and all lengths.

Resistance calculation HB Average calculation of voltage for HB

pencil Average =
L.ZG M[L.ZG 7[L.ZG \[L.ZG ]

]
V=IxR
Voltage = 2.93 Test 1 = 2.93
Amps = 1.632 Test 2= 2.94
Resistance = ? Test 3= 2.95
V=IR Test 4= 2.94
R=V/I 7.^\[7.^][7.^P[7.^]
Average =
Resistance = 2.93/1.632 ]
MM.O_
=1.795 W Average = ]
Average = 2.94


Percentage Error HB pencil

B.CD-E.EFGH.D-.GICJK
% = * (100%).
LH.-D.GICJK
M.N87FM.N7O
% = * (100%)
M.N7O
8.87P
% = * (100%)
M.N7O

% = 1.3684 % for HB pencil

Resistivity calculation HB pencil
*+
= ,

Resistance = 1.802 W
Length = 0.172 m
Area = 7 = 3.14 x 0.0012 = 3.14 x 10-6 m2
Resistivity = ?


B,
= +
1.802 3.14 106

= 0.172


= 3.29 10FP Wm

Year 12 physics EEI report 9 Joseph McGorry



4. Discussion
4.1 Interpretation of Data
Throughout the experiment two variables were manipulated, the hardness and length of pencil lead
to test if there was a relationship between the variables and resistance. In the first part of the
experiment the variable that was changed was the pencil hardness or type of pencil (HB to 8B) and
the length was kept constant. Each pencil has different amounts of graphite and clay, these amounts
are a factor in determining the resistance and resistivity of the pencil lead. The results obtained were
used to calculate resistance and then were plotted in graph 1. This graph shows the relationship
between the different lead pencils and the changing resistance. There is one anomaly in graph 1 which
is seen with the 6B pencil resistance, the value is slightly below the trend line however the graph still
follows a straight linear line which is supported by the R2 value. The R2 value of the linear trend line is
0.989, the closer to 1 the R2 value is the more accurate the results are. This means that the pencils
resistance can be accurately modelled by a linear equation, when the hardness of the pencil increases
the resistance decreases in a linear fashion. This coincides with the hypothesis given that 8B has the
least resistance at 0.962 W, the 8B pencil has the most amount of graphite or carbon at 90% and the
least amount of clay at 5%. The clay is more resistive than graphite so as clay decreases so will
resistance. This is also seen in graph three when the percentage of graphite increases the resistance
decreases, thus supporting the hypothesis. The hypothesis stated that as the concentrations of clay
are increased then the resistance will also increase, this is seen in graph 1 with HB having the most
resistance and the greatest amount of clay at 26%. When graphite is increased the resistance
decreases, this is because graphite has a lower resistance than clay. The resistivity of graphite is much
more than clay which can be seen in the table above.

In the second part of the experiment a different manipulated variable was changed. This was the
length of the pencil or resistor, however, the thickness of the pencil stayed constant at HB. The HB
pencil was used because research suggests that the length will always have an effect on each pencil
no matter what the thickness is. This was done to see if changing the length also influenced the
resistance. It was hypothesised that as length increases the resistance would also increase, this was
hypothesised given that the resistivity is directly proportional to the length as demonstrated in the
formula for resistivity (see formula 2). Therefore as the length increases or decreases then the
resistance would also increase or decrease proportionally. This can be seen in graph 2 which compares
the resistance to the changing length of a HB pencil, this graph has a linear trend and proves that
resistance and length are proportional. This is supported with the calculated R2 which is 0.998. This
value is exceptionally close to 1 which shows that resistance and length are linear and proportional.

Year 12 physics EEI report 10 Joseph McGorry



B.CD-E.E-GH.D-.GICJK
4.2 Errors % = x (100%).
LH.-D.GICJK

Using graph 1 an equation was calculated from the linear trend line, this was y = -0.1767x + 2.0041 it
accurately represented the resistance of pencil lead in each pencil and was used as the theoretical
value. From this graph exact values or theoretical values for the resistance of the graphite could be
calculated and then compared against the recorded values. The theoretical value and recorded values
were then used to gain the percentage error of the resistance by using the percentage error formula
stated above. It was seen that most of the percentage errors were below 2% seen below indicating
that the results were accurate and linear only having slight variance. However there was one anomaly
in the results, this was the resistance for a 6B pencil, it can be seen clearly in graph 1 that the 6B result
is below the trend line which was support by its error which was 3.7%.

