Formulas for engineering mathematics

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Mathematics Formula Sheet
MatheMatics
Matrix :-
If |A| = 0 Singular matrix ; |A| 0 Non singular matrix
Scalar Matrix is a Diagonal matrix with all diagonal elements are equal
Unitary Matrix is a scalar matrix with Diagonal element as 1 (AQ = (A )T = A1 )
If the product of 2 matrices are zero matrix then at least one of the matrix has det zero
Orthogonal Matrix if AAT = AT .A = I AT = A1
A = AT Symmetric
A = - AT Skew symmetric
Properties :- (if A & B are symmetrical )

A + B symmetric
KA is symmetric
AB + BA symmetric
AB is symmetric iff AB = BA
For any A A + AT symmetric ; A - AT skew symmetric.
Diagonal elements of skew symmetric matrix are zero
If A skew symmetric A2n symmetric matrix ; A2n1 skew symmetric
If A is null matrix then Rank of A = 0.
Consistency of Equations :-
r(A, B) r(A) is consistent
r(A, B) = r(A) consistent &
if r(A) = no. of unknowns then unique solution
r(A) < no. of unknowns then solutions .
Hermition , Skew Hermition , Unitary & Orthogonal Matrices :-
AT = A then Hermition
AT = A then Hermition
Diagonal elements of Skew Hermition Matrix must be purely imaginary or zero
Diagonal elements of Hermition matrix always real .
A real Hermition matrix is a symmetric matrix.
|KA| = K n |A|
Eigen Values & Vectors :-

Char. Equation |A I| = 0.
Roots of characteristic equation are called eigen values . Each eigen value corresponds to non zero
solution X such that (A I)X = 0 . X is called Eigen vector .
Sum of Eigen values is sum of Diagonal elements (trace)
Product of Eigen values equal to Determinent of Matrix .
Eigen values of AT & A are same
|A|
is Eigen value of A then 1/ A1 & is Eigen value of adj A.

1 , 2 n are Eigen values of A then
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KA K 1 , K 2 ..K n
Am 1m , m m
2 .. n .
A + KI 1 + k , 2 + k , .. n + k
(A KI)2 (1 k)2 , (n k)2
Eigen values of orthogonal matrix have absolute value of 1 .

Eigen values of symmetric matrix also purely real .
Eigen values of skew symmetric matrix are purely imaginary or zero .
1 , 2 , n distinct eigen values of A then corresponding eigen vectors X1 , X 2, .. X n for
linearly independent set .
2
adj (adj A) = |A|n2 ; | adj (adj A) | = |A|(n1)
Complex Algebra :-
Cauchy Rieman equations

= ; =

1
=
Neccessary & Sufficient Conditions for f(z) to be analytic
r
1
= r

2i
c f(z)/(Z a)n+1 dz = n!
[ f n (a) ] if f(z) is analytic in region C & Z =a is single point
(zz0 ) (zz0 )2 (zz )n
f(z) = f(z0 ) + f (z0 ) + f (z0)
+ + f n (z0 ) n!0 + . Taylor Series
1! 2!

fn (z0 )
if z0 = 0 then it is called Mclauren Series f(z) = n
0 a n (z z0 ) ; when a n = n !
If f(z) analytic in closed curve C except @ finite no. of poles then
c f(z)dz = 2i (sum of Residues @ singular points within C )
Res f(a) = lim( ()

= (a) / (a)
1 1
= lim (1)! 1
((Z a)n f(z) )

Calculus :-
Rolles theorem :-
If f(x) is
(a) Continuous in [a, b]
(b) Differentiable in (a, b)
(c) f(a) = f(b) then there exists at least one value C (a, b) such that f (c) = 0 .
Langranges Mean Value Theorem :-
If f(x) is continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b) then there exists atleast one value C in (a, b)
f(b)f(a)
such that f (c) =
ba
Cauchys Mean value theorem :-
If f(x) & g(x) are two function such that
(a) f(x) & g(x) continuous in [a, b]
(b) f(x) & g(x) differentiable in (a, b)
(c) g (x) 0 x in (a, b)
Then there exist atleast one value C in (a, b) such that
f(b)f(a)
f (c) / g (c) =
g(b)g(a)
Properties of Definite integrals :-

b c b
a < c < b a f(x). dx = a f(x). dx + c f(x). dx
a a
0 f(x)dx = 0 f(a x)dx
a a
a f(x). dx = 2 0 f(x)dx f(x) is even
= 0 f(x) is odd
a a
0 f(x). dx = 2 0 f(x)dx if f(x) = f(2a- x)
= 0 if f(x) = - f(2a x)
na a
0 f(x). dx = n 0 f(x)dx if f(x) = f(x + a)
b b
a f(x). dx = a f(a + b x). dx
a a a
0 x f(x). dx = 0 f(x). dx if f(a - x) = f(x)
2
/2 /2 (n1)(n3)(n5)2
0 sinn x = 0 cosn x = if n odd
n (n2)(n4).3
(n1)(n3)1
= . if n even
n (n2)(n4).2 2
/2 {(m1)(m3).(m5)(2 or 1)} {(n1)(n3).(2 or 1)}.K

0 sinm x . cosn x . dx = (m+n) (m+n2)(m+n4)2 or 1
Where K = / 2 when both m & n are even otherwise k = 1
Maxima & Minima :-
A function f(x) has maximum @ x = a if f (a) = 0 and f (a) < 0
A function f(x) has minimum @ x = a if f (a) = 0 and f (a) > 0
Constrained Maximum or Minimum :-
To find maximum or minimum of u = f(x, y, z) where x, y, z are connected by (x, y, z) = 0
Working Rule :-
(i) Write F(x, y, z) = f(x, y, z) + (x, y, z)
(ii) Obtain Fx = 0, Fy = 0 , Fz = 0
(ii) Solve above equations along with = 0 to get stationary point .
Laplace Transform :-

L () = s n f(s) - s n1 f(0) - s n2 f (0) f n1 (0)
dn
L { t n f(t) } = (1)n dsn
f(s)
f(t)
s f(s) ds
t
t
0 f(u) du f(s) / s .
Inverse Transforms :-
s 1
2 2 2 = t sin at
(s +a ) 2a
s2 1
(s2 +a2 )2
= [ sin at + at cos at]
2a
1 1
= [ sin at - at cos at]
(s2 +a2 )2 2a3
s
= Cos hat
s 2 a2
a
= Sin hat
s 2 a2
T
0 est f(t)dt
Laplace Transform of periodic function : L { f(t) } = 1esT
Numerical Methods :-
Bisection Method :-
x1 +x2
(1) Take two values of x1 & x2 such that f(x1 ) is +ve & f(x2 ) is ve then x3 = find f(x3 ) if f(x3 )
2
+ve then root lies between x3 & x2 otherwise it lies between x1 & x3 .
Regular falsi method :-

x x
Same as bisection except x2 = x0 - f(x 1)f(x
0
f(x0 )
1 0)
Newton Raphson Method :-

f(xn )
xn+1 = xn
f (xn )
Pi cards Method :-
x dy
yn+1 = y0 + x f(x, yn ) = f(x, y)
0 dx
Taylor Series method :-
dy (x x0 )2 (x x0 )n
= f(x, y) y = y0 + (x- x0 ) (y )0 + (y)
0 + . (y)n0
dx 2! n!
Eulers method :-
dy
y1 = y0 + h f(x0 , y0 ) = f(x, y
dx
(1) h
y1 = y0 + [f(x0 , y0 ) + f(x0 + h, y1 )
2
(2) h (1)
y1 = y0 + [f(x0 , y0 ) + f(x0+h, y1 ) ]
2
Calculate till two consecutive value of y agree
y2 = y1 + h f(x0 + h, y1 )
(1) h
y2 = y0 + [f(x0 + h, y1 ) + f(x0 + 2h, y2 )
2
Runges Method :-
k1 = h f(x0 , y0 )
h k1 1
k 2 = h f( x0 + , y0 + ) finally compute K = (K1 + 4K 2 + K 3 )
2 2 6
k = h f(x0 +h , y0 + k1 )
k 3 = h ( f (x0 +h , y0 + k ))
Runge Kutta Method :-

k1 = h f(x0 , y0 )
h k1 1
k 2 = h f( x0 + , y0 + ) finally compute K = (K1 + 2K 2 + 2K 3 + K 4 )
2 2 6
h k2
k 3 = h f(x0 + , y0 + ) approximation vale y1 = y0 + K .
2 2
k 3 = h f (x0 +h , y0 + k 3 )
Trapezoidal Rule :-
x +nh h
x 0 f(x). dx =
2
[ ( y0 + yn ) + 2 (y1 + y2 + . yn1 )]
0
f(x) takes values y0 , y1 ..
@ x0 , x1 , x2 ..
Simpsons one third rule :-
x +nh h
x 0 f(x). dx =
3
[ ( y0 + yn ) + 4 (y1 + y3 + . yn1 ) + 2 (y2 + y4 + . + yn2 )]
0
Simpson three eighth rule :-

x0 +nh 3h
x f(x). dx = 8
[ ( y0 + yn ) + 3 (y1 + y2 + y4 + y5 + . yn1 )+ 2 (y3 + y6 + . + yn3 ) ]
0
Differential Equations :-
Variable & Seperable :-
General form is f(y) dy = (x) dx
Sol: f(y) dy = (x) dx + C .
Homo generous equations :-

dy f(x,y)
General form = f(x, y) & (x, y) Homogenous of same degree
dx (x,y)
dy dv
Sol : Put y = Vx =V+x & solve
dx dx
Reducible to Homogeneous :-
dy ax+by+c
General form =
dx a x+b y+c
a b
(i)
a b
Sol : Put x=X+h y=Y+k

dy ax+by+(ah+bk+c) dy
= Choose h, k such that becomes homogenous then solve by Y = VX
dx a x+b y+(a h+b k+c ) dx
a b
(ii) =
a b
a b 1
Sol : Let = =
a b m
dy ax+by+c
=
dx m(ax+by)+c
dy
Put ax + by = t = /b
dx
Then by variable & seperable solve the equation .
Libnetz Linear equation :-

dy
General form +py = Q where P & Q are functions of x
dx
I.F = e p.dx
Sol : y(I.F) = Q. (I. F) dx + C .
Exact Differential Equations :-
General form M dx + N dy = 0 M f (x, y)
N f(x, y)
M N
If y
= x
then
Sol : M. dx + (terms of N containing x ) dy = C
( y constant )
Rules for finding Particular Integral :-

1 1
eax = eax
f(D) f(a)
1
= x eax if f (a) = 0
f (a)
1
= x2 eax if f (a) = 0
f (a)
1 1
sin (ax + b) = sin (ax + b) f(- a2 ) 0
f(b2 ) f(a2 )
1
= x sin (ax + b) f(- a2 ) = 0 Same applicable for cos (ax + b)
f (a2 )
1
= x2 sin (ax + b)
f (a2 )
1
x m = [f(D)]y x m
f(D)
1 1
eax f(x) = eax f(x)
f(D) f(D+a)
Vector Calculus :-
Greens Theorem :-

C ( dx + dy) = x y dx dy
This theorem converts a line integral around a closed curve into Double integral which is special case of
Stokes theorem .
Series expansion :-
Taylor Series :-
f (a) f (a) fn (a)

f(x) = f(a) + (x-a) + (x a)2 + + (x a)n
1! 2! n!
f (0) f (0) fn (0)

f(x) = f(0) + x + x 2 + + x n + . (mc lower series )
1! 2! n!
n(n1)
(1 + x)n = 1+ nx + x 2 + | nx| < 1
2
x2
ex = 1 + x + 2 ! + ..
x3 x5
Sin x = x - 3!
+ 5!
- ..
x2 x4
Cos x = 1 - 2!
+ 4 ! - ..
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electro-Magnetic Theory Formula Sheet
Electromagnetic Fields
Vector Calculus:-
A. (B C) = C. (A B) = B. (C A)
A(BC) = B(A.C) C(A.B) Bac Cab rule
(A.B)
Scalar component of A along B is AB = A Cos AB = A . aB =
|B|
(A.B) B
B = A Cos AB . aB =
Vector component of A along B is A
|B|2
Laplacian of scalars :-
A. ds = (.) Divergence theorem
L A.dI = ( ) Stokes theorem
2 A = ( .A) - A
.A = 0 solenoidal / Divergence loss ; .A > 0 source ; .A < 0 sink
A = 0 irrotational / conservative/potential.
2 A = 0 Harmonic .
Electrostatics :-
Q Qk (rrk ) Q Q
Force on charge Q located @ r F = N
k=1
12
; F12 = 41 R23 . R
40 |rrk |3 0
1 (rrk )
E @ point r due to charge located @
= N Q
40 K=1 |rrk 3 k
L
E due to line charge @ distance E = 2
. a (depends on distance)
0

E due to surface charge s is E = 2s an . an unit normal to surface (independent of distance)
0
For parallel plate capacitor @ point P b/w 2 plates of 2 opposite charges is

E = s an - s ( )
20 20
Q
E due to volume charge E = ar .
40 R2
Electric flux density D = 0 E D independent of medium
Flux = s D .ds
Gauss Law :-
Total flux coming out of any closed surface is equal to total charge enclosed by surface .
= Q enclosed D . ds = Q enclosed = v . dv
v = . D
w B
Electric potential VAB = = - A E. dI (independent of path)
Q
B Q
VAB = - A ar . dr ar = VB - VA (for point charge )
40 r2
Potential @ any point (distance = r), where Q is located same where , whose position is vector @ r
Q
V= |rr |
40
Q
V(r) = + C . [ if C taken as ref potential ]
40 r
E = 0, E = - V
1 1
For monopole E 2 ; Dipole E 3 .
r r
1 1
V ; V 2
r r
Electric lines of force/ flux /direction of E always normal to equipotential lines .
1 1 1
Energy Density WE = N Q V = D. E dv = 0 E 2 dv
2 k=1 k k 2 2
v
Continuity Equation .J = - t
.
t/Tr
v = v 0 e where Tr = Relaxation / regeneration time = / (less for good conductor )
Boundary Conditions :- Et1 = Et2

Tangential component of E are continuous across dielectric-dielectric Boundary .
Tangential Components of D are dis continues across Boundary .
D
Et1 = Et2 ; D1t = 1 / 2 .
2t
Normal components are of D are continues , where as E are dis continues.
tan
D1n - D2n = s ; E1n = 2 E2n ; tan 1 = 1 = r1
1 2 2 r2
1
H1t = H2t B12 = 2
B2 t
2
B1n = B2n H1n = H2n
1
Maxwells Equations :-
d
faraday law Vemf = E. dI = - B. ds
dt
B B
Transformer emf = E. dI = - ds E = -
t t
s
Motional emf = Em = ( B).
D
H=J+
t
Electromagnetic wave propagation :-

H = J + D = E 2 E =
E = - B = H 2 H =
. D = v J = E
.B = 0
Ey Ez
Hz
=- Hy
= / ; E.H = 0 E H in UPW
For loss less medium 2 E - 2 E = 0 = j( + j) = + j.
2
= 1 + 1
2
2
= 1 + + 1
2
E(z, t) = E0 ez cos(t z) ; H0 = E0 / .
j
= | | <
+j
/
|| = 1/4 tan 2 = /.
2
1+

= + j attenuation constant Neper /m . | Np | = 20 log10 = 8.686 dB
For loss less medium = 0; = 0.
phase shift/length ; = / ; = 2/ .
Js
Jd
= = / = tan loss tanjent = 2
E
If tan is very small ( < < ) good (lossless) dielectric
If tan is very large ( >> ) good conductor

Complex permittivity C = 1 = - j .

Tan =
= .

Plane wave in loss less dielectric :- ( 0)

1
= 0 ; = ; = ; = 2/ ; = r /r 0.

E & H are in phase in lossless dielectric
Free space :- ( = 0, = 0 , = 0 )
= 0 , = 0 0 ; u = 1/ 0 0 , = 2/ ; = 0 /0 < 0 = 120 0
Here also E & H in phase .
Good Conductor :-
> > / = = 0 ; = 0 r
W
= = f ; u = 2/ ; = 2 / ; = 450

Skin depth = 1/
1 1+j
= 2 ej/4 =

1 f
Skin resistance R s = =

Rs .l
R ac =
w
l
R dc = .
s
Poynting Vector :-
1
(E H) ds = - [ E 2 + H 2 ] dv E 2 dv
dt 2
S v
1 E20 2z
ave (z) = e cos az
2 ||
Total time avge power crossing given area Pavge = Pave (s) ds
S
Direction of propagation :- ( )
ak aE = aH
aE aH = ak
Both E & H are normal to direction of propagation
Means they form EM wave that has no E or H component along direction of propagation .
Reflection of plane wave :-

(a) Normal incidence
E
Reflection coefficient = Er0 = 2 + 1
i0 2 1
E 22
Txn coefficient = Et0 =
i0 2 + 1
Medium-I Dielectric , Medium-2 Conductor :-

> :-
>0 , there is a standing wave in medium & Txed wave in medium 2.
Max values of | E1 | occurs
n
Zmax = - n/1 = 2 1 ; n = 0, 1, 2.
(2n+1) (2n+1)1
Zmin = =
21 4
(2n+1) (2n+1) (2n+1)1

< :- E1max occurs @ 1 Zmax = Zmax = =
2 21 4
n n1
1 Zmin = n Zmin = =
1 2
H1 min occurs when there is |t1 |max
|E | |H | 1+|| s1
S = |E1 |max = |H1 |max = ;||=
1 min 1 min 1|| s+1
Since || < 1 1
Transmission Lines :-
Supports only TEM mode
LC = ; G/C = / .
d2 Vs d2 Is
dz2
- r 2 Vs = 0 ; dz2
- r 2 Is = 0
= (R + jL)(G + jC) = + j
V(z, t) = V0+ ez cos (t- z) + V0 ez cos (t + z)
V R+jL R+jL
Z0 = I0 = = =
0 G+jC G+jC
Lossless Line : (R = 0 =G; = 0)
= + j = jLC ; = 0, = w LC ; = 1/ f LC , u = 1/ LC
Z0 = L/C
Distortion less :(R/L = G/C)

G R
= RG ; = L = C = LC
R G
R L 1
Z0 = = ; = 1/f LC ; u = = Vp ; uz0 = 1/C , u /z0 = 1/L
G C LC
i/p impedance :-
+ Z tan hl
Zin = Z0 + Z 0 tan hl for lossless line = j tan hjl = j tan l
0 L
+ Z0 tan l
Zin = Z0 + Z tan l
0 L
Z Z
VSWR = L = ZL+Z0
L 0
CSWR = - L
Transmission coefficient S = 1 +
V I 1+| L | Z Z0
SWR = Vmax = Imax = = ZL =
min min | 1|L 0 ZL
(ZL > Z0 ) (ZL < Z0 )
Vmax
|Zin |max = Imin
= SZ0
Vmin
|Zin |min = = Z0 /S
Imax
Shorted line :- L = -1 , S = Zin = Zsc = jZ0 tan l
L = -1 , S = Zin = Zsc = j Z0 tan l.
Zin may be inductive or capacitive based on length 0
If l < / 4 inductive (Zin +ve)

< l < /2 capacitive (Zin -ve)
4
Open circuited line :-

Zin = Zoc = -jZ0 cot l
l = 1 s = l < / 4 capacitive

< l < /2 inductive
4
Zsc Zoc = Z02
Matched line : (ZL = Z0 )

Zin = Z0 = 0 ; s =1
No reflection . Total wave Txed . So, max power transfer possible .
Behaviour of Transmission Line for Different lengths :-
=
l = /4 =0
impedance inverter @ l = /4
=0
l = /2 : Zin = Z0 =
impedance reflector @ l = /2
Wave Guides :-
TM modes : (Hz = 0)

