Fluid Mechanics - I: DR Muhammad Sajid Assistant Professor Nust, Smme

21-Sep-17
0
21-Sep-17
Fluid Mechanics - I
Chapter
1
Introduction Dr Muhammad Sajid
Assistant Professor
Basic concepts NUST, SMME.
Email: m.sajid@smme.nust.edu.pk
Office: #202 East Wing, SMME
051 9085 6065
Reference Text:
Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, 6th Ed
By Munson, Young, Okiishi
and Huebsch
2017 Sajid
Fluid Mechanics - II 1
21-Sep-17
Introduction
The first course of a two-semester study of
fluid mechanics focusses on
the fundamental aspects of mechanics of
fluids and introduces the students
to important fluid properties, regimes of
flow, pressure variations in fluids at rest
and in motion, fluid kinematics, and
methods of flow description and analysis.
1
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21-Sep-17 Introduction
Objective
The purpose of this course is to enable the student to
apply appropriate equations and principles to analyze
various engineering problems involving fluids.
Course Outcomes
At the end of this course students will be able to:
Demonstrate an understanding of the physical properties and
characteristic behavior of fluids.
Determine the parameters that act in hydrostatic devices and
on immersed surfaces.
Identify the basic analysis methods generally used to solve or
to begin solving fluid mechanics problems.
A basic knowledge of experimental laboratory procedure for
the visualization of fluid flow and the measurement of fluid
properties.
21-Sep-17
Motivation
Hurricane Irma: Unlike most small-scale fluids engineering

applications, hurricanes are strongly affected by the Coriolis
acceleration due to the rotation of the earth, which causes
them to swirl counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.
2
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17
3
21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Reference Books
21-Sep-17
INTRODUCTION TO FLUIDS
Nature of fluids
Fluid properties
4
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21-Sep-17 Mechanics
It is concerned with the behavior of
substances when subjected to forces or
displacements, and the subsequent effects
of the substances on their environment.
The branch of mechanics that deals with
bodies at rest is called statics, while the
branch that deals with bodies in motion is
called dynamics.
21-Sep-17
Fluid Mechanics
It is the study of fluids either in motion (fluid
dynamics) or at rest (fluid statics)
As well as the effects of the fluid upon the
boundaries.
Both gases and liquids are classified as fluids.
Enormous number of fluids applications:
Breathing, blood flow, swimming, pumps, fans,
turbines, airplanes, ships, rivers, windmills, pipes,
missiles, icebergs, engines, filters, jets, and
sprinklers, etc.
Key parameters include:
Size, speed, pressure
5
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21-Sep-17 Fluid Mechanics

Three main approaches
Experimental, Theoretical, Computational
Obstacles: Geometry and Viscosity (Turbulence).
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Heisenberg, Werner (1901-1976)
German physicist
who in 1927
derived
the uncertainty
principle
which states that
On his death bed, Heisenberg is reported

to have said,
"When I meet God, I am going to ask
him two questions: Why relativity?
And why turbulence?
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Fluid Characteristics

A substance that deforms continuously when
acted on by a shearing stress (force tangent
to surface) of any magnitude.
Solids will initially deform when acted on by a
shearing stress, but they will not continuously
deform flow.
Some materials, such as slurries, tar, putty,
toothpaste, behave as a solid if the applied
shearing stress is small, but if the stress
exceeds some critical value, the substance
will flow. (rheology).
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Fluid Properties
Density
Specific weight
Specific gravity
Viscosity
Vapor pressure
Surface tension
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Fluid Properties

Density
The density of a fluid, denoted by (lowercase Greek
rho), is its mass per unit volume.
It is highly variable in gases and increases nearly
proportionally to the pressure level.
Density in liquids is nearly constant; the density of
water (about 1000 kg/m3) and increases only 1 % if
the pressure is increased by a factor of 220.
Most liquid flows are treated analytically as nearly
incompressible.
In general, liquids are about three orders of magnitude
more dense than gases at atmospheric pressure
(density of water vapor is less than 1kg/m3).
21-Sep-17
Fluid Properties
Specific weight
The specific weight of a fluid, denoted by
(lowercase Greek gamma), is its weight per unit
volume.
Just as a mass has a weight W = mg, density and
specific weight are simply related by gravity:
=
The units of are weight per unit volume N/m3.
In standard earth gravity, g = 9.807 m/s2, the
specific weights of air and water at 20C and 1
atm are
air (1.205 kg/m3)(9.807 m/s2) = 11.8 N/m3
water (998 kg/m3)(9.807 m/s2) = 9790 N/m3
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Specific gravity
Denoted by SG, it is the ratio of a fluid
density to a standard reference fluid, water
(for liquids), and air (for gases):
For example, the specific gravity of

