Volumen 45, N1, 2013.

Pginas 3-31
Chungara, Revista de Antropologa Chilena

THE STYLE, TECHNOLOGY AND ORGANIZATION

OF SICN MINING AND METALLURGY, NORTHERN PERU:
INSIGHTS FROM HOLISTIC STUDY*
EL ESTILO, TECNOLOGA Y ORGANIZACIN DE LA MINERA Y METALURGIA
SICN, NORTE DEL PER: VISIONES DESDE UN ESTUDIO HOLSTICO
Izumi Shimada1 and Alan K. Craig2

This paper explains what Shimada has termed a holistic approach to craft production and illustrates its value by discussing insights
gained into the style, technology, and organization of Middle and Late Sicn (ca. AD 900-1,375) mining and copper-arsenic me-
tallurgy. After a brief characterization of the geographical and cultural settings of pertinent research by the Sicn Archaeological
Project (1978-present) and the holistic approach, we discuss specific methods and strategies for locating and dating pre-Hispanic
mines. Based on our examination of eight mines in the study area that supplied copper oxides and/or arsenic-bearing ores, we offer
a general characterization of Sicn mining, emphasizing the integral character of local mining and autochthonous copper-arsenic
alloy (also called arsenical bronze) production at nearby smelting sites (six excavated to date). Our analyses of primary context
samples of ore and smelting products and by-products recovered at smelting sites show that copper-arsenic was deliberately and
locally smelted and that arsenic was derived from scorodite (oxide form of arsenopyrite) and/or weathered sulfide ores available
near the surface of local mines. Additionally, we discuss insights gained into careful and sustainable charcoal fuel management
and the modular organization of metallurgical and other productive activities.
Key words: Sicn, holistic approach, copper-arsenic, Andean archaeometallurgy.

Este documento explica lo que Shimada ha denominado enfoque holstico del estudio de la produccin artesanal antigua y ejemplifica
su valor discutiendo perspicacias adquiridas acerca del estilo, tecnologa y organizacin de la minera y metalurgia Sicn Medio
y Tardo (ca. 900-1.375 d.C.). Luego de una caracterizacin de los marcos geogrfico y cultural del Proyecto Arqueolgico Sicn
(1978-presente) y del enfoque holstico, discutimos mtodos y estrategias especficas para ubicar y datar las minas prehispnicas.
Basados en nuestra evaluacin de ocho minas en el rea de estudio que provean de xidos de cobre y/o minerales conteniendo
arsnico, ofrecemos una caracterizacin general de la minera Sicn, enfatizando el carcter integral de la minera local y pro-
duccin autctona de cobre arsenical en sitios cercanos de fundicin. Nuestros anlisis de muestras de minerales y productos y
subproductos de fundicin muestran cmo las aleaciones de cobre arsenical fueron deliberadas y fundidas localmente, y que el
arsnico fue derivado de la escorodita (xido de arsenopirita) y/o minerales sulfuros erosionados disponible cerca la superficie
de las minas locales. Adicionalmente, discutimos visiones adquiridas acerca del manejo cuidadoso y sostenible del combustible
de carbn vegetal y de la organizacin modular de la metalurgia y otras actividades productivas.
Palabras claves: Sicn, enfoque holstico, cobre arsenical, arqueometalurgia andina.

Over 100 years of scientific investigation into
indigenous New World metallurgy that began in
the late 19th century (e.g., Bergse 1937, 1938;
Boman 1908; Cushing 1894; Mathewson 1915;
Mead 1915; Nordenskild 1921) have revealed
that Peru and neighboring countries distinguished
themselves in terms of technological developments
as well as by the quantity, diversity and cultural
significance of metal products. In fact, as early as
1921, Erland Nordenskild (1921) recognized the
cultural importance and distinct character of north
coast metallurgy. Over the next decades, technical
and artistic studies documented the remarkable
sophistication, innovative character and versatility
of what was essentially a copper and copper-alloy
based metallurgy (e.g., Caley 1973; Caley and Shank
1971; Jones 1979; Lechtman 1973, 1984, 1988;
Lechtman et al. 1982; Patterson 1971; Shimada
1994a, 1999).
While important advances were made in
north coast archaeometallurgy, the resultant
vision was rather truncated and perhaps even
distorted by the predominant focus on finished
objects looted from elite funerary contexts that