Ez = E0 sin x sin y enz

m 2 n 2
h2 = k 2x + k 2y = + 2 where k =
a b
m no. of half cycle variation in X-direction
n no. of half cycle variation in Y- direction .
1 2 2
Cut off frequency C = m + n = 0; = 0 =
a b
m 2 n 2
k2 < + Evanscent mode ; =; =0
a b
m 2 n 2
k2 > + Propegation mode = j = 0
a b
m 2 n 2
= k 2
a b
up 2 2
fc = m + n up = phase velocity = 1
is lossless dielectric medium
2 a b
2
c = u /fc = m n
( a )2 +(b)2
f 2
= 1 c = / W = phase constant in dielectric medium.
f
up = / = 2/ = up /f phase velocity & wave length in side wave guide
E E f 2
TM = Hx = - Hy = = 1 fc
y x
f 2
TM = 1 fc impedance of UPW in medium
TE Modes :- ( = 0)

Hz = H0 cos cos enz

w f 2
TE = = / 1 fc

TE > TM
TE10 Dominant mode
Antennas :-
jI dl
Hertzian Dipole :- Hs = 0 sin ej Es = Hs
4r
Half wave Dipole :-

jI0 ej cos cos
2
Hs = 2 sin
; Es = Hs
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Signals & Systems Formula Sheet
Signals & Systems

Energy of a signal |x(t)|2 dt =
= |[]|
2
1 T 1
Power of a signal P = lim T |x(t)|2 dt = lim N
n=N |x[n]|
2
2 2+1
x1 (t) P1 ; x2 (t) P2
x1 (t) + x2 (t) P1 + P2 iff x1 (t) & x2 (t) orthogonal
Shifting & Time scaling wont effect power . Frequency content doesnt effect power.
if power = neither energy nor power signal

Power = 0 Energy signal
Power = K power signal
Energy of power signal = ; Power of energy signal = 0
Generally Periodic & random signals Power signals

Aperiodic & deterministic Energy signals
Precedence rule for scaling & Shifting :
x(at + b) (1) shift x(t) by b x(t + b)

(2) Scale x(t + b) by a x(at + b)
x( a ( t + b/a)) (1) scale x(t) by a x(at)

(2) shift x(at) by b/a x (a (t+b/a)).

x(at +b) = y(t) x(t) = y

t
Step response s(t) = h(t) * u(t) = h(t)dt S (t) = h(t)

S[n] = =0 [] h[n] = s[n] s[n-1]
1
eat u(t) * ebt u(t) = [ eat - ebt ] u(t) .
ba
A1 Rect (t / 2T1 ) * A2 Rect(t / 2T2 ) = 2 A1 A2 min (T1 , T2 ) trapezoid (T1 , T2 )
Rect (t / 2T) * Rect (t / 2T) = 2T tri(t / T)
Hilbert Transform Pairs :

2 /22 2 /22
ex dx = 2 ; x 2 ex dx = 3 2 > 0
Laplace Transform :-
1 +j
x(t) = X(s) est ds
2j j

X(s) = x(t) est ds
Initial & Final value Theorems :

x(t) = 0 for t < 0 ; x(t) doesnt contain any impulses /higher order singularities @ t =0 then
x( 0+ ) = lim ()

x() = lim ()
0
Properties of ROC :-
1. X(s) ROC has strips parallel to j axis
2. For rational laplace transform ROC has no poles
3. x(t) finite duration & absolutely integrable then ROC entire s-plane
4. x(t) Right sided then ROC right side of right most pole excluding pole s =
5. x(t) left sided ROC left side of left most pole excluding s= -
6. x(t) two sided ROC is a strip
7. if x(t) causal ROC is right side of right most pole including s =
8. if x(t) stable ROC includes j-axis
Z-transform :-
1
x[n] =
2j
x(z) z n1 dz
X(z) =
n= x[n] z
n
Initial Value theorem :

If x[n] = 0 for n < 0 then x[0] = lim ()

Final Value theorem :-

lim [] = lim( 1) X(z)
1
Properties of ROC :-
1.ROC is a ring or disc centered @ origin

2. DTFT of x[n] converter if and only if ROC includes unit circle
3. ROC cannot contain any poles
4. if x[n] is of finite duration then ROC is enter Z-plane except possibly 0 or
5. if x[n] right sided then ROC outside of outermost pole excluding z = 0
6. if x[n] left sided then ROC inside of innermost pole including z =0
7. if x[n] & sided then ROC is ring
8. ROC must be connected region
9.For causal LTI system ROC is outside of outer most pole including
10.For Anti Causal system ROC is inside of inner most pole including 0
11. System said to be stable if ROC includes unit circle .
12. Stable & Causal if all poles inside unit circle
13. Stable & Anti causal if all poles outside unit circle.
Phase Delay & Group Delay :-

When a modulated signal is fixed through a communication channel , there are two different delays to be
considered.
(i) Phase delay:

Signal fixed @ o/p lags the fixed signal by (c ) phase
(c )
P = - where (c ) = K H(j)
c

Frequency response of channel
d()
Group delay g = for narrow Band signal
d = c

Signal delay / Envelope delay
Probability & Random Process:-

P(AB)
P (A/B) =
P(B)
Two events A & B said to be mutually exclusive /Disjoint if P(A B) =0
Two events A & B said to be independent if P (A/B) = P(A) P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
B
P(Ai B) P P(Ai)
Ai
P(Ai / B) = = B
P(B) n
i=1 P P(Ai)
Ai
CDF :-
Cumulative Distribution function Fx (x) = P { X x }
Properties of CDF :
Fx () = P { X } = 1
Fx (- ) = 0
Fx (x1 X x2 ) = Fx (x2 ) - Fx (x1 )
Its Non decreasing function
P{ X > x} = 1 P { X x} = 1- Fx (x)
PDF :-
d
Pdf = fx (x) = Fx (x)
dx
Pmf = fx (x) =
i= P{X = xi } (x = xi )
Properties:-
fx (x) 0
x
Fx (x) = fx (x) * u(x) = fx (x) dx

Fx () = fx (x) dx =1 so, area under PDF = 1
x
P { x1 < X x2 } = x 2 fx (x)dx
1
Mean & Variance :-

Mean x = E {x} = x fx (x) dx
Variance 2 = E { (X x )2 } = E {x 2 } - 2x

E{g(x)} = g(x) fx (x) dx
Uniform Random Variables :
Random variable X ~ u(a, b) if its pdf of form as shown below

1
; <
fx (x) =
0 ,
1 ; >

Fx (x) = ; < <
0 ;
a+b
Mean =
2
a2 + ab+ b2
Variance = (b a)2 / 12 E{ x 2 } = 3
Gaussian Random Variable :-
1 2 2
fx (x) = 2
e(x) /2
2
X ~ N (1 2)
1 2 /22
Mean = x e(x) dx =
22
1 2 /22
Variance =
22
x 2 e(x) dx = 2
Exponential Distribution :-
fx (x) = ex u(x)
Fx (x) = ( 1- ex ) u(x)
Laplacian Distribution :-

fx (x) = e |x|
2
Multiple Random Variables :-
FXY (x , y) = P { X x , Y y }
FXY (x , ) = P { X x } = Fx (x) ; Fxy ( , y) = P { Y < y } = FY (y)
Fxy (-, y) = Fxy (x, - ) = Fxy (-, -) = 0

fx (x) = fxy (x, y) dy ; fY (y) = fxy (x, y) dx
Y P{Y y, X x} FXY (x,y)

FY/X x = =
X P{X x} FX (x)
fxy (x,y)
fY/X (y/x) = fx (x)
Independence :-
X & Y are said to be independent if FXY (x , y) = FX (x) FY (y)
fXY (x, y) = fX (x) . fX (y) P { X x, Y y} = P { X x} . P{Y y}
Correlation:

Corr{ XY} = E {XY} = fxy (x, y). xy. dx dy
If E { XY} = 0 then X & Y are orthogonal .
Uncorrelated :-
Covariance = Cov {XY} = E { (X - x ) (Y- y }
= E {xy} E {x} E{y}.
If covariance = 0 E{xy} = E{x} E{y}
Independence uncorrelated but converse is not true.
Random Process:-
Take 2 random process X(t) & Y(t) and sampled @ t1 , t 2
X(t1 ) , X(t 2 ) , Y(t1 ) , Y (t 2 ) random variables
Auto correlation R x (t1 , t 2 ) = E {X(t1 ) X(t 2 ) }

Auto covariance Cx (t1 , t 2 ) = E { X(t1 ) - x (t1 )) (X(t 2 ) - x (t 2 ) } = R x (t1 , t 2 ) - x (t1 ) x (t 2 )
cross correlation R xy(t1 , t 2 ) = E { X(t1 ) Y(t 2 ) }
cross covariance Cxy(t1 , t 2 ) = E{ X(t1 ) - x (t1 )) (Y(t 2 ) - y (t 2 ) } = R xy(t1 , t 2 ) - x (t1 ) y (t 2 )
CXY (t1 , t 2 ) = 0 R xy(t1 , t 2 ) = x (t1 ) y (t 2 ) Un correlated

R XY (t1 , t 2 ) = 0 Orthogonal cross correlation = 0
FXY (x, y ! t1 , t 2 ) = Fx (x! t1 ) Fy (y ! t 2 ) independent
Properties of Auto correlation :-
R x (0) = E { x 2 }
R x () = R x (-) even
| R x () | R x (0)
Cross Correlation
R xy() = R yx(-)
R2xy() R x (0) . R y (0)
2 | R xy()| R x (0) + R y (0)
Power spectral Density :-

P.S.D Sx (j) = R x () ej d
1
R x () = (j)ej d
2
2
Sy (j) = Sx (j) |H(j)|
1
Power = R x (0) = (j) d
2
R x () = k () white process
Properties :
Sx (j) even
Sx (j) 0
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
DC MACHINES : -
Lap Winding Wave Winding

(1) Coil Span : S S
Ycs = P Ycs = P
(2) Back Pitch Yb = U Ycs Yb = U Ycs
(3) Commutator Pitch Yc = 1 2 (c+1)
Yc = p
for Progressive winding
Yc = -1 2 (c+1)
for Retrogressive winding Yc = - p
for Restrogressive winding
(Yc Must be integer)
(4) Front Pitch Yf =Yb +2 Yf =2Yc - Yb
Yf =Yb -2
for Retrogressive winding
(5) Parallel Paths A=P A=2

(6) Conductor Current I I
Ic = Aa Ic = 2a
(7) No of brushes No of brushes = A = P No of brushes = 2
S = No of commutator segments
P = No of poles
2C
U = No of coil sides / No of poles = S
C = No of coils on the rotor
A = No of armature parallel paths
Ia = Armature current
phasor sum coil emf chord 2

Distribution factor (K d ) = arthematic sum of coil emf = arc
=
elecrrical angle of coil
Pitch factor ( K p ) = 1800
*100%
P
0electrical = 2 0mechanical
ZI
Armature mmf/Pole (Peak) , ATa = 2AP
a
ZI pole arc
AT (Compensating Winding) = 2AP
a
* pole pitch
B
AT(Inter pole) = ATa + i lgi
0
Where Bi = Flux density in inter pole airgap
lgi = length of inter pole airgap , 0 = 4 107
AT(Inter pole)
No of turns in each interpole , Ninterpole = Ia
Z pole arc
The no of compensating conductor per pole, Ncw /pole = 2 A P (pole pitch )
The Mechanical power that is converted is given by Pconv = Tind m
Where T = Induced torque
m = Angular speed of the machines rotor
The resulting electric power produced Pconv = EA IA

The power balance equation of the DC Machine is Tind m = EA IA
ZNP
The induced emf in the armature is Ea = 60A
PZ
Torque developed in Dc machine , Te = 2A Ia
Where = Flux\pole , Z = No of armature conductors , P = No of poles , N = Speed in rpm ,
A = No of armature parallel paths, Ia = Armature current
The terminal voltage of the DC generator is given by Vt = Ea - Ia R a

The terminal voltage of the DC motor is given by Vt = Ea + Ia R a
nl fl Nnl Nfl
Speed regulation of dc machine is given by ,SR = * 100 % = * 100 %
fl Nfl
Vnl Vfl
Voltage regulation , VR = Vfl
* 100 %
Shunt Generator:
For a shunt generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular
speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a shunt generator:

- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.
The airgap power Pe for a shunt generator is:

Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia
Series Generator:
For a series generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia,
armature resistance Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - ( IaRa + IaR f )= Ea - Ia(Ra + R f)
The field current is equal to the armature current.
speed are:
Ea = k f Ia = km Ia
T = k fIa2 = kmIa2
Note that for a series generator:

- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant Ea
The airgap power Pe for a series generator is:

Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia2
Cumulatively compounded DC generator : - ( long shunt)
(a) Ia = If + IL
(b) Vt = Ea - Ia (R a + R s )
V
(c) Isf = Rx = shunt field current
f
(d) The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by
Nse Armature reaction MMF
Isf =Isf + Ia - ( )
Nf Nf
Where Ns e = No of series field turns

Nf = = No of shunt field turns
Differentially compounded DC generator : - ( long shunt)
(a) Ia = If + IL
(b) Vt = Ea - Ia (R a + R s )
V
(c) Isf = Rx = shunt field current
f
(d) The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by
Nse Armature reaction MMF
Isf =Isf - Ia - ( )
Nf Nf
Where Ns e = No of series field turns
Nf = = No of shunt field turns
Shunt Motor:
For a shunt motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
Note that for a shunt motor:

- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.
The airgap power Pe for a shunt motor is:

Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia
V Ra
The speed of the shunt motor , = K - (K)2T
PZ
Where K = 2A
Series Motor :
For a series motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia,
armature resistance Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa + IaR f = Ea + Ia(Ra + R f)
The field current is equal to the armature current.
speed are:
Ea = k f Ia = km Ia
T = k fIa2 = kmIa2
Note that for a series motor:

- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant Ea
The airgap power Pe for a series motor is:

Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia2
Losses:
constant losses (P k) = Pw f + Pi o
Where, Pio = No of load core loss
Pwf = Windage & friction loss

Variable losses (Pv ) = Pc + Ps t + Pb
2
where Pc = Copper losses = Ia R a
Ps t = Stray load loss = I2
Pb = Brush Contact drop = Vb Ia , Where Vb = Brush voltage drop

The total machine losses , PL = Pk +Vb Ia + K v Ia 2
Efficiency
The per-unit efficiency of an electrical machine with input power Pin, output
power Pout and power loss Ploss is:
= Pout / Pin = Pout / (Pout + Ploss) = (Pin - Ploss) / Pin
Rearranging the efficiency equations:
Pin = Pout + Ploss = Pout / = Ploss / (1 - )
Pout = Pin - Ploss = Pin = Ploss / (1 - )
Ploss = Pin - Pout = (1 - )Pin = (1 - )Pout /
Temperature Rise:
The resistance of copper and aluminium windings increases with temperature,

and the relationship is quite linear over the normal range of operating
temperatures. For a linear relationship, if the winding resistance is R1 at
temperature 1 and R2 at temperature 2, then:
R1 / (1 - 0) = R2 / (2 - 0) = (R2 - R1) / (2 - 1)
where 0 is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.
The ratio of resistances R2 and R1 is:

R2 / R1 = (2 - 0) / (1 - 0)
The average temperature rise of a winding under load may be estimated from
measured values of the cold winding resistance R1 at temperature 1 (usually
ambient temperature) and the hot winding resistance R2 at temperature 2, using:
= 2 - 1 = (1 - 0) (R2 - R1) / R1
Rearranging for per-unit change in resistance Rpu relative to R1:

Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = (2 - 1) / (1 - 0) = / (1 - 0)
.Copper Windings:
The value of 0 for copper is - 234.5 C, so that:

= 2 - 1 = (1 + 234.5) (R2 - R1) / R1
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / (1 - 0) = 1 / 254.5 = 0.00393
The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 20 C is 0.00393 per

degC.
Aluminium Windings:
The value of 0 for aluminium is - 228 C, so that:
= 2 - 1 = (1 + 228) (R2 - R1) / R1
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / (1 - 0) = 1 / 248 = 0.00403
The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 20 C is 0.00403 per

degC.
Dielectric Dissipation Factor:
If an alternating voltage V of frequency f is applied across an insulation system

comprising capacitance C and equivalent series loss resistance RS, then the
voltage VR across RS and the voltage VC across C due to the resulting
current I are:
VR = IRS
VC = IXC
V = (VR2 + VC2)
The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the
dielectric loss angle between VC and V:
tan = VR / VC = RS / XC = 2fCRS
RS = XCtan = tan / 2fC
The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power QC by:
P = I2RS = I2XCtan = QCtan
The power factor of the insulation system is the cosine of the phase
angle between VR and V:
cos = VR / V
so that and are related by:
+ = 90
tan and cos are related by:

tan = 1 / tan = cos / sin = cos / (1 - cos2)
so that when cos is close to zero, tan cos
TRANSFORMERS:
Gross cross sectional area = Area occupied by magnetic material + Insulation

material.
Net cross sectional area = Area occupied by only magnetic material excluding area
of insulation material.
Hence for all calculations, net cross sectional area is taken since (flux) majorly
flows in magnetic material.
= BAn
t
Weight of
Specific weight of t/f = f
t
KVA rating of
f
Net Cross Sectional area

Stacking/iron factor :- (k s ) = Gross Cross Sectional area
k s is always less than 1

Gross c.s Area = AG = length breadth
Net c.s Area = An = k s AG
Effective C.S.Area
Utilization factor of transformer core = Total C.S Area
U.F of cruciform core = 0.8 to
0.85
mmF
Flux = Reluctance = = m sin t
d d
According to faradays second law e1 = N1 dt = N1 dt m sin t
Instantaneous value e1 = N1 m sint 2
of emf in primary
Transformer emf equations :-

E1 = 4.44 N1 Bmax An f (1)
E2 = 4.44 N2 Bmax An f (2)
E
Emf per turn in Iry = N1 = 4.44 Bmax An f
1
ry E2
Emf per turn in II = = 4.44 Bmax An f
N2
Emf per turn on both sides of the transformer is same

E1 E2
=
N1 N2
E1 N1 1
= =
E2 N2 k
E2
Transformation ratio = K = =
E1
N2
N1
1
Turns ratio = K = N1 N2
For an ideal two-winding transformer with primary voltage V1 applied
across N1 primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary
turns:
V1 / V2 = N1 / N2
The primary current I1 and secondary current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = V2 / V1
For an ideal step-down auto-transformer with primary voltage V1 applied
across (N1 + N2) primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing
across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = (N1 + N2) / N2
The primary (input) current I1 and secondary (output) current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / (N1 + N2) = V2 / V1.
For a single-phase transformer with rated primary voltage V1, rated primary
current I1, rated secondary voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the voltampere
rating S is:
S = V1I1 = V2I2
For a balanced m-phase transformer with rated primary phase voltage V1, rated
primary current I1, rated secondary phase voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2,
the voltampere rating S is:
S = mV1I1 = mV2I2
The primary circuit impedance Z1 referred to the secondary circuit for an ideal
transformer with N1 primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z12 = Z1(N2 / N1)2
During operation of transformer :-
E1 V1
Bm
f f
V1
Bmax = constant = constant
f
Equivalent ckt of t/f under N.L condition :-
N1 N2
I0
Iw I
V1 R0 X0 E1 E2
No load /shunt branch.