mercury (Hg) is SGHg 13,580/998 = 13.55.
21-Sep-17
Fluid Properties
Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is
a measure of its
resistance to gradual
deformation by stress.
When a fluid is sheared,
it begins to move at a
strain rate inversely
proportional to a
property called its
coefficient of viscosity, .
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Viscosity
No Slip
As a fluid flows near a solid
surface, it "sticks" to the surface,
i.e., the fluid matches the
velocity of the surface.
Dye injected at the bottom of a
channel through which water is
flowing forms a stagnant layer
near the bottom due to the noslip
condition.
As the dye filament is moved
away from the bottom, the
motion of the water is clearly
apparent.
A significant velocity gradient is
created near the bottom.
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Viscosity
Consider a fluid element
sheared in one plane by a
single shear stress , as
shown ( = ).
The shear strain angle
will continuously grow with
time as long as the stress
is maintained, the upper From the figure = , and
surface moving at speed u tan =

.
larger than the lower.
Such common fluids as In the limit of infinitesimal
water, oil, and air show a
changes, this becomes = .
linear relation between
applied shear and resulting
And = = .
strain rate
is the dynamic or absolute
= viscosity with units of kg/(ms),

Pas, or poise.
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Viscosity
Capillary Tube
Viscometer
The capillary tube
viscometer involves the
laminar flow of a fixed
volume of fluid through a
capillary tube
The time required for the
fluid to pass through the
tube is a measure of the
kinematic viscosity of the
fluid, the ratio of absolute
viscosity to density of the
fluid, = /. Its units are
m2/s and stoke.
21-Sep-17
Viscosity
Rotating viscometer Two concentric cylinders with a
fluid in the small gap .
Inner cylinder is rotating, outer one is
fixed.
If << R, then cylinders can be
modeled as flat plates.
Use definition of shear force:
Torque T = FR, or F = T/R, and

Tangential velocity V = R
Wetted surface area A=2pRL
T/R = (du/dy) 2RL
T = (R /l) 2R2L
T = (2 R3L)/l
Measure T and to compute
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Viscosity
Newtonian Fluid
Fluids for which the
shearing stress is
linearly related to the
rate of shearing strain
(also referred to as rate
of angular deformation)
are designated as
Newtonian fluids
Viscosity depends on
particular fluid
Temperature
21-Sep-17
Viscosity
Non Newtonian Fluid
Shearing stress is not
linearly related to the rate of
shearing strain.
Water and corn starch
mixtures flows as a thick
viscous fluid when placed
on a flat surface,.
However, when it is rapidly
disturbed, it appears to
fracture and behave more
like a solid.
The mixture is a non-
Newtonian shear thickening
fluid which becomes more
viscous as the shearing rate
is suddenly increased
through the rapid action of
the spoon.
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21-Sep-17 Viscosity
Newtonian vs. Non-Newtonian Fluid
21-Sep-17
Viscosity
Gas Vs. Liquid
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21-Sep-17

Surface tension
Liquid droplets behave like small
spherical balloons filled with liquid, and
the surface of the liquid acts like a
stretched elastic membrane under
tension.
The pulling force that causes this is
due to the attractive forces between
molecules, and is called surface
tension s (N/m).
Forces on surface molecule is not
symmetric.
Forces from interior molecules causes
the liquid to minimize its surface area
and attain a spherical shape.
It has
21-Sep-17
Fluid Properties
Surface tension
A heavier-than-water,
double-edged steel
razor blade can float
on water
Without surface
tension, the blade
would sink because
its weight is greater
than its buoyant
force
However, surface
tension forces are
not large enough to
support a slightly
heavier single-edged
blade.
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21-Sep-17