* Artculo seleccionado del conjunto de ponencias presentadas en la Primera Reunin Internacional sobre Minera Prehispnica
en Amrica (PRIMPA), realizada en San Pedro de Atacama, Chile, diciembre 2010. Este manuscrito fue evaluado por
investigadores externos y editado por Diego Salazar y Valentina Figueroa, en su calidad de editores invitados de la Revista.
1 Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University, 1000 Faner Drive, Carbondale, IL 62901 U.S.A. ishimada@siu.edu
2 2556 Sundy Ave, Delray Beach, FL 33444-2130 mary2861@gmail.com

Recibido: agosto 2011. Aceptado: noviembre 2012.

4 Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig
lacked crucial contextual information and over-
represented the final segment of what was, in
reality, a long, multi-phase production process.
While Lechtmans (1976) macro-scale survey of
ancient mines and metallurgical sites provided a
valuable pan-Peruvian overview and effectively
complemented the earlier, pioneering works of
A. Raimondi (1878, 2004[1889]; also Villacorta
2004) and G. Petersen (1970), efforts to locate
and excavate mines and associated smelting
and smithing workshops on the north coast (and
for much of the Andes) subsequently have been
relatively rare and/or of short in duration (e.g.,
Bernier 2010; Oehm 1984; Topic 1990).
Understandably, the paucity of in-depth
studies of primary production and use contexts
has hampered discussion of issues such as the
organization and social relations of production
(e.g., Costin and Wright 1998) and unbiased
assessment of the distribution, use and value
of products across the entire social spectrum.
Metallurgy is, indeed, much more than a tech-
nology for transforming metallic ores to usable
metals; technical and artistic studies, and surveys
alone cannot effectively elucidate the complex
set of behavioral, material, social and ideologi-
cal variables and processes that interact with and
shape it. Thus, we needed to strive for a compre-
hensive understanding of the many components,
phases, and functions as well as significance of
metallurgy and its products within appropriate
social and historical contexts (emphasis added)
This ambitious aim called for long-term, focused,
interdisciplinary investigation of integrated mining
and metallurgical complexes and (b) their broader
regional contexts (emphasis added).
The interconnected complex of the Cerro Blanco
mine and the nearby Cerro Huaringa-Cerro Sajino
metallurgical complex (hereafter identified as the
Co. H-S Complex; Shimada etal. 1982; Shimada
and Merkel 1987; Figures1, 2, 3) that Shimada first
surveyed in 1978 offered a rare and ideal research
setting for just such a purpose. The complex is
situated just south of the town of Batn Grande in
the mid-La Leche Valley on the north coast of Peru.
Since then, our effort to maximize the potential of
this research setting and to achieve what Shimada
(see below) has called a holistic understanding of
Sicn craft production has been the driving force
behind over three decades of research by the Sicn
Archaeological Project.
This paper has two aims: to explicate our holistic
approach to craft production in general and, more
specifically, to illustrate its value by discussing
some of the insights we have gained into the style,
technology and organization of the Sicn mining
and metallurgy. After a brief characterization of
the geographical and cultural settings of pertinent
research by the Sicn Archaeological Project and
the holistic approach, we discuss specific methods
and strategies for locating and dating pre-Hispanic
mines. Based on our examination of pre-Hispanic
mines in the study area that supplied copper oxides
and/or arsenic-bearing ores, we offer a general
characterization of Sicn mining and metallurgy,
emphasizing the integral character of local mining
and autochthonous copper-arsenic production at
nearby smelting sites. Additionally, we discuss
insights gained into careful and sustainable charcoal
fuel management and the modular organization
of metallurgical and other productive activities.
Holistic Approach
The holistic approach to craft production is
built on a broadly inclusive conception of produc-
tive activities and aims to (1) define and explicate
the technology and organization of the entire
production process from acquisition of necessary
ingredients and product preparation to recycling of
products and byproducts, and (2) understand the
functions, significance and distribution of products,
as well as the social conventions and institutions,
social relations of workers, and value system that
influenced the manufacture, use and meaning of
products (Shimada 1985a, 1994a; Shimada etal.
1994, 1999; Shimada and Merkel 1987; Shimada
and Wagner 2007). It is holistic in the sense of
embracing diachronic and synchronic as well as
material and human dimensions of productive
activities. Figure4 illustrates key components of
this approach and how they interrelate.
Our general conception of craft production re-
sembles those of the chine opratoire (e.g., Dobres
and Hoffman 1994; Lemonnier 1993; Sellet 1993;
Sillar and Tite 2000), object biography (Gosden and
Marshall 1999; Jones 2002), and others that different
scholars (e.g., Costin 2001; Lechtman 1977; Schiffer
and Skibo 1987) have advocated independently.
Our holistic approach, however, distinguishes itself
in prioritizing focused studies of production sites
and the diverse use contexts of their products by
 The style, technology and organization of Sicn mining and metallurgy, northern Peru: insights from holistic study 5