No load current = I0 = I + Iw = I0 0
Iw = I0 cos 0
I = I0 sin 0
No load power = v1 I0 cos 0 = v1 Iw = Iron losses.
v1 v1 No load power
R0 = Iw1
; X0 = I
Iw =
V1

Transferring from to :-
R1 R 21
I22 R 2 = I12 R 21
I 2
R 21 = R 2 I2
1
R
= 22
K
1 R
R 2 = K22
From to :-
I12 R1 = I22 . R11
I12
R11 = I22
. R1
R11 = R1 . K 2
Total resistance ref to primary = R1 + R 21

R 01 = R1 + R 2 /k 2
Total resistance ref to secondary = R 2 + R11
R 02 = R 2 + k 2 R1
Total Cu loss = I12 R 01
Or
2
I2 R 02
Per unit resistance drops :-

I1 R1
P.U primary resistance drop = E1
I R
P.U secondary resistance drop = 2E 2
2
I1 R01
Total P.U resistance drop ref to I ry = E1
ry I2 R02
Total P.U resistance drop ref to II = E
2
The P.U resistance drops on both sides of the t/f is same
I1 R01 I2 R02
E1
= E2
Losses present in transformer :-

t/f windings
1. Copper losses
major losses
2. Iron losses t/f core
cu parts
3. Stray load losses Iron parts
4. Dielectric losses minor losses
insulating materials.
1. Cu losses in t/f:
Total Cu loss = I12 R1 + I22 R1

= I12 R 01
= I22 R 02
VA rating of t/f
Rated current on I ry =
E1
ry VA rating of t/f
Similarly current on II =
E2
Cu losses I12 or I22. Hence there are called as variable losses.
FL Cu loss in watts
P.U Full load Cu loss =
VA rating of t/f
I12 R01
= E1 I1
If VA rating of t/f is taken as base then P.U Cu loss I12 as remaining terms are constant.
P.U Cu loss at x of FL = x 2 PU FL Cu loss
ry
P. U resistance drop ref to I =
I1 R01 I1

or E1 I1
P. U resistance ref to Iry
I12 R01
= E1 I1
P.U Resistance drop = P.U FL cu loss
% FL Cu loss = % R = % Resistance drop.
Iron (or) Core losses in t/f :-
1. Hysteresis loss :
Steinmetz formula :-
x
Wh = Bmax . f . v Area under one hysteresis loop.
Where
= stienmetz coefficient
Bmax = max. flux density in transformer core.
f = frequency of magnetic reversal = supply freq.
v = volume of core material
x = Hysteresis coeff (or) stienmetz exponent
= 1.6 (Si or CRGo steel)
2. Eddycurrent loss:
Eddy current loss ,(We ) R ce Ie2
As area decreases in laminated core resistance increases as a result conductivity decreases.
2
We = K. Bmax f 2. t2
thickness of laminations.
Supply freq
Constant
(it is a function of )
During operation of transformer :-
V1
Bm f
V1
Case (i) :- f
= constant, Bmax = const.
we f 2
we = B f 2
Const.
wi = wh + we When Bmax = const.

2
wi = Af + Bf
V1
Case (ii) :- f
constant, Bm const.
V 2
we f1 . f 2
we V1 2
wi = wh + we
A V11.6
wi = f0.6
+ BV1 2
P.U iron loss :-

Iron loss in watts
P.U iron loss =
VA rating of t/f
As VA rating is choosen as base then the P.U iron loss are also constant at all load conditions.
To find out constant losses :-
W0 = Losses in t/f under no load condition

= Iron losses + Dielectric loss + no load primary loss (I02 R1)
Constant losses = W0 I02 R1

Where , R1 = LV winding resistance.
To find out variable losses :-
Wsc = Loss in t/f under S.C condition

= F.L Cu loss + stray load losses (Cu and Iron) + Iron losses in both wdgs
Variable losses = WSC Iron losses corresponding to VCC
O.C test :-
V1 rated Wi
S.C test :-
VSC (Wi )S.C

Wi V1 2
Wi V1 rated 2
(Wi )SC
=
VSC
VSC 2
(Wi )S.C = Wi
V1 rated
VSC 2
Variable losses = WSC (Wi )SC V
1 rated
Under the assumption that small amount of iron losses corresponds to VSC and stray load
losses are neglected the wattmeter reading in S.C test can be approximately taken as F.L
Cu losses in the transformer.
Wse F.L Cu loss
ISC2 . R 01
WSC
R 01 = 2
ISC
Efficiency :-
output power
Efficiency of transformer is given by =
input power
output power
=
output power+losses
E2 I2 cos 2
=E
2 I2 cos 2 + F.L cu losses+Iron losses
E2 I2 cos 2
F.L =
E2 I2 cos 2 + I22 R02 + Wi
x (E2 I2 ) cos 2
x of F.L =
x (E2 I2 ) cos 2 + x 2 (I2 2 R 02 ) + Wi
S.C test O.C test
KVA cos
Transformer efficiency =
KVA cos + wi + Cu losses
x MVA Pf
Efficiency = =
x MVA Pf + wcu x2 + wi
1
Total losses in transformer = 1 output

Condition for maximum effieciency is, Cu losses = Iron losses

Total losses at max = 2Wi
W Iron loss
%load at which maximum efficiency occurs % x = I 2 Ri *100 %= *100 %
2 02 F.L.cu loss
Iron loss
KVA corresponding to max = F.L KVA
F.L culoss
Output energy in kwh
Input energy in kwh
all day = 24
hrs
Voltage drop in t/f at a Specific load p.f = I2 R 02 cos 2 I2 X02 sin 2
I2 R02 cos 2 I2 X02 sin 2

% Voltage regulation = 100
V1
I R02 I X02
=2 cos 2 2 sin 2
V1 V1

P.U resistance P.U reactance
% Regulation = (P. U R) cos 2 + (P. U X) sin 2 100
Condition for max. regulation :-
% regulation = (% R) cos 2 (% X) sin 2

d regn
=0
d 2
%X X02
Tan 2 = =
%R R02
X02
2 = Tan1 lagging
R02
X
At maximum regulation 2 = Tan1 RL
L
X
= Tan1 R02
02
XL X02
RL
= R02
Value of maximum regulation :-

% Regulation = (% R) cos 2 + (% X) sin 2
%R
At max. regulation cos 2 =
%Z
%X
Sin 2 =
%Z
%R (% X)
max. % regulation = (% R) + (% X)
%Z %Z
(% R) + (% X)2
2
=
%Z
(% Z)2
= %Z
max. % regn = % Z
= % of rated voltage required to produce rated short ckt current
.
Condition for zero regulation :-
If the voltage regulation in the t/f is zero, the t/f voltages are maintained at their nominal
values even under load condition
% Regn = (% R) cos 2 (% X) sin 2
For zero regulation occurs at leading p.fs
(% R) cos 2 (% X) sin 2 = 0
%R
Tan 2 =
%X
%R R
2 = Tan1 % X = Tan1 X02
02
leading.
X R02
At zero regulation condition : 2 = Tan1 C = Tan1
RL X02
XC R02
RL
= X02
Regulation at x of FL = x [% R cos2 % X sin 2 ]
= x F.L regn
Regulation at U.P.F:-
Regulation at UPF = % R
= % F.L Cu loss
Scott Connection:
ia
Ia 86.6%
A 0.866

3
V1 0.866
0.577 V1 2 Va
N :
1
0.289 IA
IA
IB 2 M 2
B
Vb
V1 IBC ib
IC
C
VAM = 0.866 V1
V
VAN = 31 = 0.577 V1

VMN = 0.866 V1 0.577 V1 = 0.289 V1
VAN VMN = 0.577 V1 0.289 V1
=2:1
If a neutral pt is located on 3 side, such that, voltage between any terminal to that neutral
point is 0.577 V1 then such neutral point divides the primary of teaser transformer in the ratio
of 2 : 1
2
Location of neutral point from top = 0.866 N1
3
1
Location of neutral point from bottom = 0.866 N1
3
Operation of Scott Connection with 2 balanced load at UPF :-
Teaser t/f :-
Ia N2
ia
= 0.866 N1
N2
Ia = ia
0.866 N1
Let N1 N2 = 1 1
IA = 1.15 ia
Main t/f
IBC N
ib
= N2
1
N2
IBC = ib
N1
Let N1 : N2 = 1 1
IBC = ib
IB = IBC IA IC = IBC IA
2 2
Capacity of Scott Connection :-
(KVA)Scott = 3 VL IL
V2 = V1 IL = I1

Vol. rating of 1 t/f Current rating of 1 t/f
(KVA)Scotf = 3 V1 I1
(KVA)Scott = 3 (KVA)1
(KVA)
Utilization factor = availableScott
KVA
3 V1 I1
= 2V1 I1
= 0.866
Utilization factor of Scott connection with 2 identical 1 t/fs is 86.6%
AUTO TRANSFORMER:
Primary applied voltage, Vab = Secondary voltage V2 referred to primary + primary leakage impedance
drop + secondary leakage impedance drop ref. to primary.
N1 N2 N1 N2
Vab = N2
V2 + I1 (r1 + jx1 ) + (I2 I1 )(r2 + j x2 ) N2

LV
K of auto transformer =
HV
(KVA)induction = (V1 V2 ) I1
I/P KVA = V1 I1
(KVA)induction (V1 V2 ) I1
i/p KVA
= V1 I1
LV
=1
HV
=1K
(KVA) induction = (1 K) i/p KVA
(KVA) conduction = I/p KVA (KVA)ind
(KVA)conduction = K I/p KVA
Wt. of conductor in section AB of auto t/f (N1 N2 ) I1
Wt of conductor in section BC of auto t/f (I2 I1 )N2

Total wt. of conductor in auto t/f is
I1 (N1 N2 ) + (I2 I1 )N2
2 (N1 N2 ) I1
Total wt. of conductor in 2 wdg transformer
I1 N1 + I2 N2
2 I1 N1
wt.of conductor in an auto t/f 2(N1 N2 )I1
=
wt.of conductor in 2 wdg t/f 2N1 I1
N
= 1 2
N1
=1K
Wt. of conductor in auto t/f = (1 K) (wt. of conductor in 2 wdg t/f)
Thus saving of conductor material if auto t/f is used} = K {conductor wt in 2 wdg transformer.
(% FL losses)Auto t/f = (1 K)(% FL losses)2 wdg t/f
(% Z)AT = (1 K) (% Z)2 wdg t/f
1
(KVA)AT = (KVA)2 wdg t/f .
1K
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES:
Principle of operation :-
Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in that conductor
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
Coil span () :- It is the distance between two sides of the coil. It is expressed in terms of
degrees, pole pitch, no. of slots / pole etc
Pole pitch :- It is the distance between two identical points on two adjacent poles.
Pole pitch is always 180 e = slots / pole.
P
elec = mech
2
Slot pitch or slot angle :- (T)Slot angle is the angle for each slot.
P(180)
For a machine with P poles and s no. of slots, the slot angle = = d
180
= s

p
Pitch factor or coil span factor or chording factor :- (K P)
The emf induced | coil in short pitched winding

KP =
The emf induced |coil in full pitched winding
The vector sum of induced emf | coil

=
Arithmetic sumof induced emf | coil
2E cos/2
KP =
2E
K p = cos /2
Pitch factor for nth harmonic i.e,K p = cos n

n 2
180
chording angle to eliminate nth harmonics ()=
n
n1
coil spam to eliminate nth harmonics ,() = 180
n
Distribution factor | spread factor | belt factor | breadth factor(kd) :-
The emf induced when the winding is distributed

Kd =
The emf induced when the winding is concentrated
Vector sum of emf induced

Kd =
Arithmetic sum of emf induced
m
sin
2
Kd =
m sin
2
The distribution factor for uniformly distributed winding is
mr
sim
kd4 = mr
2

2 180
mn
sin
For nth harmonic, kdn = 2
n
m sin
2
360
To eliminate nth harmonics ,phase spread (m) =
n
Generally, KVA rating, power output kd and Eph (induce emf) k d . Tph .
60
KVA60 (3 ) Pout60 (3 ) kd60 sin m120 sin 30 120
= = = 2
120 = = 1.15
KVA120 (3 ) Pout120 (3) kd120 sin m60 sin 60 60
2
60
KVA60 (3) Pout60 (3) kd60 sin 90
KVA90 (2)
= Pout90 (2)
= kd90
= 2
90 = 1.06
sin 60
2
60
KVA60 (3) Pout60 (3) kd60 sin 180
= = = 2
180 = 1.5
KVA180 (1) Pout180 (1 ) kd180 sin 60
2
KVA90 (2 ) Pout90 kd90 sin902 180

KVA180 (1 )
= = = sin1802
= 1.414
Pout180 kd180 90
1
Speed of space harmonics of order (6k 1) is (6k . Ns
1)
120 f
where Ns = synchronous speed =
p
2S
The order of slot harmonics is 1
P
where S = no. of slots , P = no. of poles
Slot harmonics can be eliminated by skewing the armature slots and fractional slot winding.
The angle of skew = s = (slot angle)
= 2 harmonic pole pitches

= 1 slot pitch.
2s
Distribution factor for slot harmonics, k d 1
p
m
sin
Is kd1 = 2
i.e., same that of fundamental
m sin
2
2s
Pith factor for slot harmonics, k p 1 = k p1 = cos 2
p
The synchronous speed Ns and synchronous angular speed s of a machine with p pole
pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:
s = 2fs / p
NS N
Slip S =
NS
120 f
Where NS = = synchronous speed
p
The magnitude of voltage induced in a given stator phase is Ea = 2 Nc f = K
Where K = constant
The output power Pm for a load torque Tm is:
Pm = sTm
The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:
TM = PM / s = PM p/ 2fs = 120PM / 2Ns
Synchronous Generator:
For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and
synchronous impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = E - IsZs = Es - Is(Rs + jXs)
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance
E = (V cos + Ia R a )2 + (V sin Ia Xs )2
+ lag p.f
leading p.f.
Synchronous Motor:
For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and synchronous
impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Es + IsZs = Es + Is(Rs + jXs)

where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance
Voltage regulation :
|E| |V|
% regulation = |V|
100
E V = Ia Zs
EV
% regulation =
V
Ia Zs
= 100
V
regulation Zs
As Zs increases, voltages regulation increases.
Ia Zs
Condition for zero | min. voltage regulation is, Cos ( + ) = 2V
Condition for max. Voltage regulation is, =
Ifm 1 1
Short circuit ratio (SCR) = = =
Ifa Zs (adjusted)|unit Xs (adjusted)|unit
1 1
SCR
Xa Armature reaction
Voltage regulation Armature reaction

1
SCR
Voltage regulation
Small value of SCR represent poor regulation.
armature mmf
a =
reluctance
But reluctance Air gap
armature mmf
a =
airgap
1
a
Air gap length
1
Armature reaction a
Airgap length
1
SCR Airgap length
Armature reaction
Air gap length SCR
machine size SCR.

Cost SCR
EV
Power = sin
Xs
1
P SCR
Xs
Power SCR
Large value of SCR represent more power output.
Synchronizing power coefficient or stability factor Psy is given as
dp d EV
Psy = = sin
d d Xs
EV
= cos
Xs
Psy is a measure of stability
stability Psy
1
But Psy SCR
Xs
Stability SCR
Stability SCR Air gap length
Stability Air gap length
When the stator mmf is aligned with the d axis of field poles then flux d perpole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is X d .
maximum Voltage (Vt )line (at min. Ia )

Xd = = = Direct axis reactance
minimum current 3 Ia (min )
When the stator mmf is aligned with the q axis of field poles then flux q per pole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is X q.
minimum voltge Vt line (at maximum Ia )

Xq = = = Quadrature axis reactance
maximum voltage 3 Ia (max )
Cylindrical rotor Synchronous machine ,
Ef Vt
The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by P = Xs
sin
Salient pole synchronous machine ,
The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by
Ef Vt Vt2 1 1
P= Xd
sin + 2
X sin 2
q Xd
Condition for max. power:-
For cylindrical rotor machine :-

dp
At constant Vt and Ef , the condition for max. power is obtained by putting =0
d
dp Ef Vt
= cos =0
d Xs
Cos = 0
= 90
Hence maximum power occurs at = 90
dp
For salient pole synchronous machine :- =0
d
Vt Ef 1 1
cos + Vt 2 cos 2 =0
Xd Xq Xd
2
Ef Xq 1 E Xq
+ 4V
f
Cos = 4V
t Xd Xq 2 X t d Xq
The value of load angle is seed to be less than 90.

max. power occurs at < 90
Synchronizing power = Psy. .
EV
cos . .
=
Xs
Synchronizing power
Synchronizing torque = .

Power flow in Alternator :-
Complex power = S = P + jQ = VIa
EV V2
Where Active power flow (P) = cos( ) cos ;
Zs Zs
EV V2
Reactive power flow (Q) = sin( ) sin ;
Z2 Zs
Condition for max. power output :-
EV V2
P= cos( ) cos
Zs Z2
dp
= 0 for max power condition
d
ie = 0
=
If R a = 0; = = 90 ; then max power is given by
EV V2
Pmax = Zs
Z cos
s
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS:
NN.L NF.L
Speed regulation = 100
NF.L
N N
= S S 100 = 0%
NS
NS N NS NS
Slip S = = N = 0%
NS S
120 f
NS =
p
The speed can be controlled by varying the frequency
V

f
v
ratio control is preferred for rated torque operation
F
Power flow in synchronous motor is given by

complex power i/p s = p + jQ = V Ia
where P = Resl power flow , Q = Reactive power flow
V2 EV V2 EV
P = Z cos ZS
cos( + ) : Q = Z sin ZS
sin( + )
2 2
:
If R a = 0 ; ZS = X S ; 90
EV V
Pin = X sin Q = X [V E cos ]
S S
Condition for max power :-
V2 EV
Pin = cos cos( + )
Z2 ZS
d Pin EV
d
= 0 0 + sin( + ) = 0
ZS
Sin ( + ) = 0 = sin 180
= 180 0
V2 EV
Pmax = ZS
cos + ZS
Expression for mechanical power developed :-

Mechanical power developed = Pm = active component + [E Ia ]
EV E2
Pm = cos( ) + cos
ZS ZS
Condition for max. mechanical power developed :-

d pm EV
d
= sin( ) = 0
ZS
Sin ( ) = 0 = sin 0
=
EV E2
Pm max = ZS
ZS
cos
This is the expression for the mechanical power developed interms of load angle and the
internal machine angle , for constant voltage Vph and constant E i.e., excitation
Pm
Gross Torque =
w
Pm
= 2 Ns
60
Ns = synchronous speed in r.p.m
60 Pm
Tg = .
2 NS
9.55 Pm
Tg = Ns
Condition for excitation when motor develops Pmax :-

For max power developed is
dPm
=0
dE
d EV E2
cos(
dt ZS
) ZS
cos = 0
VZS
Condition for excitation when motor develops Pmax is , Eb =
2Ra
The corresponding value of max. power is
V2 V2
Pmax = 2R 4Ra
a
Power flow in synchronous motors :-
Tg = Pin
2 Ns
60
Pin Stator Mechanical power Friction

3 VL IL cos copper loss developed in armature and Iron
2 Pm = 3Ebph . Iaph cos
(input) 3 Iaph Ra losses
( )
Tsh =
+ ve lead
Pout
ve for lag 2 Ns
60. Pout
output
For leading p.f
Ia Xq cos + Ra sin
tan = V
t + Ia Xq sin Ra cos
The mechanical power developed per phase is given by,

s
Eb Vph Vph2 1 1
Pm = sin + X sin 2
Xd 2 q Xd
INDUCTION MACHINES:
The power flow diagram of 3 induction motor is
Power i/p to stator
Rotor i/p power Mechanical power
from mains
= airgap power Pg developed, Pm
Power of
rotor shaft
Stator Stator Rotor Rotor core loss Friction loss Windage