Surface Tension
Consider a spherical droplet and a bubble.
The pressure force inside balances the force
due to surface tension around the
circumference
So
For droplet
2 = 2
= = 2 /
For bubble
2 2 = 2
= = 4 /
The factor 2 in the force balance for the
bubble is due to the bubble consisting of a
film with two surfaces (inner and outer
surfaces) and thus two circumferences in
the cross section.
21-Sep-17
Fluid Properties
Surface Tension
The surface tension of a substance can be
changed considerably by impurities, called
surfactants.
For example, soaps and detergents lower the
surface tension of water and enable it to
penetrate through the small openings between
fibers for more effective washing.
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21-Sep-17
Fluid Properties
Pressure
Normal compressive force per unit area acting
on surface.
Fluid pressure is the pressure at some
point (real or imaginary) within a fluid, in:
open conditions, like oceans, atmosphere ,
etc.
closed conditions, such as a water line or a
gas line.
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21-Sep-17

Atmospheric
pressure:
Pressure exerted by
the atmosphere.
Gage pressure:
Pressure measured
relative to local
atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure:
Pressure measured
relative to zero
pressure.
21-Sep-17
Example
At a certain location at 5000 m elevation
the pressure is measured to be a vacuum
of 16.13 kPa. What is the absolute
pressure?
Solution
1. Use a linear interpolation to
find Patmosphere= 54.425 kPa.
2. pabs = patm + pgage
=> 54.425 kPa- 16 kPa
=> 38.295 kPa
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Example
Determine the density, specific gravity (with water) and mass
of the air in a room whose dimensions are 4m x 5m x 6m at
100 kPa and 25C.
Solution:
Assumptions: Air is an ideal gas at specified conditions.
R = 8.314/28.97 kJ/(kmol K) = 0.287 kJ/(kmol K)
Density, = P/RT
=> = 100kPa/(0.287 kJ/(kmol K) x (25+273)K)
=> = 1.17 kg/m3
Specific gravity, SG = / water
=> SG = 1.17 kg/m3 / 1000 kg/m3
=> SG = 0.00117
Mass, m = V
=> m = (4m x 5m x 6m) x 1.17 kg/m3
=> m = 140kg
21-Sep-17
Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

Pressure temperature relation at (liquid
solid) phase change
At a given pressure, the temperature at which a
pure substance changes phase is called the
saturation temperature Tsat.
Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at
which a pure substance changes phase is called
the saturation pressure Psat.
At an absolute pressure of 1 standard atmosphere
(1 atm or 101.325 kPa), for example, the
saturation temperature of water is 100C.
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21-Sep-17 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

Water boils at 134C in a
pressure cooker operating
at 3 atm absolute
pressure.
But it boils at 93C in an
ordinary pan at a 2000-m
elevation, where the
atmospheric pressure is
0.8 atm.
21-Sep-17
Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

Partial pressure is defined as the pressure of a gas or vapor in
a mixture with other gases.
Vapor Pressure Pv is defined as the pressure exerted by its
vapor in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature
If P drops below Pv, liquid is locally vaporized, creating cavities of
vapor.
Vapor cavities collapse when local P rises above Pv.
Collapse of cavities is a violent process which can damage
machinery.
Cavitation is noisy, and can cause structural vibrations.
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Capillary Effect

Capillary effect is the rise or fall of a
liquid in a small-diameter tube.
The curved free surface in the tube is
call the meniscus.
Contact (or wetting) angle , defined
as the angle that the tangent to the
liquid surface makes with the solid
surface at the point of contact.
Water meniscus curves up because
water is a wetting ( < 90) fluid
(hydrophilic).
Mercury meniscus curves down
because mercury is a non wetting (
> 90) fluid (hydrophobic).
21-Sep-17
Capillary Effect
Capillary rise can be
calculated using force
balance.
= =
= (2)
And
= = 2
Equating above two,
capillary rise is
mathematically defined as
= 2 /
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Example
A 0.6-mm-diameter glass tube is inserted into
water at 20C in a cup.
Determine the capillary rise of water in the tube.
Properties
The surface tension of water at 20C is 0.073 N/m .
The contact angle of water with glass is 0.
Density of liquid water to be 1000 kg/m3.
Capillary rise:
2
= = 0.050 = 5.0