Pencil Theoretical resistance W Recorded Difference % Error
y = -0.1767x + 2.0041 Resistance W Absolute values
HB 1.827 1.802 0.025 1.3684 %

2B 1.651 1.654 0.003 0.1817%

4B 1.474 1.483 0.009 0.6106%

6B 1.297 1.248 0.049 3.7779%

7B 1.121 1.117 0.004 0.3568%

8B 0.944 0.962 0.018 1.9068%


Using graph 2 an equation was calculated from the linear trend line, this was formula y = -0.0157x +
1.7021, it accurately represented the resistance of pencil lead in each pencil and was used as the
theoretical value. From graph 2 exact values or theoretical values for the resistance of the graphite
could be calculated and then compared against the recorded values the same as the previous errors.
It was seen in the table below that all percentage errors are under 0.2%, this means that the error for
results is quite small which supports the fact that the R squared value is very close to 1.

Length of pencil (mm) Resistance (W) Theoretical Percentage error
0.5mm resistance (W)
175 1.687 1.6864 0.03558%

145 1.671 1.6707 0.01796%

125 1.653 1.655 0.1208%
105 1.640 1.6393 0.0427%
85 1.624 1.6236 0.02464%

The error that affected this experiment was a random error, more specifically an environmental error.
This type of error can be seen for the 6B pencil because there was an unpredictable fluctuation in the
voltage. The reason for this error was due to the fact that temperature has an effect on resistance, an
increase in temperature leads to an increase in resistance for conductors and decrease in resistance
for insulators. In the experiment when the pencil was connected into the circuit the lead heated up,
this made the atomic structure of the material change resulting in a drop in resistance. The resistance
for 6B is not on the linear trend line and is below the trend line because of the temperature. The
readings had to be observed before the lead pencil heated up enough to change its atomic structure.
This caused an observational error, the heat caused the readings to fluctuate up and down so the
observer had to approximate what the highest reading was. This means not all readings were taken at
the same point of time and therefore the temperature in the material was not the same.

Year 12 physics EEI report 11 Joseph McGorry



4.3 Limitations and Improvements
The definite amounts of graphite and clay were not known in the pencils tested from HB to 8B, the
percentages of clay and graphite were taken from a universal figure and might not be the same values
for the particular pencils used. Another limitation was recording the voltage and amperage readings
quickly enough before the material heated up enough to change the results, the recorded data was
not perfect because a final answer could not be concluded as the voltage and amperage kept
fluctuating. The lead inside the pencil could also be broken which means that the resistance might
not be correct. Improvements to the experiment could include adding more resistors in the electrical
circuit to make sure that the readings from the two resistors are the same. Also, more pencils of
varying thickness such as (9H- HB) pencils could be used to greater understand the resistance for larger
amounts of clay. An improvement to this experiment would be using the temperature formula to
calculate and test the temperatures full extent of influencing resistance. This formula is = -./ [1 +
-./ ], using the coefficient for graphite is -5.6 x 10-4 however the temperature of the graphite
would not be known unless it was taken out of the pencil which would be difficult to do. A final
improvement to the experiment could be removing the wax layer and wood around each lead pencil.
This would make sure that the proper resistance would be known for a graphite pencil because there
are no other material resistors that could affect it.

5. Conclusion
When pencils of varying thickness of HB, 2B, 4B, 6B 7B and 8B were connected into a circuit, it was
found that these pencils had varying resistance. This resistance was proportional to the thickness of
pencil, it was found that as amounts of graphite found in lead pencils increases then the resistance
of the pencils decreases linearly. It was also found that as length of a pencil was decreased than
*+
resistance also decreased proportionally, which is supported by the equation of = . The
,
hypothesis was proved and supported because it was found through the results that clay is a more
effective resistor than graphite.