I2R core I2R (negligible for at bearings loss
loss loss loss small slips) and sliprings
of (if any)
ns nr
The slip of induction machine is (S) = ns
Ns Nr
= Ns
Where Ns is synchronous speed in rpm
ns is synchronous speed in rps
Nr = Ns (1 s)
Ns Nr = SNs
P . SNs PNs
Rotor frequency, f2 = =S = Sf1
120 120
For an induction machine with rotor resistance Rr and locked rotor leakage reactance Xr, the
rotor impedance Zr at slip s is:Zr = Rr + jsXr
The stator circuit equivalent impedance Zrf for a rotor / stator frequency ratio s is:
Zrf = Rrs / s + jXrs
For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed s running at angular speed m and
slip s, the airgap transfer power Pt, rotor copper loss Pr and gross output power Pm for a
gross output torque Tm are related by:
Pt = sTm = Pr / s = Pm / (1 - s)
Pr = sPt = sPm / (1 - s)
Pm = mTm = (1 - s)Pt
The power ratios are:
Pt : Pr : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency m (neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:
m = Pm / Pt = 1 - s
Rotor emf, Current Power :-

At stand still, the relative speed between rotating magnetic field and rotor conductors is
synchronous speed Ns ; under this condition let the per phase generated emf in rotor circuit
be E2 .
E2 /ph = 4.44 Nphr 1 f1 K dr K pr

E2 /ph = 4.44 Nphr 1 f1 K wr
K wr = Rotor winding factor
But during running conditions the frequency of the rotor becomes, running with speed Nr
P(Ns Nr ) P SNs
120
= 120
= Sf1
fr = Sf1
Emf under running conditions is
E = 2 fr Kw2 Nphr 1
= SE2
Rotor leakage reactance = 2 (Rotor frequency)

(Rotor leakage Inductance)
Rotor leakage reactance at stand still = 2 f1 2
= x2
Rotor leakage reactance at any slips = 2 f2 2
= sx2
Rotor leakage impedance at stand still
= r22 + x22
At any slip s, rotor
= r22 + (sx2 )2
Per phase rotor current at stand still
E
=
r22 + x22
Per phase rotor current at any slip s is given by

SE2 E2
I2 = =
2
r2 + (sx2 ) 2 (r1 /s)2 + x22
The rotor current I2 lags the rotor voltage E2 by rotor power factor angle 2 given by
sx
2 = tan1 r 2
2
Per phase power input to rotor is
Pg = F2 I2 cos 2
Per phase rotor resistance
cos 2 =
Per phase rotor impedance
r2 /s
=
(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2
r2 /s
Pg = E2 I2
(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2
`
E2 r2
= I2
(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2 s
r2
= I22 s
Pg is the power transferred from stator to rotor across the air gap. There fore Pg is called air
gap power
r
Pg = I22 s2
1S
= I22 r2 + I22 r2
S
Pg = (Rotor ohmic loss) + Internal mechanical power developed in rotor (Pm )

= S Pg + (1 S)Pg
1S
Pm = (1 S) Pg = I22 r2
S
S
Rotor ohmic loss = Pm = SPg
1S
Internal (or gross) torque developed per phase is given by
Internal mechanical power developed inrotor

Te =
Rotor speed in mechanical radian per sec
Pm (1S)Pg Pg
Te = r
= (1S)s
= s
Electromagnetic torque Te can also be expressed as
Pg 1 I22 r2 Rotor ohmic loss

Te = = =
s s S (s ) slip
Rotor ohmic loss
Te = (s ) slip
Power available at the shaft can be obtained from Pg as follows.

Output or shaft power, Psh = Pm Mechanical losses
Mechanical losses implies frication and windage losses
Psh = Pg Rotor ohmic loss Friction and windage losses

= Net mechanical power output or net power output
P Psh
Output or shaft torque Tsh = Rotorsh
speed
= (1s) s
If the stator input is known. Then air gap power Pg is given by

Pg = stator power input stator I 2 R loss stator core loss.
Ratio of Rotor input power, rotor copper losses and gross mechanical output is
1
Ir2 R 2 /s : Ir2 R 2 : Ir2 R 2 1
s
1 : S : (1 S)
Rotor copper losses = S Rotor input
Gross mechanical output =(1 S) Rotor input.
S
Rotor copper losses = (Gross Mechanical output)
1S
Efficiency of the rotor is approximately
Gross mechanical power output
Equal to rotor =
Rotor input
(1S) Rotor input
=
Rotor input
=1S
NS N
=1
NS
N
=
Ns
N
rotor Ns
Total torque is
m Ve2 r2
Te = r2 2
Nm
s Re + + (x2 + Xe )2 s
s
m is the number of stator phases.
Torque equation can be written as
m r
Te = I22 s2
s
m
Te = rotor input per phase.
s
Thus the slip SmT at which maximum torque occurs is given by
r2
SmT =
Re2 + X2
Substituting the value of maximum slip in the torque equation, gives maximum torque
m Ve2
Tem = s

2Re + Re2 + X22
r2
If stator parameters are neglected then applying maximum transfer theorem to r2 /s then s
=x2
Slip corresponding to maximum torque is

r2
Sm = (Breakdown slip)
x2
Nm = Ns (1 Sm )
Nm = Ns (1 R 2 /x2 )
Nm is the stalling speed at the maximum torque
Starting torque:-
At starting, slip S = 1.00, starting torque is given by
m Ve2 r2
Test = (Re + r2 )2 + X2
s
Motor torque in terms of :

The torque expression of an induction motor can also be expressed in terms of maximum
S
torque Tem and dimension less ratio . In order to get a simple and approximate
Sm,T
expression, stator resistance r1 , or the stator equivalent resistance R e , is neglected.
2Re + Re2 + X2
Te r2
Tem
= r 2
s
Re + 2 + X2
s
Since r1 or Re is neglected
Te 2X r2
Tem
= r 2
s
2 + X2
s
The slip at which maximum torque occurs is

r
SmT = X2 r2 = SmT X
Te 2X SmT X
Tem
= X 2

S
mT + X2 s
s
Te 2
= SmT S
Tem +
S SmT
2Tem
Te = SmT S
+
S SmT
Power slip characteristics :-

The total internal mechanical power developed is
1s
Pm = m(1 S)Pg = m I22 r2 w
s
mVe2 1s
Pm = 2 r2
r (1s) s
Re + r2 + 2 + X2
s
Maximum power transfer theorem is invoked again to obtain maximum value of internal
1s
mechanical power developed. Since Pm per phase is the power delivered to r2 s
, internal
mechanical power developed is maximum, when
rs 1Smp
SmP
= (R e + r2 )2 + X 2
r2
SmP =
(Re + r2 )2 + X2 + r2
r2 1 Smp r2 (1s)
In order to get maximum power Pm ,substitute Smp
, in place of s
in power equation
mve2
Pmm =
2[Re + r2 + (Re + r2 )2 + X2
In order to get maximum power output from an induction generator, the rotor must be deiven
at a speed given by
r2
ns 1 +
(R e + r2 )2 + X 2 + r2
Losses and efficiency :-

There are three cases in iron losses.
Case (i) : If the ratio of voltage to frequency is constant and flux is also constant then
Iron loss = Hysteresis loss + eddy current loss
Ph = K h + Bm1.6 Pe = K e f 2 Bm2
V V
Given is constant. As Bm
f f
Bm is constant
Ph f and Pe f 2
Case (ii) : If the ratio of voltage to frequency is not constant and flux is also not constant
v
const const
f
Ph = K h f Bm1.6 Pe = K e f 2 Bm
2
Ph v1.6 f 0.6 Pe v 2
Case (iii) : If frequency is constant and voltage is variable then

1.6
Ph = K h f Bm Pe = K h f 2 Bm
2
v 1.6
= Kh f
f
Ph v1.6 Pe v12
Short circuit current with normal voltage applied to stator is

V
I = Ibr
Vbr
I = short circuit current with normal voltage

Ibr = short circuit current with voltage Vbr .
Power factor on short circuit is found from
Pbr = 3 Vbr Ibr cos br
Pbr
Cos br =
br Ibr
3 V
As Pbr is approximately equal to full load copper losses

Pbr
R br = Ibr2
The blocked rotor impedance is

Vbr
Zbr =
Ibr
Blocked rotor reactance = X br = Zbr 2 R br2

Efficiency of Induction machines :-
output power
Generally efficiency =
input power
Net mechanical output
Efficiency of Induction motor =
Electrical power input
Net electrical output

Efficiency of Induction generator =
mechanical power input
Squirrel cage rotor:

Stator Cu loss = 3 Isc2 r1 = 3 Isc2 r1
Rotor Cu loss = Psc 3 Isc2 r1
GD Psc 3 Isc2 r1
=
GF 3 Isc2 r1
Wound rotor
GD I22 r2 r2 I 2
= I12 r1
= I2
GF r1 1
Direct on line (across the line) starting :-

The relation between starting torque and full load torque is
1 r2
Te = I22
s s
2 r2
Te.st I2.st
Te.fl
= 2
1
r2
I2.ft
Sfl
I 2
= I2 st Sfl
2 fl
The above equation valids of rotor resistance remains constant.
Te.st I 2
Te.fl
= Ist Sfl
fl
Ist (Effective rotor to stator turns ratio) I2 st

Where = (Effective rotor to stator turns ratio) I2 fl
Ifl
Per phase short circuit current at stand still (or at starting) is,
V1
Isc = Zsc
Where Zsc = (r1 + r2 ) + j(x1 + x2 )

Here shunt branch parameters of equivalent circuit are neglected.
Therefore, for direct switching,
V1
Ist = Isc =
Zsc
T I 2
Test = Isc Sfl .
esf fl
Stator resistor (or reactor) starting :-

Since per phase voltage is reduced to xv, the per phase starting current Ist is given by
xv
Ist = Z 1 = xIsc
sc
Te.st I 2
As be fore Te.fl
= Ist Sfl
fl
xI 2
= I sc Sfl
fl
In an induction motor, torque (voltage)2
starting torque with reactor starting xv 2

starting torque with direct switching
= v 1 = x2
1
Auto transformer starting :-

Per phase starting current from the supply mains is Ist = x 2 Isc
Te.st Per phase starting current in motor winding

Te fl
= Sfl
Perphase motor full load current
Te.st Ist Isc

Te.fl
= Ifl2
Sfl
Test with an autotransformer xv 2

= 1 = x2
Test with direct switching v1
Star delta method of starting :

starting torque with star delta starter
starting torque with direct switching in delta

V 2
L 1
3
= [V 2 =
L] 3
star delta starter also reduces the starting torque to one third of that produced by direct switching
in delta.
With star delta starter, a motor behaves as if it were started by an auto transformer starter with x =
1
= 0.58 i.e with 58% tapping.
3
1 2r 1 2
Starting torque with star delta starter Te .st I
ws st .y
12 I 1 I d 2
3 st .d
= 1 r = (Ifl .d )2
Sfl = I sc . d Sfl
Full load torque with startor winding in delta,Tefld (I )2 2 3 fl .
ws fl d Sfl
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
Power systems:
Power Systems Generation and Distribution and Concepts of HVDC:
Thermal Power Station :-

Heat equivalent of mechenergy Transmitted toTurbine shat
Thermal efficiency, Thermal =
Heat of coal combustion
Thermal efficiency = boiler turbine
Heat equvivalent of electrical o/p
Overall efficiency, overall =
Heat of combustion of coal
Overall efficiency = Thermal efficiency Electrical efficiency.
Energy output = coal consumption calorific value.
= coal consumption 6500 k.cal
Output in k.cal
=
Input in k.cal
Water Power equation:-

Water Head : The difference of water level is called the water head.
Gross Head : The total head between the water level at inlet and tail race is called as gross
head
Rated Head : Head utilized in doing work on the turbine
Net Head : It is the sum of the Rated Head and the loss of head in guide passage and
entrance
H = Head of water in metre
Q = Quantity of water in m3 /sec or lit/sec.
W = specific gravity of water
= 1 kg/lit when Q represented in lit/sec.
= 100 kg/m3 when Q represented in m3 /sec.
= efficiency of the system.
Effective work done
or = WQH kg- m/sec.
Output of system
WQH
Metric output = (H.P)
75
1H.P = 75 kg-m/sec
WQH
Metric output in watt = 735.5
75
WQH
Output = kw
102
Volume of water available per annum = catchment area Annual Rainfall

Electric energy generated = weight head overall .
GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT :
The thermal efficiency of gas turbine plant is about 22% to 25%

The air fuel ratio may be of the order of 60 : 1 in this ase.
overall
Engine efficiency engines = alt
engine
Thermal efficiency they = mech. of englnd
Heat produced by fuel per day = coal consumption / day caloritic value
Terms and Definitions :-
1. Connected load :-
It is the sum of ratings in kilo watts of equipment installed in the consumers premises
2. Demand :-
It is the load or power drawn from the source of supply at the receiving end averaged over a
specified period.
3. Maximum Demand :-
Maximum demand (M.D) of a power station is the maximum load on the power station in a given
period.
4. Average load:-
If the number of KWH supplied by a station in one day is divided by 24 hours, then the value so
obtained is known as daily average load.
KWH deliverd in one day
Daily average load =
24
KWH delivered in one month
Monthly average load =
30 24
KWH delivered in one year
Yearly average load =
365 24
5. Plant capacity :-
It is the capacity or power for which a plant or station is designed. It should be slightly more than
M.D. it is equal to sum of the ratings of all the generators in a power station.
6. Firm Power :-
It is the power which should be always be available even under emergency
7. Prime Power :-
It is the maximum power (may be thermal or hydraulic or mechanical) continuously available for
conversion into electrical power.
8. Dump power :-
This is the term usually used in hydro electric plants and it represents the power in excess of the
load requirements. It is made available by surplus water.
9. Spill Power :-
Is that power which is produced during floods in a hydro power station.
10. Cold reserve :-
Is that reserve generating capacity which is not in operation but can be made available for service.
11. Hot reserve :-
It that reserve generating capacity which is in operation but not in service
12. Spinning reserve :-
Is that reserve generating capacity which is connected to bus-bars and is ready to take the load.
Load factor :-
It is defined as the ratio of number of units actually generated in a given period to the number
of units that could have been generated with maximum demand.
Average load or Average Demand
Load factor =
Maximum Demand.
Energy generated in a given period

= (Maximum Demand) (Hours of operaation in the given period)
.
The load factor will be always less than one (< 1)
Demand factor:-
It is defined as the ratio of maximum demand on the station to the total connected load to
the station.
Maximum Demand on the station
Demand factor =
Total connected load to the station
Its value also will be always less than one (< 1)
Diversity Factor :-
Diversity factor may be defined as the sum of individual maximum demand to the station
to the maximum demand on the power station.
Sum of individual consumers maximum demand
Diversity factor =
Maximum demand on the station.
Its value will be always greater than one (> 1)
Plant Factor or Plant Use Factor :-
station output in kwh

Plant factor =
(KW1 ) H1 + (KW2 ) H2 + (KW3 )H3 +
Where KW1, KW2, KW3 etc. are the kilowatt ratings of each generator and H1 , H2 , H3 etc.
are the number of hours for which they have been worked.
Capacity Factor or plant capacity factor or capability factor :-
It is defined as the ratio of average demand on the station to the maximum installed capacity.
Average demand on the station

i.e. capacity factor =
Max.installed capacity of the station
Coincidence factor:-
It is the reciprocal of diversity factor and is always less than 1

Maximum demand
Utilization factor =
Plant capacity
Service hours
Operation factor =
Total duration
Actual energy produced
Use factor =
Plant capacity Time (hrs)the plant has been in operation
D.C. Distribution calculations
Uniformly loaded Distributor fed at one end.

Fig (a) shows the single lien diagram of a 2 wire d.c. distributor AB fed at one end A and
loaded uniformly with i amperes per metre length.

A C
B
A B
x dx
i i i i
Fig. (a)
Then the current at point c is.
= ix amperes
= i( x) amperes.
Total voltage drop is the distributor upto point C is
x x2
= 0 ir ( x)dx = ir x 2

Voltage drop over the distributor AB
1
= ir 2
2
1
= IR
2
Where i = I, the total current entering at point A
r = R, the total resistance of the distributor.
Uniformly loaded distributor fed at both ends.

(i) Distributor fed at both ends with equal voltages
Current supplied from each feeding point
9
=
2

x dx
A B
C
V C
i i i i i
ir
Voltage drop upto point C = (x x 2 ).
2
1
Max. voltage drop = IR
8
IR
Min. voltage =V volts
8
(ii) Distributor fed at both ends with unequal voltages :-
The point of minimum potential C is situated at a distance x meters from the feeding point A.
irx2
Voltage drop in section AC = volts.
2
x - x
C
A B
VA VB
i i i i i
VA VB
x= ir
+
2
Comparison of 3 wire and 2 wire D.C. distribution
The area of cross section of neutral is half the cross section of outers in 3 wire system.
volume of w for 3wire system 5 1 5

= a =
volume of w for 2wire system 8 2a 16
If the neutral has the same cross section as the outer, then.
volume of w for 3wire system 3 1 3
= a = =5
volume of w for 2wire system 4 2a 8
= 37.5%
Transmission Lines:
3P
The empirical formula for the economical voltage line to line is V = 5.5 +
1.6 100
where V = line pressure in KV, l = distance of transmission in KM,
P = estimated max.KW per phase to be delivered over one pole or tower line
Performance of Lines
By performance of lines is meant the determination of efficiency and regulation of

lines.
The efficiency of lines is defined as
Power delivered at the receiving end

% efficiency = 100
Power sent from sending end
Power delivered at the receiving end

% efficiency = 100
Power delivered at the receiving end+losses
Vr Vr
% regulation = Vr
100
Where Vr is the receiving end voltage under no load condition and Vr the
Receiving end voltage under full load condition.
Effect of Earth on a 3 line:-
S. No Line Description R L XL C XC
1. Length Increases Increases Increases Increases Increases Decreases
2. Distance of separation No change Increases Increases Decreases Increases
increases
3. Radius of conductor Decreases Decreases Decreases Increases Decreases
increases
4. Symmetrical spacing. Does not Decreases Decreases Increases Decreases
depend
5. Unsymmetrical spacing. Does not Increases Increases Decreases Increases
depend.
6. Effect of earth is taken No change No change No change Increases Decreases
into account
7. Height of the conductor No change No change No change Decreases Increases.
increases
The capacitance C of the conductor with reference to grund
2 0
C= F/metre
ln 2hr
Where h = distance between earth and conductor
Effect of earth on the capacitance of single phase transmission line :-

a b
Daa
a b
Effect of earth on the capacitance of single phase transmission line is

0
C= Dab Daa
F/metre
ln
r Dab
The effect of earth on capacitance of the system is to increases it.
Capacitance of a 1 transmission line
P
L L
r
h
1 transmission line
0
C= 2
F/metre.
h h
+ 2
r r
L 0
C= = F/metre.
V ln hr
The capacitance C of the 3 transmission line with reference to grund is

P 2 D
C = Va = F/metre.
a 3 D D D
ab bc ca 3 Daa Dbb Dcc
ln D
r D D
ab bc ca
Capacitance of a 3 Phase Unsymmetrically Spaced Transmission Line is