Note: if tube diameter were 1 cm, the capillary rise would be 3 mm.
The capillary rise in a large-diameter tube occurs only at the rim.
Therefore, the capillary effect can be ignored for large-diameter tubes.
21-Sep-17
Problem
The temperature and pressure at the surface
of Mars during a Martian spring day were
determined to be -50C and 900 Pa,
respectively.
Determine the density of the Martian atmosphere
for these conditions if the gas constant R for the
Martian atmosphere is assumed to be equivalent
to that of carbon dioxide.
Compare this with the density of the earths
atmosphere during a spring day when the
temperature is 18C and the pressure is 101.6
kPa (abs).
R = 188.9, = 0.0214 kg/m3, R = 286.9, = 1.22 kg/m3, Mars/ Earth = 0.0175
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Problem
A 25-mm diameter shaft is
pulled through a cylindrical
bearing.
The lubricant that fills the 0.3-mm gap between
the shaft and bearing is an oil having a kinematic
viscosity of 8 x 10-4 m2/s and a specific gravity of
0.91.
Determine the force P required to pull the shaft at
a velocity of 3 m/s. Assume the velocity
distribution in the gap is linear.
21-Sep-17
Solution
= 0 =
= = 3.1415 0.025 0.5
= 0.03922

= =

= = 0.91 998 = 908.18

= = 908.18 0.0008 = 0.726
3
= 0.726 = 7260
0.0003
= 7260 0.0392 = 284.5
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Problem
A 10-kg block slides down a smooth surface
Determine the terminal velocity of the block if

the 0.1-mm gap between the block and the
surface contains SAE 30 oil at 15 C.
Assume the velocity distribution in the gap is
linear, and the area of the block in contact with
the oil is 0.1 m2.
30: = 0.38
Fluid Mechanics - II
Problem
Solution
= 0; sin 20 =

= = 0.38
0.0001
sin 20 = 3800
sin 20 = 3800 0.1
1
= 10 9.81 sin 20
380
= 0.0883 /
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Problem
The viscosity of liquids can be
measured using a rotating
cylinder viscometer.
The outer cylinder is fixed and
the inner cylinder is rotated
with an angular velocity .
The torque required to
develop is measured and the
viscosity is calculated from
these two measurements.
Develop an equation relating ,
, , l, Ro and Ri.
Neglect end effects and
assume the velocity distribution
in the gap is linear.
Fluid Mechanics - II
Problem
Solution
Torque, =
Area, =
= 2
2
= 2
0
= 22

= while u = and =

=

Combining, we get:

= 23 or =
23
24
21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Problem
A 12-mm diameter jet of water discharges
vertically into the atmosphere.
Due to surface tension the pressure inside
the jet will be slightly higher than the
surrounding atmospheric pressure.
Determine this difference in pressure.
21-Sep-17
Problem
Dia = 12mm = 0.012m

= 7.34 102

2 = 2
7.34102
= =
0.0122
= 12.2
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21-Sep-17
21-Sep-17 Problem
Assume that the surface tension forces act at
an angle relative to the water surface
because of a floating razor blade.
The mass of the double-edge blade is 0.64 x 10-3
kg, and the total length of its sides is 206 mm.
Determine the value of required to maintain
equilibrium between the blade weight and the resultant
surface tension force.
The mass of the single-edge blade is 2.61 x 10-3
kg, and the total length of its sides is 154 mm.
Does this blade sink (Yes/No)? Explain why.
(Ans: = 24.5; 0.0256 > 0.0113sin)
21-Sep-17
26

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21-Sep-17

Hurricane Irma: Unlike most small-scale fluids engineering

21-Sep-17 Reference Books

21-Sep-17 Fluid Mechanics

Heisenberg, Werner (1901-1976)

On his death bed, Heisenberg is reported

21-Sep-17 Fluid Characteristics

21-Sep-17 Fluid Properties

21-Sep-17 Fluid Properties

For example, the specific gravity of

Torque T = FR, or F = T/R, and

21-Sep-17 Fluid Properties

21-Sep-17 Fluid Properties

21-Sep-17 Fluid Properties

Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

21-Sep-17 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

21-Sep-17 Capillary Effect

Determine the terminal velocity of the block if

(Ans: = 24.5; 0.0256 > 0.0113sin)

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