Year 12 physics EEI report 12 Joseph McGorry



6. References
About Conductivity . (n.d.). Retrieved May 21, 2017, from
http://www.lehigh.edu/~amb4/wbi/kwardlow/conductivity.htm

Conductivity. (n.d.). Retrieved May 19, 2017, from
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conductivity

Factors that affect the resistance of a wire. (n.d.). Retrieved May 25, 2017, from
http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/topics/electricity/higher_electricity/resistance.htm

GCSE Bitesize: Graphite. (n.d.). Retrieved May 22, 2017, from
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/chemical_economics
/nanochemistryrev2.shtml

Graphite Grading Scales Explained. (2016, November 09). Retrieved May 22, 2017, from
https://pencils.com/hb-graphite-grading-scale/

(n.d.). Retrieved May 21, 2017, from
https://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/percentage-error.html

Resistance: Temperature Coefficient. (n.d.). Retrieved May 22, 2017, from
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/restmp.html

Shaik, A. (n.d.). Carbon composition resistor. Retrieved May 23, 2017, from
http://www.physics-and-radio-electronics.com/electronic-devices-and-circuits/passive-
components/resistors/carboncompositionresistor.html

What is resistor? - Definition from WhatIs.com. (n.d.). Retrieved May 20, 2017, from
http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/resistor

What Is the Difference Between Resistivity & Conductivity? (n.d.). Retrieved May 21, 2017, from
http://sciencing.com/difference-between-resistivity-conductivity-8221785.html

Why Pencil "Lead" is Called "Lead". (2015, January 28). Retrieved May 21, 2017, from
http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2010/11/why-pencil-lead-is-called-lead/

Year 12 physics EEI report 13 Joseph McGorry



7. Log Book
Friday 5th of May
Lesson 1: Research was undertaken and a EEI experiment was chosen, this was to test the Resistance
in a lead pencil.

7/5/17
Lesson 2: Research was started on the topic

Graphite is a better conductor of electricity than clay, this means as the concentration of graphite
increases, the resistance of the circuit should decrease because conductivity and resistivity are
inversely proportional.

Formulas V=IR
*+
=
,
9/5/17
The introduction was also started
Hypothesis started and completed

It is hypothesised that as the length and concentrations of clay in lead pencils are increased then the
resistance of the pencil increases. This is due to clay being a better resistor and greater length
equalling greater resistivity.

11/5/17
Materials started and completed and ordered
2 x multimeters
6 alligator clip wires
6 x pencils (Ranging from 2H 8B)
Light bulb
Power pack

12/5/17
Lesson 3: Experiment was started with testing the resistance in different thickness of pencil leads.
The circuit was set up and seen above.

15/5/17
Lesson 4 5: The experiment was continued with more tests being conducted, the introduction was
continued. Data was collected from these experiments and put into tables.

16/5/17
Lesson 6: The experiment was concluded with the final experiment being changing the different
lengths in a HB pencil.

Year 12 physics EEI report 14 Joseph McGorry



HB Pencil Lead with 4V data
Length of pencil (mm) Voltage (v) Amps (A) Resistance
175 2.78 1.648 1.686893204

145 2.72 1.628 1.670761671

125 2.67 1.615 1.653250774
105 2.68 1.604 1.639650873
85 2.59 1.595 1.623824451

19/5/17
Lesson 7: Data was collected and put into graphs

Graph 1 Resistance vs hardness of

pencil
2.3
Resistance (W)

y = -0.1727x + 1.9824
1.8
R = 0.9946
1.3

0.8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hardness of pencil


22/5/17
Lesson 8: The introduction was finished and calculations of resistivity and errors were calculated



Resistivity calculation HB pencil
*+
= ,

Resistance = 1.802 W
Length = 0.172 m
7 2 -6
Area = = 3.14 x 0.001 = 3.14 x 10 m 2

Resistivity = ?


B,
= +
1.802 3.14 10 6
= 0.172


FP
= 3.29 10 Wm


25/5/17
Lesson 9: Discussion was started, different types of errors were established;

The errors that effected this experiment was random errors, more specifically environmental errors.

Year 12 physics EEI report 15 Joseph McGorry




26/5/17
Lesson 10: Limitations and improvements were started and completed
This could be testing temperatures effect on resistance

29/5/17
Lesson 11: Draft due

9/6/17
Lesson 12 Final: Draft changed and fixed according to notes, introduction was made more complex
and more sources were added.

Year 12 physics EEI report 16 Joseph McGorry