P 20
C = Va = GMD F/metre
a ln
r
Vertical Spacing:-
h
a c c b b a
d g
b f b a a c c
c a b c a b
1 2 3
For Vertical Spacing conductors, The capacitance C per phase of the system is
4 0
C= 2 F/metre/phase.
3 d g 3
ln 2
r f
Capacitance of a hexagonal spacing Double Circuit Line is
20
C = Va = 3D
F/metre/coloumb
a ln
2
Bundled conductors:-
For a two conductor bundle, the equation for maximum gradient at the surface of a
sub-conductor is
2r
V1+
s
g= d
2r ln
rs
where s is the seperation between the sub conductors.
Let the equivalent radius or geometric mean radius be P0 then for two conductors
1 1 1
P0 = (rd) 2 = r 2 d 2
When there are 3 conductors
1
1 1 2 3 3
P0 = (r d d ) 3 = r 3 d 3
4
For 4 conductors
1 1
d d 4 1 3 1 4
P0 = r . d = r 4 d 4 .
2 2 2
5 1
1 d 6 1 d 5 6
For six conductors , P0 = r 6 6 6 = 6r
2 2
Inductance of a double 3 line :-
h
a c c b b a
d g
b f b a a c c
c a b c a b
1 2 3
Transposed double circuit line.
Inductance per phase =
1 1
1 d 2 g 3
2 107 ln 2 6 1 H/metre/phase
r f
Inductance of composite conductors :-

1
2
m
3
2
1 4
3
n
A B
A
Inductance of composite conductors 1 transmission line.

mn
D11 D12 D1n D21 D22 D2n Dm1 Dm2 Dmn
7
LA = 2 10 ln m2
(R D12 D13 D1m ) (R D21 D23 D2m ) (R Dm1 Dm2 Dmm )
The mnth root of the product of the mn distances between m strands of conductor A and n strands
of conductor B is called geometric mean distance (GMD) and is denoted as Dm .
The m2 th root of m2 distances i.e., the distance of the various strands from one of the strands
and the radius of the same strand, the distances of such m groupings constitute m2 terms
in the denominator, is called the geometric mean radius (GMR) of self GMD and is denoted
as Ds .
Dm
LA = 2 107 ln Ds
Henry/metre.
Composite Conductors,
Inductance L per unit length

0 D
= 40 +
ln Henry/metre.
R
7 D 1
=4 10 ln Henry/metre [where R = R. e 4]
R
Inductance of 3 Unsymmetrically Spaced Transmission Line

Ia
b c
Ic a Ib
3 transmission with
Unsymmetrical spacing
La + Lb + Lc
L=
3
3
abc
= 2 107 ln R
Henry/metre.
Short Transmission Line
The equivalent circuit and vector diagram for a short transmission line are shown in fig.
Vr 2Ir R cos r 2Ir X sin r Ir2
VS = 1 + + + (R2 + X 2 )
Vr Vr Vr2
In practice the last term under the square root sign is generally negligible; therefore.
1
2Ir R 2Ir X 2
VS = Vr 1 + cos r + sin r
Vr Vr
R + JX
vS
Ir jIrX
IS
vS vr
vr IrR
r a
Ir
The terms within the simple brackets is small as compared to unity. Using binomial expansion and
limiting only to second term,
Vs Vr + Ir Rcos r + Ir X sin r
The receiving end voltage under no load Vr is the same as the sending end voltage under full
load condition.
VS Vr
%regulation = Vr
100
I R I X
= r cos r + r sin r 100
Vr Vr
Ir R Ir X
Regulation per unit = cos r + sin r
Vr Vr
= Vr cos r + Vx sin r
Where Vr and Vx are the per unit values of resistance and reactance of the line.
Vs = AVr + BIr
Is = CVr + DIr
V
A = Vs Ir = 0
r
This means A is the voltage impressed at the sending end per volt at the receiving end when
receiving end is open. It is dimensionless.
Vs
B= Vr = 0
Ir
B is the voltage impressed at the sending end to have one ampere at the short circuited receiving
end. This is known as transfer impedence in network theory.
I
C = Vs Ir = 0
r
C is the current in amperes into the sending end per volt on the open circuited receiving end. It
has the dimension of admittance.
I
D = s Vr = 0
I r
D is the current at the sending end for one ampere of current at the short circuited receiving end
.
The constants A, B, C, and D are related for a passive network as follows
AD BC = 1
The sending end voltage and current can be written from the equivalent network as,
Vs = Vr + Ir Z
Is = I r
The constants for short transmission lines are,
A=1
B=Z
C=0
D=1
VS Vr
% regulation = A
Vr
100
Power received at the receiving end
%= 100
Power received at the receiving end+losses
Where R is the resistance per phase of the line.
Medium Length Lines:-

Transmission lines with lengths between 80 km and 160 km are categorized as medium lines
where the parameters are assumed to be lumped. .
The two configurations are known as nominal T and nominal respectively.
R jX R jX
+2 +2 Ir
2 vC 2 R + jX I Ir
IS IC IC1
Y Y vr
vS Y = jwc vr vS
2 2
Nominal T
vS
X
jIS 2
vc
R
IS 2
vr
jIr X/2
IS
IC
Ir
j
|VS |
Vr = R jX
wc
j
+
2 2 wc
Vr Vr
% of regulation = Vr
100
P
%= R 100
P+3 I 2 + I52
2 r
A, B, C, D constant for nominal T

YZ
A=1+
2
YZ
B = Z 1 +
2
C=Y
YZ
D = 1 +
2
Nominal
IS Z = R + jx I Ir vS
IC & IC
IC2 jIX
IC1
Y jwc Y jwc vr
vS = = vr IS
2 2 2 2 IR
I
Ir

2j
|VS |
Vr = C
j
R+jX C
2
Vr LVr
% regulation = 100
Vr
P
%= 100
P+3 I2 R
A, B, C, D constants for nominal
Y
A=1+
2
B=Z
YZ
C = Y 1 +
4
YZ
D = 1 +
2
Long Transmission Lines:-
In case the lines are more than 160 km long
I + I I V + V1 I + I ZX
V1 I
vS V + V V vr YX
CX
X X X
Let Z = series impedence per unit length
Y = shunt admittance per unit length
= length of line
Z = zl = total series impedence
Y = yl = total shunt admittance.
V = Aerx + Berx
I
I= (Aerx Berx )
ZC
V +I Z V I Z
V = r 2 r c erx + r 2r C erx
1 V +I Z V I Z
I = r 2 r C erx r 2 r C erx
ZC
z r+jL
ZC = y = g+jC
The propagation constant r = + j ; the real part is known as attenuation constant and the
quadrature component the phase constant and is measured in radians per unit length.
Vr + Ir ZC Vr Ir ZC
V= 2
ex . ejx + 2
ex . ejx
Vs = Vr cos hrl + Ir Zc sin hrl
sin hrl
IS = Vr + Ir cos hrl
Zc
A = cosh rl
B = Zc sinh rl
sinh rl
C=
Zc
D = cosh rl
The equivalent Circuit Representation of a Long Line equivalent Representation
Z sinhr
Z1 =
r
y1 y1 y Tanhr/2
VS =
2 2 2 r/2
equivalent T Representation of Long Line.
Z Z Tanhr/2
=
2 2 r/2
IS
sinh r
VS Y1 = Y r
Vr
Constants for Two networks in Tandem
IS I Ir
A1 , B1 A2 , B2
vS V vr
C1 , D1 C 2 , D2
A B A B1 A2 B2
equivalent = 1
C D C1 D1 C2 D2
Constants for networks in parallel

IS 1
A1 , B1
C1 , D1
IS Ir
vS vr
IS 2
A2 , B2
C 3 , D2
A1 B2 + A2 B1
A=
B1 + B2
Equivalent B .B
B = B 1+ B2
Single 1 2
Network A1 B2 + A2 B1 D1 B2 + D2 B1
A=D= B1 + B2
= B1 + B2
Parameters
(A1 A2 )(D2 D1 )
C = C1 + C2 +
B1 + B2
Critical disruptive voltage :-
Critical disruptive voltage is defined as the voltage at which complete disruption of
dielectric occurs
At any other temperature and pressure

g 0 = g 0 .
Where is the air density correction factor and is given by
3.92 b
=
273+t
where b is the barometric pressure in cm of Hg and t the temperature in .
d
The critical disruptive voltage is given by V = rg 0 ln kV
r
The final expression for the critical disruptive voltage after taking into account
the atmospheric conditions and the surface of the conductor is given by
d
V = rg 0 m0 ln kV
r
Where m0 = average value for the ratio of breakdown voltage and smooth conductor
Polished wires 1
Roughened or weathered wires 0.98 to 0.93
Seven strand cable 0.87 to 0.83
Large cables with more then seven strands 0.90 approx
The distance between g v and g 0 is called energy distance. According to peek this distance
is equal to (r + 0.301r) for coaxial conductors.
0.3
g v = g 0 1 + kv/cm for two wires in parallel
r
0.3 d
vv = rg 0 1 + ln kV
r r
In case the irregularity factor is taken into account,
0.3 d
Vv = 21.1 mv r 1 + ln r kV rms
r
Where r is the radius in cms.
The irregularity factor mv has the following values:
mv = 1.0 for polished wires
= 0.98 to 0.93 for rough conductor exposed to atmospheric severities
= 0.72 for local corona on stranded conductors.
Peek made a number of experiments to study the effect of various parameters on the
corona loss and he deduced an empirical relation
(f+25) r 2
P = 241 105
d Vp V0 kw/km/phase
Where f = frequency of supply
= The air density correction factor
Vp = The operating voltage in kV
V0 = the critical disruptive voltage
Sag in Transmission and Distribution Lines
wl2
When the Supports are at the Same Level , Sag = s = 2T
Where w = weight in kg/m run
= half the span length in metre
T = Tension in kg
Effect of wind and ice
w = weight of conductor kg/m run

wi = weight of ice kg/m run
ww = wind pressure kg/m run acting horizontally
Weight of ice (Wi ) = R (D + R) 1 specific wt of ice
Specific weight of ice = weight of ice/m3 = 1000 kg
Wind pressure = Ww = (D + 2R) 1 wind pressure kg/m3
W = (w + wi )2 + ww
2
Wl2
Sag = m
2T
Factor of Safety
Max. Stress
factor of safety =
permissible stress
Vertical sag = S cos
When the Supports are at different level
Let l = Span length

h = difference in levets between two supports
x1 = Distance of support at low level from 0
x2 = Distance of support at higher level from 0
T = Tension in the conductor
W = weight of the conductor per unit length, then
Wx12 Wx22
S1 = ; S2 =
2T 2T
Th
x1 =
2 w
Th
x2 = +
2 w
x1 + x2 =
S2 S1 = h
The sag is provided in over headlines so that the safe tension is not exceeded.
Most Economical Conductor size in a cable :-

2V
g max = D volts/m
d loge
d
most economical conductor diameter is
D
d=
2.718
2V
and the value of g max under this condition is g max = volts/m
d
Power System Operation and Control:
Incremental change in input

incremental fuel rate IFR =
Incremental change in output
d (input) dF
= = =
d (output) dp
(output) dp
Incremental efficiency = (input)
=
dF
If Pi and Q i are scheduled electrical generation, PDi and Q Di are the respective load demands,
Pi PDi P = Mi = 0
Q i Q Di Q = Ni = 0 where
Mi and Ni represent the power residuals at bus i and P and Q the power flow to the neighbouring
system given by
P = Nj=1 Vi Vj Yij cosij ij
Q = N
j=1 Vi Vj Yij ij ij
For proper operation, each generator should have a minimum and maximum permissible output
and the unit production should be constrained to ensure that
Pimin Pi Pimax , i = 1, 2, , NP
Q imin Q i Q imax , i = 1, 2, , Na
Np and NQ being total number of real and reactive sources in the system
The condition for optimum operation is

dF1 dF2 dFn
= = = =
dP1 dP2 dPn
dF
Here dPn = incremental production cost of plant n in RS. per MWhr.
n
The incremental production cost of a given plant over a limited range is represented by
dFn
dPn
= Fnn Pn + fn
Where Fnn = slope of incremental production cost curve.
fn = intercept of incremental production cost curve.
The optimal load dispatch problem including transmission losses is defined as
d Fn PL
d Pn
+ Pn
=
PL
Here the term Pn
is known as the incremental transmission loss at plant n and is
known as the incremental cost of received power in RS per MW
The solution of coordination equation requires the calculation of PL / Pn which

is obtained from equation as
PL d Fn
Pn
= 2 m Bmn Pm also d Pn
= Fnn Pn + fn
The coordination equations can be written as

Fnn Pn + fn + 2Bmn Pm =
Solving for Pn we obtain

fn
2 Bmn Pm
1
Pn = m n
Fnn
+ 2 Bnn

Where Pm and Pn are the source loadings, Bmn the transmission loss co efficient.
The loss formula equation is expressed in terms of generations and is

approximately expressed as
PL = Pm Bmn Pn
m n
Where Pm and Pn are the source loadings, Bmn the transmission loss co efficient.
For two generated plants are there then Power loss,

PL = B11 P12 + B12 P1 P2 + B22 P22
Where B11 , B12 , B22 are loss coefficients of transmission line
then the
1 2
1 1
1 = & L2 =
PL
1 1
1 P2
FAULTS:

Percentage reactance % = 100 I=full load current

V= phase voltage
X= reactance in ohms per phase
Alternatively percentage reactance (%X) (an also be expressed in terms of KVA and KV
under
()
%X=
10()2
Where X is the reactance in ohms.
If X is the only reactance element in the circuit then short circuit currenr is given by
100
Isc= = I ( )
%
i.e short circuit current is obtained by multiplying the full load current by 100/%X
100
Short- circuit KVA=Base KVA
%
Symmetrical components in terms of phase currents:-
The unbalanced phase current in a 3-phase system can be expressed in terms
of symmetrical components as under.

= 1 +2 +0
=
1 +2 +0

=
1 +2 +0
Where The positive phase current (

1 , 1 , &1 )
Negative phase sequence currents (

2 , 2 , &2 ) and
Zero phase sequence currents (
0 , 0 , &0 )
The operator ais one, which when multiplied to a vector rotates the vector through 1200
in the anticlockwise direction.
A=-0.5+j 0.866 ; a2=-0.5- j 0.866
a3=1
Properties of operator a:
1+a+a2=0
a-a2=j 3
Positive sequence current
1 in phase B leads 1 by 120 and therefore 1 = 1
0
similarly, positive sequence current in phase Y is 2400 ahead of 2

1 = a 1

= 1 + 2 + 0
= 2
1 + 2 + 0 = a 1 + 2 + 0
2
= a 1 + a 1 + 0 = 0 +1 +2
Zero sequence current:

2 2
+ + = 1 (1+a+a ) + 2 (1+a+a ) + 30
= 3
0
1

0 = [
+ + ]
3
Positive sequence current :
2 3 3 2 4
+a +a = 1 (1+a +a ) + 2 (1+a +a ) + 0 (1+a+a )
2
1
= 3
1
R1 = = [ 2
+a +a ]
3
Negative sequence current:-
2
+a +a = 1 (1+a +a ) + 2 (1+a +a ) + 0 (1+a +a)
4 2 3 3 2
2
= 3
1
R2 = [ 2
+a +a ]
3
Single Line to Ground Fault:-
R=0 and B =Y=0

The sequence currents in the red phase in terms of line currents shall be :-
3
Fault current:- Fault current,
=3 0 =+

0 1 +
2
Phase voltage at fault
Since the generated emf system is of positive sequence only ,the sequence
components of emf in R-phase are:
The sequence voltage at the fault for R-phase are: This is ecpected because R-phase is
shorted to ground.
The phase voltages at fault are:
Line To-Line fault:-
The condition created by this fault lead to:

Again taking R-phase as the reference, we have
Expressing in terms of sequence components of red line, we have
Also,
Fault current:
Phase voltages: - since the generated emf system is of positive phase sequence only,the
sequence components of emf in R-phase are:
The sequence voltages at the fault for R-phase are:
The phase voltages at the fault are:
Double Line- To Ground Fault:-
The conditions created by this fault lead to :
Also,
Fault current:-
Phase voltages: - the sequence voltages for phase R are:
Now
TRANSIENTS IN SIMPLE CIRCUITS:
1. D.C sources
a) Resistance only: - As soon as switch is closed, the current in the circuit will be
determined according to ohms law.

=

b) Inductance only:- when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit will be given by
() 1 1
() = = . = .
() 2

() = t

c) Capacitance only:- when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit is given
()
I(s) = = .CS =VC
()
Which is an impulse of strength (magnitude)VC
d) R-L circuit: when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
() 1 1/
I(s) = = . = .
() + +/
1 1
= .
+/
1 1
=
+/

() = 1

e) R-L circuit: After the switch s is closed, current in the circuit is given by
() 1
I(s) = = .
() +1/
1
1
= = .
+1/ +1/

i (t)= . /

R-L-C circuit: - After the switch S is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
1
Type equation here. I(s) =
++1
1
I(s) = .(+)(++)

()+ (+)
i(t) =
2
2 1
where = a and = b; then
2 42
There are three conditions based on the value of to

2 1
If 42 > ,b is real

2 1
If = ,b is zero
42
2 1
If 42
< ,b is imaginary

Case I: when b is real
2 1 2 1
i(t) = 2 + 42 + 2 42
2 1
2 2 .
4
Case II: when b= 0
The expression for current becomes

i(t)= { } which is indeterminate.
2
Now at b=0

i (t) = = (/2)

Case III. When b is imaginary

i (t) =
2
. . = 2 . 2
2 1
= .2 sin 42 + t
2 1
2 2
4
A.C source:
R-L circuit: when switch is is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
() 1
I (s) = = 2 + 2 +
() 2+ 2+
1
=
2+2
+ 2 +/
2+
R-L circuit connected to an ac source

Let = ;

I(S) =
(+)( 2+2 )
+ 2
(+)( 2+ )

i(t) = {sin( + ) sin( ) }
(2 +2 2 )12

Where = 1
Circuit Breaker ratings :
The value of resistor required to be connected across the breaker contacts which will

give no transient oscillations, is R= 0.5

Where L,C are the inductance and capacitance upto the circuit breaker
2Vr
The average RRRV =
Lc
Maximum value of RRRV = wn Epeak
Where wn = 2fn ,
1 1
Natural frequency of oscillations, fn =
2 LC
Where L , C are the reactance and capacitance up to the location of circuit breaker
1 1 1
Frequency of demand oscillations, f = 2 2
2 LC 4R C
Breaking capacity:
Symmetrical breaking current = r.m.s value of a.c component

x
= 2

Asymmetrical breaking current = r.m.s value of total current.
2
= 2 + 2

Where X = maximum value of a.c component
Y = d.c component
Is the rated service line voltage in volts, then for 3-phae circuit? Breaking capacity = 3
V I 106 MVA
Voltage across the string

String efficiency =
n voltage acrosss the unit near power conductor
Where, n = no. of insulators
Making capacity :-
Making capacity = 2.55 symmetrical breaking capacity.
The Universal Relay Torque Equation:-
The universal relay torque equation is given as follows

T = K1 I 2 + K 2 V 2 + K 3 VI( ) + K
Distance Relays:
impedance relays :
From the universal torque equation putting 3 = 0 and giving negative sign to voltage term,
it becomes
T = K1 I 2 K 2 V 2 (Neglecting spring torque)
For the operation of the relay the operating toque should be greater than the
restraining torque i.e
K1 I 2 > K 2 V 2
Here V and I are the voltage and current quantities fed to the relay.
V2 K
I2 < 1K
2
K1
Z< K
2
Z < constant (design impedance)
This means that the impedance relay will operate only if the impedance seen by the relay
is less than a pre-specified value (design impedance). At threshold condition,
K1
Z= K
2
Reactance Relay:
The directional element is so designed that its maximum torque angle is 900
i.e. in the universal torque equation.
T = K1 I 2 K 3 VI cos( )
= K1 I 2 K 3 VI cos( 90)
= K1 I 2 K 3 VI sin
For the operation of the relay
KI 2 > K 3 VI sin
VI
sin < K1 /K 3
I2
K
Z sin < 1K
3
K1
X < K
3
The mho relay:-
In the relay the operating torque is obtained by the V I element and restraining torque due
tot the voltage elemen
T = K 3 VI cos( ) K 2 V 2
For relay to operate
K 3 VI cos ( ) > K 2 V 2
V2 K
< 3K cos( )
VI 2
K3
Z < K cos( )
2
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Control Systems Formula Sheet
Control Systems
Time Response of 2nd order system :-
Step i/P :
e n t 12
C(t) = 1- (sin n 1 2 t tan1 )
12
e n t 12
e(t) = sin tan1
12
e n t 12
ess = lim sin tan1
12
Damping ratio ; n Damping factor
< 1(Under damped ) :-
e n t 12
C(t) = 1- = Sin tan1
12
= 0 (un damped) :-
c(t) = 1- cos n t
= 1 (Critically damped ) :-
C(t) = 1 - en t (1 + n t)
> 1 (over damped) :-

e
C(t) = 1 -
2
1
T=
n
Tundamped > Toverdamped > Tunderdamped > Tcriticaldamp
Time Domain Specifications :-
12
Rise time t r = = tan1
n 12
n
Peak time t p =
d
2
Max over shoot % Mp = en/1 100
Settling time t s = 3T 5% tolerance
= 4T 2% tolerance
1+0.7
Delay time t d =
n
(ln Mp )2
Damping factor 2 2 = 2 + (ln Mp )2
2
Time period of oscillations T =
d
t t
No of oscillations = s = s d
2/d 2
t r 1.5 t d t r = 2.2 T
1 >
Resonant peak Mr = ; r = n 1 22 r < n < b
212 >
Bandwidth b = n (1 22 + 4 4 4 2 + 2)1/2
Static error coefficients :-
()
Step i/p : ess = lim () = lim () = lim
t 0 0 1+
1
ess = (positional error) K p = lim () ()
1+KP 0
1
Ramp i/p (t) : ess = K v = lim ()()
Kv 0
Parabolic i/p (t 2 /2) : ess = 1/ K a K a = lim s 2 ()()

0
Type < i/p ess =

Type = i/p ess finite
Type > i/p ess = 0
A/A
Sensitivity S = sensitivity of A w.r.to K.
K/K
Sensitivity of over all T/F w.r.t forward path T/F G(s) :
Open loop: S =1
1
Closed loop : S=
1+G(s)H(s)
Minimum S value preferable

G(s)H(s)
Sensitivity of over all T/F w.r.t feedback T/F H(s) : S =
1+G(s)H(s)
Stability
RH Criterion :-
Take characteristic equation 1+ G(s) H(s) = 0

All coefficients should have same sign
There should not be missing s term . Term missed means presence of at least one +ve real part root
If char. Equation contains either only odd/even terms indicates roots have no real part & posses only
imag parts there fore sustained oscillations in response.
Row of all zeroes occur if
(a) Equation has at least one pair of real roots with equal image but opposite sign
(b) has one or more pair of imaginary roots
(c) has pair of complex conjugate roots forming symmetry about origin.
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
Measurements:
Derived Units:
Area m2 L2 MMF A I
Volume m3 L3 Frequency Hz T 1
Density Kg/ m3 L3 M Velocity m/sec LT 1
Angular rad / sec [L]0 T 1 Acceleration m/sec 2 LT 2
Velocity
Angular rad / sec 2 [L]0 T 2 Force Kg m/sec 2 LMT 2
Acceleration
Pressure, Kg/m/sec 2 L1 MT 2 Luminous flux lm(cd Sr)
stress
Luminance cd/m2 Illumination lm/m2
2 2
Work , Joule L MT Power Watt L2 MT3
Energy (Nm) (J/sec)
Charge Coulomb TI EMF Volt (W/A) L2 MT 3 I1
Electric field V/m LMT 3 I 1 Resistance V/A L2 MT 3 I2
strength
Capacitance (AS/v) L2 M1 T 4 I2 Magnetic flux Vs L2 MT 2 I1
Magnetic Wb / m2 MT 2 I 1 Inductance Vs / A L2 MT 2 I2
flux density
Static error:-
Static error is defined as the difference b/w the measured value and the true value of
the quantity.
A = 0 = Am At
where Am = measured value of quantity
At = True value of quantity

A = Absolute static error
Absolute error
Relative static error (r ) = True value
A
= = A0
At t
Percentage static error (% 0 ) = r 100

Am
True value At = 1+
r
Static correction :- It is the difference between the true value and the measured value of the quantity
c = Am At = - A
Sensitivity :
It is the ratio of infinitesimal change in output to an infinitesimal change in input.
Infinitesimal change in output

Static sensitivity = Infinitesimal change in input
Infinitesimal change in input

Inverse sensitivity (or) deflection factor = Infinitesimal change in output
Linearity:
A measurement system is considered to be linear if the output is linearly proportional to the input .
(maximum deviation of output from the idealized straight line

Non-linearity = actual reading
100
(maximum deviation of output from the idealized straight line)

Non-linearity = 100
full scale deflection
The magnitude of a quantity having a nominal value As and a maximum Aa error or

limiting error of A must have a magnitude Aa between the limits As A and
As A
Actual value of quantity Aa = As + A

Relative limiting error , r = 0 / As
A a = A s [ 1 r ]
Magnitude of limiting error = full scale reading guaranteed accuracy
n
Xi
Mean : Arithmetic Mean = = i=1
n
The root mean square value is the standard deviation .
2 2 2 2
d1 + d2 +dn n
i=1 di
S.D , = =
n n
Where d1 = xi x, d2 = x2 x, etc the deviation from the mean of the individual readings
2
n
i=1 di
If the number of readings is less than 20, then S.D, = n1
Variance = 2
Moving Coil Permanent Magnet Type:
The deflecting torque Td is given by

Td = NBI l.b = NBA.I
Where N is the number of turns of the coil,

B is air gap flux density , wb/m2 .
I is current in the coil, ampere.
L is active length of conductor , metre and
b is width of coil, metre
The controlling torque , TC is given by TC = S

Where S is spring constant and is the angle of deflection.
When steady deflection is reached , Td = Tc and

Hence I.
Moving Coil Dynamometer Type :
The torque developed in a dynamometer type ammeter or voltmeter is given by

Td = I 2 (dM/D)
Where I is the current through fixed coil and moving coil (connected in series) and
M is the mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils.
Moving Iron Instruments :
The deflecting torque is given by Td = (1/2) I2 (dL/d).
Where I is the current through the coil and
L is the inductance.
Linearization of scale:
.(dL/d)=K.
Compensation towards frequency errors can be done by connecting a capacitor

across a part of series resistance in MI voltmeter C = 0.41 (L/R2 ).
Half wave Rectifier type Instruments:
Vdc
d.c supply Im = R
m +RL
a.c supply V = Vrms voltage of source.
Vdc = (Vm /)
Im = (2V) / ((R L + R m ))
= (0.45 V)/(R m + R L )
= (2 V)/()
In half wave rectifier type instrument , the sensitivity of a.c is 0.45 times that of d.c.
Full wave rectifier type instruments:

V
d.c. supply Im = R
m +RL
2Vm
a.c supply Im = (R
m +RL )
0.9 V
=
Rm +RL
In full wave rectifier type instrument , the sensitivity of a.c is 0.9 times that of d.c.
Thermal instruments :
Hot wire type:
The change in the length of the wire due to temperature is given
L = [(RL)/(UA)]I2 (or) L = [(L)/(UAR)]V 2

Where L in the original length of the wire,
is the temperature coefficient of linear expansion of wire material,
R is the resistance of wire,
U is the coefficient of heat dissipation,
A is the area of heat dissipating surface.
Thermo couple instruments
The e.m.f generated in thermocouple is given by

E = a(T) + b(T)2
Where T is the temperature difference between hot and cold junctions
a is a constant (40 to 50 v/0C )
b is a constant (1 to 2 v / 0C )
1. Kelvins Double Bridge is used for the measurement of low resistance
r
Vad = Vam +Vmd =I2 R + I2 p+q+r
P
P qr
R= S.Q p+q+r
2.Measurement of Medium Resistance:
(a)Voltmeter-Ammeter method:
VR +Va
Measured value of resistance, R ml = IR
Where R is the true value of the resistance.
Error = R a % Error = (R a /R)

In this method, always the measured value of resistance is greater than true value
of resistance.
(b)Ammeter-Voltmeter Method:
VR
Measured value of resistance, R m2 = I
V V
Where I= IR = IV = RR + RR
1 v
R
Which gives R m2 = R
1+
Rv
R
Error = R m2 -R = R m2 R
v
Rm2 R
% error = Rv

Rv
In this method, the measured value of resistance is always less than the true value
of resistance.
This method is suitable for measurement of low resistance among the range.
The resistance where both the methods give same error is obtained by equating the
two errors.
Ra R
=R ,
R v
R = R a R v
Wheatstone Bridge:
P R
Balanced condition Q = S
Q S
=
P R
P R
=
P+Q R+S

Sensitivity of the galvanometer, Sv = e
Where = deflection of the galvanometer
e = emf across galvanometer
= Vb - Vd
= (E - Vab )- (E - Vad )
= Vad - Vab
(R+R) E.P
= E
R+R+S P+Q
S
e = E. 2 (R+S)
(R+S)2
Sensitivity of galvanometer, Sv = .
E.S.
E.SR
Or = Sv .
(R+S)2

Sensitivity of the Bridge = SB = R
R
E E
SB = Sv . R S = Sv = P Q
+2+ +2+
S R Q P
Sv .E
SBmax =
4
P R
When Q
=S=1
Bridge sensitivity is useful for
(a) Selecting the galvanometer with which the given unbalance can be observed.
(b) Determining the deflection to be expected for a given unbalance.
Measurement of High Resistance:
(a) Loss of charge method :
At t, voltage across capacitor, v = Vet/RC

t
R=
2.303C log(V/v)
0.434 t
R=
C log10 (V/v)
The general ac bridge circuit
At balance, the Pd across BA = Pd across BC in magnitude and phase
EBA = EBC = I1 Z1 = I2 Z2
Z1 Z4 (Q1+Q 4 ) = Z2 Z3 (Q 2+Q 3 )
Equating the magnitudes and angles
Z1 Z4 =Z2 Z3
(Q1+Q 4 ) = (Q 2 +Q 3 )
Measurement of Self Inductance:-
The following bridges are used for measurement of self inductance.
1. Maxwells Inductance Bridge

2. Maxwells Inductance- Capacitance Bridge
3. Hays Bridge
4. Owens Bridge
5. Andersons Bridge
1.Maxwells Inductance Bridge:-
This bridge circuit measures an inductance by comparison with a variable standard
self-inductance.
At balance condition,
L1 = R 3 L2 /R 4 ; R1 = R 3 (R 2 +r2 )/R 4
Where L1 = unknown inductance of resistance R1
L2 = variable inductance of fixed resistance r2
R 2 = variable resistance connected in series with inductor L2
R 3 , R 4 = known non-inductive resistance
2.Maxwells Inductance-Capacitance Bridge:
In this bridge, an inductance is measured by comparison with a standard
variable capacitance.
At balance conditions,
R1 = R 2 R 3 /R 4 ; L1 = R 2 R 3 C4
Q-factor, Q= wL1 /R1 =wC4 R 4
This bridge is used for measurement of low Q coils (1< Q<10).
3.Hays Bridge:-
This is a modification of Maxwells bridge. It is used for measurement of high Q coils.
L1 = unknown inductance having a resistance
R1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 = known non-inductive resistance
C4 = standard capacitor
R R C 2 R2 R3 R4 C24
L1 = 1+W22 +C
3 4
2 +R2 ; R 1 =
4 4 1+2 C24 R24
Q=L1 /R1 = 1/C4 R 4
4.Andersons Bridge:-
In this method, the self-inductance is measured in terms of a standard capacitor..
R1 =(R 2 R 3 /R 4 ) r1 ; L1 = CR 3 [r(R 4 + R 2 ) + R 2 R 4 ]/R 4
5.Owens Bridge:-
This bridge may be used for the measurement of an inductance in terms of capacitance.
Under balance conditions,
L1 = R 2 R 3 C4
C
R 1 = R 3 C4
2
Measurement of Capacitance:-
The following bridges are used for the measurement of capacitance:
1. De Sautys Bridge
2. Modified De Sautys Bridge
3. Schering Bridge.
1.De Sautys Bridge :- This bridge is the simplest method of comparing two capacitances.
At balance condition, C1 =C2 . R 4 /R 3
2.Modified De Sautys Bridge:-
C R +r R
At balance condition, C1 = R2 +r2 =R4
2 1 1 3
Dissipation factor, D1 = tan 1 = c1
D2 = tan 2 = c2 r2
1 4
D1 - D2 = c2 2
3
3.Scherings Bridge :-
At balance conditions, r1 = R 3 C4 /C2 ;
C1 = C2 (R 4 /R 3 )
Dissipation factor, D1 = tan 1 = c1 r1 = c4 r4
Measurement of Mutual Inductance:
The following bridges are used for the measurement of mutual inductance:
(1). Heaviside Mutual Inductance Bridge
(2). Campbells modification of Heavisides bridge
(3). Heaviside Campbell equal ratio bridge

(4). Carry Foster Bridge/ Heydweiler Bridge
Ammeter Shunts:
These are small resistances in parallel to basic meter to increase current
measuring capacity
Im R m = Ish R sh
m R
= m1
Where m is the multiplying power of ammeter
Series Multipliers:
These are used for increasing the voltage measuring capacity of basic met
V V
Rse + Rm
=R
m
R se = R m (m-1)
Where m is the multiplying power of voltmeter.
Multi Range Ammeter: A range of current settings can be obtained using different shunts.
R I
R sh1 = m m1 , m1 = I 1
1 m
R I
R sh2 = m m1 , m2 = I 2
2 m
R I
R sh3 = m m1 , m3 = I 3
3 m
4.Universal Shunt (or) Ayrton shunt:
Im R m = (I1 - Im ) R1
R I1
R1 = m m1 , m1 = Im
1
R I2
R 2 = m m1 , m2 = Im
2
R I3
R 3 = m m1 , m3 = Im
3
MEASUREMENT OF POWER & ENERGY:
Power in D.C. Circuits
Power measured = Pm1 = VR IR + I 2 R R a
True value = Measured power power loss in ammeter
Power measured = Pm2 = VR IR + (V 2 R /R v )
True power = Measured power- Power loss in voltmeter
Power in A.C. Circuits:
Value of power but in its average value over a cycle.

Instantaneous power = VI
Average power = VI cos
Where V and I are r.m.s values of voltage and current and cos is the power factor of the
load.
3.Electro Dynamometer Wattmeter:
The deflecting torque in electrodynamometer instruments is given by ,

Td = i1 i2 (dM/d)
Where i1 and i2 are instantaneous values of currents in two coils.
Many watt meters are compensated for errors caused by inductance of pressure coil
by means of a capacitor connected in parallel with a portion of multiplier.
Capacitance C = (L/r 2 )
Low Power Factor Wattmeter:
In present case of wattmeter , i1 is the load current and is the current flowing
through pressure coil.
Td = iP iC (dM/d)
Average deflection torque = IP I cos (dM/d)
= (V/R P ).I cos (dM/d)
Td VI cos (dM/d)
At balance condition, Td = TC
K1 VI cos (dM/d) = k
VI cos
power if (dM/d) is constant.
Errors in Electro Dynamometer Wattmeter:
In general , pressure coil offers inductance, in addition to resistance. Due to this

inductance, wattmeter reads more power on lagging loads and less power in case of leading
loads.
Correction is to be made for wattmeter reading to get true value of power.
cos
True power for lagging pf loads = cos cos() actual wattmeter reading
cos
True power for leading pf loads = cos cos(+) actual wattmeter reading
ERROR = tan tan true power = VI sin tan

= pf angle
= tan1 (X P/R P )
ERROR = tan tan

is the angle between PC current and voltage.
Measurement Of Power in Three circuits:
(a)Three watt meter Method:
In the three wattmeter method to determine the power in 3-, 4 wire system.
Sum of the instantaneous readings of watt meters = P= P1 +P2 +P3
P= V1 i1 +V2 i2+V3 i3
Instantaneous power of load = V1 i1 +V2 i2 +V3 i3
Hence the summation of readings of three watt meters gives the total power of load.
(b)Two wattmeter Method:
In a 3-, three wire system we required 3 elements. But if we make the common
points of pressure coils coincide with one of the lines, then we will require only (n-1
l =2) elements.
Instantaneous reading of P1 wattmeter (P1 ) = i1 (V1 - V3 )
Instantaneous reading of P2 wattmeter (P2 ) = i2 (V2 - V3 )
Sum of instantaneous reading of two watt meters = P1+P2
From Kirchoffs current law, i1 +i2 +i3 =0
P1+P2 = i1 (V1 - V3 ) + i2 (V2 - V3 )
= V1 i1 - V3 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 i2
= V1 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 (i1 +i2 )
= V1 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 (-i3 )
= V1 i1 + V2 i2 + V3 i3
Hence, the sum of two watt meter readings is equal to power consumed by load.
Let the load be balanced, V1 , V2 , V3 be the rms value of phase voltage and I1 , I2 , I3 be the rms
values of phase currents.
For star connection,

Phase voltages V1 = V2 = V3 = V (say)
Line voltages V13 = V23 = V12 = 3 V
Phase currents I1 = I2 = I3 = I (say)
Line currents I1 = I2 = I3 = I
Power factor cos (lag)
In general , reading of wattmeter is given by
Wattmeter reading = current through wattmeter current coil * voltage across its
pressure coil * cos( phase angle between this current and voltage).
Reading of P1 wattmeter = V13 I1 cos(30- ) = 3 VI cos(30-)
Reading of P2 wattmeter = V23 I2 cos(30+ ) = 3 VI cos(30+)
Sum of reading of two watt meters = P= P1 +P2

= 3 VI cos (30-) + 3 VI cos (30+)
= 3 VI cos
This is the total power consumed by load.
Difference of reading of two watt meters = P1 - P2

= 3 VI [cos (30-) - cos (30+)]
= 3 VI *2* sin 30 * sin
= 3 VI sin
Reactive power consumed by load = 3 (Difference of two wattmeter readings).
= 3 (P1 - P2 )
3 (P1 P2 )
Power factor cos = cos tan1 P1 +P2

7.Effect Of Power Factor On the Readings of Watt Meter:
With unity power factor, cos =1 (or) = 00
P1 = P2 = 3 VI cos (00 ) = (3/2)VI
The readings of two watt meters are equal , each watt meter reads half of the total power.
When cos = 0.5, =60
P1 = (3/2) VI, P2 =0
When power factor is 0.5 , one of the watt meter reads zero and the other reads total power.
When cos =0 , = 900

P1 = (3/2) V I , P2 = - (3/2) V I
Therefore , width zero power factor, the readings of two meters are equal but of opposite
sign.
8.Measurement of Reactive Power in Three Phase Circuits:
Reading of wattmeter = v23 i1 cos (angle between i1 and v23 )

= v23 i1 cos (90- )
= 3 VI sin
Total reactive power of the circuit

= 3 (watt meter reading).
Measurement of Energy:
Energy is the total power delivered or consumed over a time interval, that is.
Energy = Power time
Electrical energy developed as work or dissipated as heat over an interval of time t

may be expressed as :
t
W= 0 VI dt
Construction and Principle of Single Phase Induction Energy Meter:
Net driving torque is given as, Td = k1 1 2 (f/z) sin cos
Where = Phase between fluxes 1 and 2

= Phase angle of eddy current paths.
These two fluxes will be produced by two currents which are described earlier.
At steady speed the driving torque must equal to the breaking torque.
k 4N= k 3 VI sin (-)
If = 900 , sped, N = K VI sin(90- )
= K VI cos
= k x(power)
Total number of revolutions = N dt = k VI sin( )

If = 900 , total number of revolutions = k VI cos dt
= k * (energy)
Single Phase Electrodynamometer Power Factor Meter
The values of R and L are so adjusted that the two coils carry the same value of
current
at normal frequency (i.e) R = L
Deflecting torque acting on coil is: TA = KVI Mmax cos sin

Where = angular deflection from the plane of reference.
Mmax = maximum value of mutual inductance between the two coils.
This torque say acts in the clockwise direction.
Deflecting torque acting on coil B is: TB = KVI Mmax cos (900 -) sin (900 +)
= KVI Mmax sin cos
This torque acts in anticlockwise direction.
At equilibrium , TA = TB =
Therefore the deflection of the instrument is a measure of phase angle of the circuit.
Q-Meter:
Q Meters are intended to measure the Q (quality factor) of an inductance or

capacitor.
L 1 IX
Q= = = IRL = =
R CR
So the voltage across the capacitor or coil is Q times the applied voltage
) :
In series connection method the unknown value component is connected in series

with the resonant circuit. This method is employed for measurement of low value
resistors, small coils and large capacitors.
1 1
, = 1 = =
1 1
1 2
=
1 2
1 1 2 2
=
1 2 1 2
(1 2 )1 2
= =
1 1 2 2
b) :
, ,
.
,
1 C1 1
RP
= = RQ
Q2 1
1
XP = (C
2 C1 )
Rp (C1 C2 )Q1 Q2
Qx = X =
p Q1 C1 Q2 C2
The main error in the measurement of Q is due to distributed or stray capacitance of

the circuitry. To check for this, the Q is measured at two frequencies f1 and 2f1 . It
should be same if not,
C1 C1 C2
Cd = 3
Cathode Ray Tube:

Lld Ed
For electrostatic deflection, D= 2dEa
Where D-Deflection, m
L distance from centre of deflection plates to screen, m
ld - effective length of deflection plates, m
Ed - deflection voltage, volts
d- separation between the plates, m
Ea - accelerating voltage, volts

D Ll
Deflection sensitivity is S = E = 2dEd , m/V
d a
1 2dEa
Deflection factor G is G= S = , V/m
Lld
lLB e
Magnetic Deflection D = 2m , m
Va
l- width of magnetic coil, m
L- length from centre of 1 to screen, m
B- magnetic flux density, wb/m2
e, m charge and mass of electron
Va - acceleration potential
D e
Magnetic Deflection Sensitivity is B = IL 2mV , m
a
Oscilloscope Specifications:
1.Sensitivity:
It means the vertical sensitivity . It refers to smallest deflection factor G = (1/S) and
expressed as mv/div. The alternator of the vertical amplifier is calibrated in mv/div.
2.Band width:
It is the range of frequencies between 3 dB of centre frequency.
3.Rise Time:
Rise time is the time taken by the pulse to rise from 10% to 90% of its amplitude.
1
BW = 2RC BW = band width in MHz
90% of amplitude is normally reached in 2.2 RC or 2.2 time constants
1 2.2 0.35
BW = 2RC = 2RC = Tr
, Tr = rise time in seconds.
Synchronization means the frequency of vertical signal input is an integral multiple

of the sweep frequency.
Fin = n fs
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) EDC & Analog Electronics Formula Sheet
EDC & Analog
G/si =1.21 3.6 104 .T ev

Energy gap G/Ge =0.785 2.23 104 .T ev
Energy gap depending on temperature

EF = EC - KT ln = Ev + KT ln

No. of electrons n = Nc e(EcEf)/RT (KT in ev)
No. of holes p = Nv e(EfEv )/RT
Mass action law np = n2i = Nc Nv eEG/KT
Drift velocity d = E (for si d 107 cm/sec)
B.I
Hall voltage H = . Hall coefficient R H = 1/ . charge density = qN0 = ne
we
Conductivity = ; = R H .
q q
Max value of electric field @ junction E0 = - Nd . nn0 = - NA . np0 .
si si
Charge storage @ junction Q + = - Q = qA xn0 ND = qA xp0 NA
EDC
dp dn
Diffusion current densities Jp = - q Dp Jn = - q Dn
dx dx
Drift current Densities = q(p p + nn )E
p , n decrease with increasing doping concentration .
Dn Dp
= = KT/q 25 mv @ 300 K
n p
Carrier concentration in N-type silicon nn0 = ND ; pn0 = n2i / ND
Carrier concentration in P-type silicon pp0 = NA ; np0 = n2i / NA

Junction built in voltage V0 = VT ln 2

2s 1 1
Width of Depletion region Wdep = xp + xn = + (V0 + VR )
q NA ND
2
* = 12.93

xn N
= A
xp ND
q.NA ND
Charge stored in depletion region qJ = NA +ND
. A . Wdep
s A s A
Depletion capacitance Cj = ; Cj0 =
Wdep Wdep / VR =0
VR m
Cj = Cj0 /1 +
V0
Cj = 2Cj0 (for forward Bias)
Dp
Forward current I = Ip + In ; Ip = Aq n2i L / 1
p ND
Dn
In = Aq n2i L / 1
n NA
Dp Dn
Saturation Current Is = Aq n2i L +L
p ND n NA
Minority carrier life time p = L2p / Dp ; n = L2n / Dn
Minority carrier charge storage Qp = p Ip , Q n = p In
Q = Q p + Q n = T I T = mean transist time

Diffusion capacitance Cd = I = .g Cd I.

carrier life time , g = conductance = I /
I02 = 2(T2 T1 )/10 I01
Junction Barrier Voltage Vj = VB = Vr (open condition)
= Vr - V (forward Bias)
= Vr + V (Reverse Bias)
1
Probability of filled states above E f(E) = (EEf )/KT 1+e
Drift velocity of e d 107 cm/sec
d2 V v nq dv nqx
Poisson equation = = =E=
dx2 dx
Transistor :-
IE = IDE + InE
IC = ICo IE Active region
IC = IE + ICo (1- eVC /VT )
Common Emitter :-

IC = (1+ ) ICo + IB =
1
I
Co
ICEO = 1 Collector current when base open
ICBO Collector current when IE = 0 ICBO > ICo .
0 V
VBE,sat or VBC,sat - 2.5 mv / C ; VCE,sat BE,sat
10
= - 0.25 mv /0 C
IC ICBo
Large signal Current gain = IB + ICBo
IC
D.C current gain dc = = hFE
IB
(dc = hFE ) when IB > ICBo
I hFE
Small signal current gain = IC = hfe = h
R VCE 1(ICBo + IB ) FE
IC
active
Over drive factor = IC sat = forced IB sat
forced under saturation
Conversion formula :-
CC CE
hic = hie ; hrc = 1 ; hfc = - (1+ hfe ) ; hoc = hoe
CB CE
h hie hoe h hoe
hib = 1+hie ; hib = 1+h - hre ; hfb = 1+hfe ; hob = 1+h
fe fe fe fe
CE parameters in terms of CB can be obtained by interchanging B & E .
Specifications of An amplifier :-
hf Av .Zi AI .ZL AIs .ZL
AI = Zi = hi + hr AI ZL Avs = = =
1+h0 ZL Zi +Rs Zi +Rs Rs
AI ZL hf hr Av .Rs Avs .Rs

AV = Y0 = ho - AIs = =
Zi hi + Rs Zi +Rs ZL
Choice of Transistor Configuration :-

For intermediate stages CC cant be used as AV < 1
CE can be used as intermediate stage
CC can be used as o/p stage as it has low o/p impedance
CC/CB can be used as i/p stage because of i/p considerations.
Stability & Biasing :- ( Should be as min as possible)
I I IC
For S = I C S = V C S = V

Co VB0, BE IC0, BE,ICo
IC = S. ICo + S VBE + S
1+
For fixed bias S = dI =1+
1 B
dIC
1+ 1+
Collector to Base bias S = RC 0 < s < 1+ = RC + RE
1+ 1+
RC +RB RC + RE + RB
1+ Rth
Self bias S = RE 1+ R E > 10 R 2
1+ Re
RE +Rth
Vcc Rth V R
R1 = Vth
; R 2 = V ccVth
cc th
VCC
For thermal stability [ Vcc - 2Ic (R C + R E )] [ 0.07 Ico . S] < 1/ ; VCE <
2
Hybrid pi()- Model :-
g m = |IC | / VT
rb e = hfe / g m
rb b = hie - rb e
rb c = rb e / hre
g ce = hoe - (1+ hfe ) g b c
For CE :-
g gm
f = 2(Cb +e C =
e c) hfe 2(Ce + Cc )
1 gbe
fT = hfe f ; fH = = 2C C = Ce + Cc (1 + g m R L )
C 2 rbe
fT = S.C current gain Bandwidth product
fH = Upper cutoff frequency
For CC :-
1+gm RL gm fT Ce gm + gbe
fH = = =
2CL RL 2CL CL 2(CL + Ce )
For CB:-
1+ hfe
f = 2r = (1 + hfe ) f = (1 + ) f
b e (CC + Ce )

fT = f f > fT > f
1+
Ebress moll model :-

IC = - N IE + ICo (1- eV/VT )
IE = - I IC + IEo (1- eV/VT )
I ICo = N IEo
Multistage Amplifiers :-
fL
fH * = fH 21/n 1 ; fL =
21/n 1
0.35 0.35
Rise time t r = =
fH B.W
t r = 1.1 2 2
t r1 + t r2 +
fL = 1.1 fL21 + fL22 +
1 1 1
= 1.1 2 + +
fH f H1 f2H2
Differential Amplifier :-
Zi = hie + (1 + hfe ) 2R e = 2 hfe R e 2R e
0 |IEE | I
gm = = 4VC = g m of BJT/4 0 DC value of
4VT T
h R
CMRR = R fe+he ; R e , Zi , Ad & CMRR
s ie
Darlington Pair :-
AI = (1 + 1 ) (1 + 2 ) ; Av 1 ( < 1)
(1+hfe )2 Re2
Zi = 1+h [ if Q1 & Q 2 have same type ] = AI R e2
fe hoc Re2
R 2h
R o = (1+hs 2 + 1+hie
fe ) fe
g m = (1 + 2 ) g m1
Tuned Amplifiers : (Parallel Resonant ckts used ) :

1
f0 = Q Q factor of resonant ckt which is very high
2LC
B.W = f0 /Q
BW
fL = f 0 -
2
BW
fH = f0 +
2
For double tuned amplifier 2 tank circuits with same f0 used . f0 = fL fH .
MOSFET (Enhancement) [ Channel will be induced by applying voltage]
NMOSFET formed in p-substrate

If VGS Vt channel will be induced & iD (Drain source )
Vt +ve for NMOS
iD (VGS - Vt ) for small VDS
VDS channel width @ drain reduces .
VDS = VGS - Vt channel width 0 pinch off further increase no effect
For every VGS > Vt there will be VDS,sat
2 1
iD = K n [ (VGS - Vt ) VDS - VDS ] triode region ( VDS < VGS - Vt )
2
K n = n Cox
1 2
iD = K n [ VDS ] saturation
2
1
rDS = Drain to source resistance in triode region
Kn (VGS Vt )

PMOS :-
Device operates in similar manner except VGS , VDS, Vt are ve
iD enters @ source terminal & leaves through Drain .
VGS Vt induced channel VDS VGS - Vt Continuous channel
2 1
iD = K p [(VGS Vt )2 - VDS ] K p = p Cox
2
VDS VGS - Vt Pinched off channel .

NMOS Devices can be made smaller & thus operate faster . Require low power supply .
Saturation region Amplifier
For switching operation Cutoff & triode regions are used
NMOS PMOS
VGS Vt VGS Vt induced channel
VGS - VDS > Vt VGS - VDS < Vt Continuous channel(Triode region)
VDS VGS - Vt VDS VGS - Vt Pinchoff (Saturation)
Depletion Type MOSFET :- [ channel is physically implanted . i0 flows with VGS = 0 ]
For n-channel VGS +ve enhances channel .

-ve depletes channel
iD - VDS characteristics are same except that Vt is ve for n-channel
Value of Drain current obtained in saturation when VGS = 0 IDSS .
1
IDSS = K n Vt2 .
2
MOSFET as Amplifier :-
For saturation VD > VGS - Vt

To reduce non linear distortion gs < < 2(VGS - Vt )

id = K n (VGS Vt ) gs g m = K n (VGS Vt )

d
gs
= - gm RD
gm
Unity gain frequency fT = 2(C
gs +Cgd )
JFET :-
VGS Vp iD = 0 Cut off
Vp VGS 0, VDS VGS - Vp
2

iD = IDSS 2 1
Triode

Vp VGS 0 , VDS VGS - Vp
2
I
iD = IDSS 1 VGS = Vp 1
I DSS
2IDSS 2I I
Saturation
gm = 1 = DSS
|Vp | |V | I
p DSS
Zener Regulators :-
Vi Vz
For satisfactory operation Rs
IZmin + ILmax
Vsmin Vz0 IZmin rz
R Smax = IZmin + ILmax
Load regulation = - (rz || R s )

rz
Line Regulation = Rs +rz
.
For finding min R L take Vs min & Vzk , Izk (knee values (min)) calculate according to that .
Operational Amplifier:- (VCVS)
Fabricated with VLSI by using epitaxial method

High i/p impedance , Low o/p impedance , High gain , Bandwidth , slew rate .
FET is having high i/p impedance compared to op-amp .
Gain Bandwidth product is constant .
A
Closed loop voltage gain ACL = 1 OLA feed back factor
OL
1
V0 = Vi dt LPF acts as integrator ;
RC
R L dvi
V0 = i dt ; V0 = (HPF)
L R dt
1 dvi
For Op-amp integrator V0 = i dt ; Differentiator V0 = -
dt
V0 V0 Vi Vi
Slew rate SR = t
= t
. t
= A. t
slew rate slew rate

Max operating frequency fmax = = .
2 . V0 2 Vi A
In voltage follower Voltage series feedback
In non inverting mode voltage series feedback
In inverting mode voltage shunt feed back

V0 = - VT ln I
0
V0 = - VBE

= - VT ln I
0
1
Error in differential % error = 100 %
CMRR
Power Amplifiers :-
B 2 B21
Fundamental power delivered to load P1 = 21 R L = RL
2
12 22
Total Harmonic power delivered to load PT = 2 + 2
+ . .
2 2
= P1 1 + 2 + 3 +
1 1
= [ 1+ D2 ] P1
B
Where D = +D22 + . . +D2n Dn = Bn
1
D = total harmonic Distortion .
Class A operation :-
o/p IC flows for entire 3600
Q point located @ centre of DC load line i.e., Vce = Vcc / 2 ; = 25 %
Min Distortion , min noise interference , eliminates thermal run way
Lowest power conversion efficiency & introduce power drain
PT = IC VCE - ic Vce if ic = 0, it will consume more power
PT is dissipated in single transistors only (single ended)
Class B:-
IC flows for 1800 ; Q located @ cutoff ; = 78.5% ; eliminates power drain

Higher Distortion , more noise interference , introduce cross over distortion
Double ended . i.e ., 2 transistors . IC = 0 [ transistors are connected in that way ] PT = ic Vce
PT = ic Vce = 0.4 P0 PT power dissipated by 2 transistors .
Class AB operation :-
IC flows for more than 1800 & less than 3600

Q located in active region but near to cutoff ; = 60%
Distortion & Noise interference less compared to class B but more in compared to class A
Eliminates cross over Distortion
Class C operation :-
IC flows for < 180 ; Q located just below cutoff ; = 87.5%
Very rich in Distortion ; noise interference is high .
Oscillators :-
1 29
For RC-phase shift oscillator f = hfe 4k + 23 + where k = R c /R
2RC 6+4K k
1
f= > 29
2RC6
1
For op-amp RC oscillator f = | Af | 29 R f 29 R1
2RC6
Wein Bridge Oscillator :-

1
f= hfe 3
2R R C C
3
A 3 R f 2 R1
Hartley Oscillator :-
1 L
f= |hfe | L2
2(L1 +L2 )C 1
L
| | L2
1
L2
|A|
L1

Rf
R1
Colpits Oscillator :-
1 C
f= C C
|hfe | C1
2L 1 2 2
C1 +C2
C
| | C1
2
C
| A | C1
2
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Digital Electronics Formula Sheet
Digital Electronics
IOH IOL
Fan out of a logic gate = IIH
or IIL
Noise margin : VOH - VIH or VOL - VIL
I +I
Power Dissipation PD = Vcc Icc = Vcc I Ic when o/p low
2
I Ic when o/p high .
TTL , ECL & CMOS are used for MSI or SSI
Logic swing : VOH - VOL
RTL , DTL , TTL saturated logic ECL Un saturated logic
Advantages of Active pullup ; increased speed of operation , less power consumption .
For TTL floating i/p considered as logic 1 & for ECL it is logic 0 .
MOS mainly used for LSI & VLSI . fan out is too high
ECL is fastest gate & consumes more power .
CMOS is slowest gate & less power consumption
NMOS is faster than CMOS .
Gates with open collector o/p can be used for wired AND operation (TTL)
Gates with open emitter o/p can be used for wired OR operation (ECL)
ROM is nothing but combination of encoder & decoder . This is non volatile memory .
SRAM : stores binary information interms of voltage uses FF.
DRAM : infor stored in terms of charge on capacitor . Used Transistors & Capacitors .
SRAM consumes more power & faster than DRAM .
CCD , RAM are volatile memories .
1024 8 memory can be obtained by using 1024 2 memories
No. of memory ICs of capacity 1k 4 required to construct memory of capacity 8k 8 are 16
DAC ADC
1
FSV = VR 1 * LSB = Voltage range / 2n
2
step size VR /2n 1 FSV
Resolution = = 1 = 100% * Resolution =
FSV VR 1 n 2n 1 2n 1
2
1 1 V
Accuracy = LSB = n+1 * Quantisation error = 2nR %
2 2
Analog o/p = K. digital o/p
PROM , PLA & PAL :-
AND OR
Fixed Programmable PROM
Programmable fixed PAL
Programmable Programmable PLA
Flash Type ADC : 2n1 comparators
2n resistors
2n n Encoder
Fastest ADC :-
Successive approximation ADC : n clk pulses

Counter type ADC : 2n - 1 clk pulses
Dual slope integrating type : 2n+1 clock pulses .
Flip Flops :-
a(n+1) = S + R Q
=D
= JQ + K Q
= TQ + T Q
Excitation tables :-
S R J K D T
0 0 0 x 0 0 0 x 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 x 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 x 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 x 0 1 1 x 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
For ring counter total no.of states = n

For twisted Ring counter = 2n (Johnson counter / switch tail Ring counter ) .
To eliminate race around condition t pd clock < < t pd FF .
In Master slave master is level triggered & slave is edge triggered
Combinational Circuits :-
Multiplexer :-
2n i/ps ; 1 o/p & n select lines.
It can be used to implement Boolean function by selecting select lines as Boolean variables
For implementing n variable Boolean function 2n 1 MUX is enough .
For implementing n + 1 variable Boolean 2n 1 MUX + NOT gate is required .
For implementing n + 2 variable Boolean function 2n 1 MUX + Combinational Ckt is
required
If you want to design 2m 1 MUX using 2n 1 MUX . You need 2mn 2n 1 MUXes
Decoder :-
n i/p & 2n o/ps

used to implement the Boolean function . It will generate required min terms @ o/p & those terms
should be OR ed to get the result .
Suppose it consists of more min terms then connect the max terms to NOR gate then it will give the
same o/p with less no. of gates .
If you want to Design m 2m Decoder using n 2n Decoder . Then no. of n 2n Decoder
2m
required = 2n .
In Parallel (n bit ) total time delay = 2n t pd .
For carry look ahead adder delay = 2 t pd .
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Microprocessors Formula Sheet
Microprocessors
1
Clock frequency = crystal frequency
2
Hardware interrupts
TRAP (RST 4.5) 0024H both edge level
RST 7.5 Edge triggered 003CH
RST 6.5 0034 H
RST 5.5 level triggered 002C
INTR Non vectored
Software interrupts RST 0 0000H

RST 1 0008H
2 0010H Vectored
: 0018H
:
7 0038H

S1 S0
0 0 Halt
0 1 write
1 0 Read
1 1 fetch
HOLD & HLDA used for Direct Memory Access . Which has highest priority over all interrupts .
Flag Registers :-
S Z X AC X P X CY
Sign flag :- After arthematic operation MSB is resolved for sign flag . S = 1 -ve result
If Z = 1 Result = 0
AC : Carry from one stage to other stage is there then AC = 1
P : P =1 even no. of ones in result .
CY : if arthematic operation Results in carry then CY = 1
For INX & DCX no flags effected
In memory mapped I/O ; I/O Devices are treated as memory locations . You can connect max of
65536 devices in this technique .
In I/O mapped I/O , I/O devices are identified by separate 8-bit address . same address can be used
to identify i/p & o/p device .
Max of 256 i/p & 256 o/p devices can be connected .
Programmable Interfacing Devices :-
8155 programmable peripheral Interface with 256 bytes RAM & 16-bit counter
8255 Programmable Interface adaptor
8253 Programmable Interval timer
8251 programmable Communication interfacing Device (USART)
8257 Programmable DMA controller (4 channel)
8259 Programmable Interrupt controller
8272 Programmable floppy Disk controller
CRT controller
Key board & Display interfacing Device
RLC :- Each bit shifted to adjacent left position . D7 becomes D0 .
CY flag modified according to D7
RAL :- Each bit shifted to adjacent left position . D7 becomes CY & CY becomes D0 .
ROC :-CY flag modified according D0
RAR :- D0 becomes CY & CY becomes D7
CALL & RET Vs PUSH & POP :-
CALL & RET PUSH & POP
When CALL executes , p automatically stores * Programmer use PUSH to save the contents
16 bit address of instruction next to CALL on the rp on stack
Stack
CALL executed , SP decremented by 2 * PUSH executes SP decremented by 2 .
RET transfers contents of top 2 of SP to PC * same here but to specific rp .
RET executes SP incremented by 2 * same here
Some Instruction Set information :-
CALL Instruction
CALL 18T states SRRWW
CC Call on carry 9 18 states
CM Call on minus 9-18
CNC Call on no carry
CZ Call on Zero ; CNZ call on non zero
CP Call on +ve
CPE Call on even parity
CPO Call on odd parity
RET : - 10 T
RC : - 6/ 12 T states
Jump Instructions :-
JMP 10 T
JC Jump on Carry 7/10 T states
JNC Jump on no carry
JZ Jump on zero
JNZ Jump on non zero
JP Jump on Positive
JM Jump on Minus
JPE Jump on even parity
JPO Jump on odd parity .
PCHL : Move HL to PC 6T
PUSH : 12 T ; POP : 10 T
SHLD : address : store HL directly to address 16 T
SPHL : Move HL to SP 6T
STAX : R p store A in memory 7T
STC : set carry 4T
XCHG : exchange DE with HL 4T
XTHL :- Exchange stack with HL 16 T
For AND operation AY flag will be set & CY Reset

For CMP if A < Reg/mem : CY 1 & Z 0 (Nothing but A-B)
A > Reg/mem : CY 0 & Z 0
A = Reg/mem : Z 1 & CY 0 .
DAD Add HL + RP (10T) fetching , busidle , busidle
DCX , INX wont effect any flags . (6T)
DCR, INR effects all flags except carry flag . Cy wont be modified
LHLD load HL pair directly
RST 12T states
SPHL , RZ, RNZ ., PUSH, PCHL, INX , DCX, CALL fetching has 6T states
PUSH 12 T ; POP 10T
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
Power electronics:
1.Turn on time of scr = t d + t r +t s
Where t d = delay time

t r = rise time
t S = settling time
2.Device turn off time, t q = t rr + t gr
Where t rr = Reverse recovery time and

t gr = gate recovery time
3.SERIES OPERATION:
SCR,s are connected in series to increase the voltage rating.
V1 + V2
String efficiency s = =
. , voltage rating of each SCR 2 V1
Derating factor =1 string efficiency
C C
T1 T2

Static equalizing Resistance Rs = (1)

(n1) Q
Dynamic equalizing capacitance C =
n VbmVs
4. Parallel operation is applied for SCR, s with higher current ratings
I1 + I2
String efficiency S = =
. , current rating of each SCR 2 I1
1. Single Phase Half wave rectifier R load:
Circuit turn off time = t c = /
Average output voltage V0 = Vm /2[1+ cos ]
r. m. s output voltage Vor = Vm / (2 ) [ + (Sin 2) /2]1/2
V0
Average output current, I0 =

R .m .s output current, Ior / R
Power supplied to load

Power factor of input supply =
Source volt ampere
V2or / R Vor
pf= p.f =
Vs Is Vs
2. Single Phase Half wave rectifier R-L load:
Circuit turn off time = t c = (2- )/
Average output voltage V0 = (Vm /2) [cos cos ]

1
r.m.s output voltage Vor = Vm /(2 ) + sin 2 sin 22
Average output current, I0 = V0 /R
R.m.s value of output current, Ior = Vor / R

Vor
Power factor of supply, pf = Vs
3. Single Phase Half wave rectifier R.L load and free wheeling Diode:
Circuit turn off time = t c =

m V
Average output voltageV0 = 2 [ 1 + ]
1
1
r.m.s output voltageVor = Vm / (2 ) + (sin 2)2
2
Average output current, , I0 = V0 /R
R.m.s value of output current, , Ior = Vor / R

V
= or
Power factor of supply, Pf Vs
4. Single Phase Half wave rectifier RLE load:
2 +1
Circuit turn off time, t c = , 1 = Sin1 (/ ) and 2 = 1800 - 1

Average Output voltage, V0 =E+I0 R
1
Average Output currentI0 = [ ( ) ( )]
2
I2 or R + I0 E
Supply power factor, pf = Vs Ior
R.m.s value of output current

1
1 V2S 2
Ior = 2R2 VS2 2
+ E ( ) 2
(sin 2 2 sin 2) 2Vm E(cos cos)
5. Single Phase Full wave rectifier Mid point converter type:

Circuit turn off time t c =

2Vm cos
Average output voltage , V0 =

6.Single Phase Full wave Bridge type Rectifier:

Circuit turn off time , t c =

2Vm cos
Average output voltage , V0 =

r.m.s output voltageVor = Vs
The inductance of source results in an lesser value of voltage

2V L
V0 = m cos - s I0
7. Single Phase semi converter:

Circuit turn off time t c =

Vm
Average output voltage V0 =
[1+cos ]
1
1 2
r.m.s output voltageVor = Vs / ( ) + (sin 2)
2
8.Three Phase controlled half wave rectifier with R load:
3 33
Average output voltage V0 = Vml cos = Vmp cos
2 2
Average Output current I0 = V0 /R

1
VML 1 3 2
r.m.s output voltageVor = + (cos 2)
R 6 8
R.m.s value of output current, Ior = Vor / R
9. Three Phase full converter:
3
voltage V0 Average output = Vml cos

1
3 3 2
r.m.s output voltageVor = VML + 2 (cos 2)
2 3

=
10. Three Phase full converter:
3
voltage V0 Average output = Vml (1+cos )
2
1
VML 3 2 3 2
r.m.s output voltageVor = + (1 + cos 2)
2 3 2
11. For a 3- converter , The inductance of source results in an lesser value of voltage
36 3Ls
V0 =
Vph cos -
I0
CHOPPERS:
a.STEP UP CHOPPER:
T
Duty cycle, = on (T = (Ton / T)
on + Toff )
VS
Average output voltage across load ,V0 = 1
(Imin +Imax )
Energy supplied by inductor = Wout = (0 ) 2
x ToFF
b.STEP DOWN CHOPPER :
T
Duty cycle,= on (T = (Ton / T)
on + Toff )
Average output voltage across load ,V0 = VS (Ton / T) = f Ton VS = Vs

Where V =supply voltage
VS
Average output current through load,0 = R
Rms value of output voltage = Vs
Vs
Rms value of thyristor current = R
R
Effective input resistence of chopper=

The minimum and maximum values of load current is given by

Ton

Vs /R [1e Ta ]
Imax = T - (E/R)

[1e Ta ]
Ton

Vs /R [e Ta 1]
Imn = T - (E/R)

[e Ta 1]
Ton Toff

1e Ta 1e Ta
Vs
Ripple I = R
T

[1e Ta ]
T (1)T

1e Ta 1e Ta
Per unit Ripple = T

[1e Ta ]
Maximum value of ripple current is given by (I)max = Vs / 4fL
A.C.ripple voltage 1
Ripple factor = = 1
D.C voltage
Voltage Commutated Chopper:
Minimum turn on time of chopper LC seconds
Minimum duty cycle of voltage commutated chopper mn = f LC
Cvs (vs )
The output current , I0 =
2tc
I0 tc V 2
where C = , L S C
vs I0
t1 = LC
Current Commutated Chopper:
The values of L & C are given by

vs tc
L= 1
xI0 2 Sin1
x
x I0 tc
C= 1
vs 2 sin1
x
Where x = ICp / I0
t c = [ -2 sin1 (1/x) ] LC
t c = ICp sin t
1
At t = 1 , ic = I0 = ICp sin 1 , 1 = sin1 [I0 /ICp ] = sin1
x
Peak capacitor voltage = vs +I0 L/C
INVERTERS:
Fourier Analysis Of Single Phase Inverter Output Voltage :
1-phase Half bridge Inverter:
2Vs
V0 =
n=1,3 sin nt
n
2Vs
i0 =
n=1,3 Sin(nt n )
nZn
1-Phase Full Bridge Inverter:
4Vs
V0 =
n=1,3 n
sin nt
4Vs
i0 =
n=1,3 sin (nt - n )
nZn
Zn is the impedance offered to nth harmonic

1 2
Zn = R2 + nL
nc
1 nL1/nc
n = tan
R
Vor = Vs - full bridge inverter
Vor = Vs /2 Half bridge inverte
Harmonic factor of nth harmonic , H.Fn = Vn / V1
Where Vn = r.m.s value of nth harmonic component

V1 = fundamental component r.m.s value.
Total harmonic distortion (T.H.D) it is a measure of closeness in shape between

a wave form and its fundamental component.
1/2
THD = 1/V1 2
=2,3
V2or V21
=
V1
Vn
Distortion factor of nth harmonic is defined as V 2
1 .n
Three Phase Bridge Inverter :
4Vs n
Vab =
n=1,3 Cos Sin n(t + /6)
n 6
4Vs n
Vbc =
n=1,3 Cos Sin n(t - /2)
n 6
4Vs n
Vca =
n=1,3 Cos Sin n(t + 5/6)
n 6
All triple n harmonics are absent from the line voltages.

1 2/3
Vl = 0

Vs2 d(t) = Vs 2/3 = 0.8165 Vs
0.8165 Vs
Vph = = 0.4714 Vs
3
2Vs n
Va0 =
n=1,3 n
Cos Sin n(t+ )
6 6
2Vs n
Vb0 =
n=1,3 n
Cos Sin n(t - )
6 2
2Vs n 5
Vc0 =
n=1,3 n
Cos Sin n(t+ )
6 6
1 2/3 Vs 2
Vph = 0 2 d(t) = Vs 1/6

Vph = 0.4082 Vs , Vl = 0.4082 Vs 3 = 0.7071 Vs
Voltage Control In 1- Inverter:
1.Single Pulse Modulation:
Vor = Vs 2d/
4V
V0 = s
n=1,3( n Sin n/2. sin nd) sin(nt)

Maximum value of nth harmonic
To eliminate nth harmonic , nd =
i.e., width of the pulse = 2d = 2/n
2.Multiple Pulse Modulation:
Vor = 2 d/
8Vs nd
V0 = n=1,3 n sin n sin sin (nt)
2
Length of half cycle of reference wave form

Number of pulses per half cycle =
Width of one cycle of triangle carrier wave
1/2fr fc c
N= = =
1/fc 2fr 2r
N= c /2r per half cycle
Where fc is carrier wave frequency and fr is reference wave frequency
AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS:
Single Phase Voltage controller with R Load:
Circuit turn off time = / sec.
VC =
n=1,3,5 An sin nt + n=1,3,5 Bn cos nt d(t)
Vm sin(+1) sin(1)
Where An =
(+1) (1)
Vm cos(+1)1 sin(+1)1
Bn =
(+1)
(1)
Vnm = A2n + Bn2

B
n = tan1 An
n
For n=1, Vor of output voltage is given by
Vm 1 1/2
Vor = ( ) + 2 sin 2
2
Vor
Ior = R
2 V2or V2
m
P = Ior R= R
= 2R (-) + sin 2
V2 1
= Rs ( ) + sin 2
2
Real power V2 /R V
Power factor = = Vor /R = Vor
Apparent power Vs or s
1/2
1 1
= ( ) + sin 2
2
PHASE VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH RL LOAD

Vm Vm
i0 = 2
sin (t - ) - 2
sin ( - ). exp[ / ]. eRT/L
Vm Vm
i0 = 2
sin (t - ) - 2
sin ( - ). exp ( )

DC & AC DRIVES
DC Motor equations :
ZN
Ea = N rpm
60

P
= Zn n rps
A
If m = 2n

Ea = Z- 2m

=

Ea = k a m k a = motor constant = ((z/2) (P/A)) volts/webers rad/sec
1 P
Torque T = Z Ia
2 A
Z P
= Ia
2 A
T = K a Ia k a = Newton meter / wb amper
For a dc separately excited motor:

Flux , is constant
Ea = k m m k m motor constant volts/rad/sec
Torque = k a Ia
Te = k m Ia k m Newton meter/Ampere
For a dc series motor:
Ia , = c I a
Ea = k a c Ia m
volt sec
Ea = k1 Ia m k1 motor constant
rad.amp
Te = k a Ia
= k a c Ia2
Te = k1 Ia2 k1 Nm /Amp2
1- half wave converter drive:
Ia is assumed to be constant for speed control of the drive.

Vm
Vt = V0 = 2 (1+cos 1 )
Vm
Vf =
(1+cos 2 )
1 2
Is rms = I d(t)
2 a
1
= Ia ( )
2
Is rms = Ia [( )/2]1/2
IF.D.R = Ia [( + )/2]1/2
power delivered to load

Supply power factor =
Source VA
Ea Ia +I2a ra
= Vs Isr
Ia [Ea +Ia ra ]
=
Vs Isr
Input supply pf = (Ia Vt )/(Vs Isr )
1- half controlled converter drive
Vm
v0 = vt =
[1+ cos 1 ]
Vm
Vf =
[1+cos 2 ]
Isr = Ia ( )/
Ifdr = Ia 2/2 = Ia /
ITr = Ia ( )/2 = I0r
VI
Input supply pf = V tI a
s sr
Single Phase full wave Converter Drive:
2Vm
V0 = Vt =
cos 1
2V
Vf = m cos 2
Isr = Ia
ITr = Ia /2 = Ia /2
Pf = Vt Ia / Vs Isr
3- half wave converter drive:

36
V0 = Vt = V cos 1
2 ph
Isr = Ia 120/360 = Ia 1/3
ITr = Ia 120/360 = Ia 1/3
3- full wave converter drive:
36
V0 = Vt = Vph cos

Isr = Ia 240/360 = Ia 2/3

ITr = Ia 120/360 = Ia 1/3
3- semi converter drive:
36
V0 = Vt = V (1 + cos )
2 ph
For 1 < 600 , Isr = Ia 2/3 , ITr = Ia 1/3

For 1 > 600 , Isr = Ia 180 1 /180 , ITr = Ia (180 1 )/360
Static Rotor Resistance Control:
Toff
R eff = R
= R (T-Ton )/T
R eff = R(1-) duty cycle of the chopper

Formulas for engineering mathematics

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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Mathematics Formula Sheet

Properties :- (if A & B are symmetrical )

Hermition , Skew Hermition , Unitary & Orthogonal Matrices :-

Eigen Values & Vectors :-

Eigen values of orthogonal matrix have absolute value of 1 .

Cauchy Rieman equations

c f(z)dz = 2i (sum of Residues @ singular points within C )

Res f(a) = lim( ()

(a) Continuous in [a, b]

Langranges Mean Value Theorem :-

Cauchys Mean value theorem :-

If f(x) & g(x) are two function such that

(a) f(x) & g(x) continuous in [a, b]

(b) f(x) & g(x) differentiable in (a, b)

(c) g (x) 0 x in (a, b)

Then there exist atleast one value C in (a, b) such that

Properties of Definite integrals :-

/2 {(m1)(m3).(m5)(2 or 1)} {(n1)(n3).(2 or 1)}.K

Where K = / 2 when both m & n are even otherwise k = 1

Maxima & Minima :-

A function f(x) has maximum @ x = a if f (a) = 0 and f (a) < 0

A function f(x) has minimum @ x = a if f (a) = 0 and f (a) > 0

Constrained Maximum or Minimum :-

To find maximum or minimum of u = f(x, y, z) where x, y, z are connected by (x, y, z) = 0

(i) Write F(x, y, z) = f(x, y, z) + (x, y, z)

(ii) Solve above equations along with = 0 to get stationary point .

Regular falsi method :-

Newton Raphson Method :-

Taylor Series method :-

Calculate till two consecutive value of y agree

Runge Kutta Method :-

f(x) takes values y0 , y1 ..

Simpsons one third rule :-

Simpson three eighth rule :-

Variable & Seperable :-

General form is f(y) dy = (x) dx

Sol: f(y) dy = (x) dx + C .

Homo generous equations :-

Sol : Put x=X+h y=Y+k

Libnetz Linear equation :-

Sol : y(I.F) = Q. (I. F) dx + C .

Exact Differential Equations :-

General form M dx + N dy = 0 M f (x, y)

Sol : M. dx + (terms of N containing x ) dy = C

Rules for finding Particular Integral :-

f (a) f (a) fn (a)

f (0) f (0) fn (0)

Boundary Conditions :- Et1 = Et2

Motional emf = Em = ( B).

Electromagnetic wave propagation :-

For loss less medium 2 E - 2 E = 0 = j( + j) = + j.

Plane wave in loss less dielectric :- ( 0)

Reflection of plane wave :-

Medium-I Dielectric , Medium-2 Conductor :-

(2n+1) (2n+1) (2n+1)1

Lossless Line : (R = 0 =G; = 0)

Distortion less :(R/L = G/C)

Shorted line :- L = -1 , S = Zin = Zsc = jZ0 tan l

L = -1 , S = Zin = Zsc = j Z0 tan l.

Zin may be inductive or capacitive based on length 0

If l < / 4 inductive (Zin +ve)

Open circuited line :-