Figure1. Northern north coast with major modern settlements and archaeological sites. HPBG refers to Huaca del Pueblo Batn
Grande. Prepared by Izumi Shimada.
Mapa de la parte norte de la costa norte del Per sealando ros principales y sitios arqueolgicos pertinentes al presente estudio.
Se refiere HPBG al sitio de Huaca del Pueblo Batn Grande. Elaborada por Izumi Shimada.
6 Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig

Figure2. The study area with locations of mines, smelting and metalworking sites, and associated roads. Prepared by Kayeleigh Sharp.
La zona de nuestro estudio sealando las ubicaciones de minas, sitios de fundicin y metalistera y caminos asociados. Elaborada
por Kayeleigh Sharp.

means of long-term interdisciplinary collaboration the four complementary methods of archaeometry,

both in and out of the field (emphasis added). The
pursuit of production sites and diverse use contexts
as well as identification of production ingredients
and workers requires regional multi-site sampling
and survey (emphasis added). Analysis and inter-
pretation of the evidence thus obtained are based on
experimental archaeology (both laboratory and
field), ethnoarchaeology, and the comparative study
of existing artifact collections (Figure 4). These
methods form a critical, self-directed, self-corrective
process. Samples and/or insights gained from one
method are independently verified through one or
 The style, technology and organization of Sicn mining and metallurgy, northern Peru: insights from holistic study 7

Figure3. The integrated Batn Grande Metallurgical Complex and its constituent mines of Cerro Blanco, Cerro Mellizo, and
Barranco Colorado, and Sicn smelting sites interconnected by roads. Prepared by Kayeleigh Sharp.
El Complejo Metalrgico Integrado de Batn Grande y sus minas componentes en Cerro Blanco, Cerro Mellizo y Barranco
Colorado y sitios de fundicin Sicn interconectado por caminos. Elaborada por Kayeleigh Sharp.

more other remaining methods. Highly controlled
and replicable laboratory experiments and more
realistic but harder to control field experiments
are also reciprocally informative (Shimada 2005;
Shimada etal. 2003; Skibo 1992).
Sicn Culture and the Study Area
1. Study Area
Sicn culture some 1,000 years ago, Kosok (1959,
1965) estimated that the Complex encompassed a
third of the total cultivated land on the Peruvian
coast, while Schaedel (1972) calculated its resident
population size to have been 1.0 to 1.5 million.
Extensive metallic ore deposits in the foothills of
the constituent valleys and productive year-round,
intensive fishing effectively complemented large-
scale irrigation agriculture to provide the Sicn with

The Sicn was a prominent pre-Hispanic cul-

ture that emerged in the 9th century centered in the
Lambayeque Complex on the northern north coast of Table 1. Sicn chronology.
Peru (corresponding to our study area; Figure2) and Cronologa de Sicn.
persisted until the end of the 14th century (Table1).
The Complex consisted of the four contiguous Sicn Inca AD 1,460/70 1,532
(north to south) Motupe, La Leche, Lambayeque, Sicn-Chim AD 1,375 1,460/70
and Zaa river valleys that were hydrologically in- Late Sicn AD 1,100 1,375
terlinked by four major intervalley canals (Jayanca, Middle Sicn AD 900 1,100
Early Sicn AD 750/800 - 900
Racarumi, Taymi and Collique). At the height of the
8 Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig

Figure4. Graphic representation of the components of the holistic approach and their interrelationship. Prepared by Izumi Shimada
and Steven Muller.
Representacin grfica de los componentes del Enfoque Holstico y su interrelacin. Elaborada por Izumi Shimada y Steven Muller.

what was probably the most productive economic
foundation and greatest demographic potential of
the entire coast for their time period.
2. Sicn Culture
The Sicn culture began forging its distinctive
character (corresponding to the Early Sicn period)
by fusing selected autochthonous features of the
persistent, local Moche (also known as Mochica)
cultural tradition with exogenous features related
to relatively transient Wari and Pachacamac influ-
ence from the south. The nature of their interaction
and subsequent developmental processes are still
not well understood (Castillo 2001; Chapdelaine
2010; Mackey 2000; Menzel 1977; Schaedel 1993;
Shimada 1985b, 1990). This cultural hybridiza-
tion, together with the waning of the Wari Empire
around AD 900 and the aforementioned impressive
productive capacity of the Lambayeque Complex,
formed the basis for the rapid formalization of the
Sicn religion and associated art style as well as
its notable economic growth and political power.
During this florescent Middle Sicn period, AD
900-1,100, the Sicn established a state-level polity,
a stratified, multi-ethnic society, ideological and
political dominance over at least 350 km-stretch
of the northern north coast (at least spanning from
the Chira Valley to the north to the Chicama Valley
to the south) and a far more extensive interaction
sphere that included a trade network that reached
Colombia to the north and the south-central Peru
to the south (Segura and Shimada 2012; Shimada
2000, 2009).
Among the most distinguishing and important
legacies of the Middle Sicn culture were innovative
and advanced pyrotechnologies. Their metallurgists
distinguished themselves in successfully producing
copper-arsenic alloys and gold alloys on an un-
precedented scale and employing them for a wider
range of use than ever before (e.g., Shimada 1994a;
Shimada etal. 1999, 2000; Shimada and Griffin
1994; Shimada and Merkel 1991). Documented
Middle Sicn elite tombs often contain many precious
metal objects as well as hundreds, if not thousands,
of both sheet and solid cast copper-arsenic alloy
 The style, technology and organization of Sicn mining and metallurgy, northern Peru: insights from holistic study 9

Figure5. Approximately 1.2 tons of grave goods recovered from the Huaca Loro East Tomb. Most of the weight and the objects
seen in the foreground are copper-arsenic products. Photo by Izumi Shimada.
El ajuar funerario de la Tumba Este de Huaca Loro que en total pesa aproximadamente 1,2 toneladas. La mayora del peso y los
objetos visibles en primer plano son productos de cobre-arsnico. Foto de Izumi Shimada.

objects totaling hundreds of kilograms in weight
(Pedersen 1976; Shimada 1995; Shimada et al.
2000). Among the diverse grave goods found in
the East Tomb (3x3 m and 11 m deep) at the north
base of the monumental temple mound of Huaca
Loro, Sicn, were over 60 major high-karat gold
alloy ornaments and 489 cast copper-arsenic alloy
agricultural tools (in 15 tied bundles) weighing a
total of nearly 200 kg (Figure5).
Copper-arsenic alloys replaced pure copper
as the utilitarian metal of northern Peru until the
Spanish conquest (Cleland and Shimada 1992;
Shimada and Merkel 1991). Metals permeated
all facets of this culture and differentiated access
to different metals served as a visible marker of
social status (Shimada 1994b). At the same time,
their potters succeeded in large-scale production
of well-fired, true blackware, often with a metallic
sheen (Shimada and Wagner 2001) and forms that
clearly emulated more prestigious metallic vessels
(Cleland and Shimada 1992; Rondn 1965/66).
The pottery became widely valued, engendering
an unparalleled popularity of black ceramics that
rapidly spread along much of the Peruvian coast
and persisted until Spanish conquest.
Perhaps in response to impacts of an El Nio-
ENSO event (ca. AD 1,050) of historic proportions
that compounded the adverse effects of an immedi-
ately preceding severe drought (ca. AD 1,020-1,050;
Craig and Shimada 1986; Shimada etal. 1991), Sicn
society underwent an unprecedented reorganization
(Jennings 2008; Shimada 2000, 2009). Late Sicn
culture (AD 1,100-1,375) featured a new capital
at Tcume at the juncture of the La Leche and the
Lambayeque valleys, abandonment of the Sicn
Deity veneration, and truncation of the trade net-
work. Copper-alloy production, however, continued
during this period (Epstein and Shimada 1984).
Around AD 1,375, the expanding Chim Empire
intruding from the south conquered the Late Sicn
polity, ending its political autonomy (Shimada 1990,
2000). The Chim and the Inca, who conquered
the Chim ca. AD 1,460-70, both recognized the
superiority and importance of Sicn metallurgy and
intensified its production relocating many work-
ers to their respective capitals of Chan Chan and
10 Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig

Cusco (Shimada 2000, 2009; Topic 1990). Thus,
Sicn metallurgy lived on long after the demise of
the Sicn polity.
Applying the Holistic Approach to Sicn
Mining and Metallurgy
1. Locating Pre-Hispanic Mines
We employed various methods to locate pre-
Hispanic mines in our study area with a particular
emphasis on the area just south of the modern town
of Batn Grande where the Co.H-S Complex is
situated. We began with examination of a regional
geological map prepared by the Instituto Geogrfico
Militar del Per and different sets of conventional
vertical, black-and-white airphotos acquired from
the Servicio Aerofotogrfico Nacional del Per, and,
later, remote sensing images taken by the Landsat,
Space Shuttle, and Earth Observing System [EOS].
Remote sensing images proved to be unproductive
because of problems of scale and inadequate visual
resolution. Many pre-Hispanic workings are too
small to be detected in images at the scale avail-
able today. The same scale problem hampers the
use of conventional airphotos. Theoretically, very
large scale photos (i.e., 5,000) could be specially
obtained to overcome this problem, assuming local
relief did not cause too much vertical distortion, but
it would be quite costly for prospecting large areas.
Airphotos (1:10,000) were useful in identifying
local mineralization sources such as dome-shaped
Cretaceous igneous intrusions like Cerro Blanco
and Cerro Condor (Figure6) south of the town of
Batn Grande. They may appear as extrusions
due to exposure by post-Cretaceous erosion. Just as
the Cerro Blanco mine is situated in a mineralized
zone just east of the light-colored, massive intrusion,
we suspected that there would be mines in the area
surrounding Cerro Condor. As remote sensing by
whatever means always requires a thorough ground
check to confirm the interpretations that have been
made, we tested our prediction by targeting this
area for intensive pedestrian surveys assisted by
local inhabitants and a prospector/mining engineer,
Luis Suarez.

Figure 6. Cerro Cndor, the distinctly shaped Cretaceous igneous intrusion responsible for mineralization found at Barranco
Colorado and Cerro Mellizo. Looking southwest. Photo by Izumi Shimada.
Cerro Cndor, la intrusin igneacretcea con forma particular causante de la mineralizacin identificada en Barranco Colorado
y Cerro Mellizo. Mirando hacia el suroeste. Foto de Izumi Shimada.
 The style, technology and organization of Sicn mining and metallurgy, northern Peru: insights from holistic study
Figure 7.A wall that defines one side of an ancient road to
the pre-Hispanic Cerro Mellizo mine. Note a modern road for
vehicular traffic cut through the ancient road. Looking northwest.
Photo by Izumi Shimada.
La pirca baja que delimita los bordes de un camino antiguo
que dirige a la mina de Cerro Mellizo. Ntese que un camino
moderno para vehculos cruza el camino antiguo. Mirando
hacia el noroeste. Foto de Izumi Shimada.
Airphotos were also valuable for locating
ancient roads. In these images, we sought seem-
ingly anomalous, but carefully prepared ancient
roads (Figure 7) heading usually to uninhabited
mountainous areas. The presence of such roads is
perhaps the single most conspicuous archaeological
indication of pre-Hispanic mining. This method
is advantageous as field tracing of such roads can
reveal not only mines and processing sites at their
termini, but also empty stone enclosures that could
have served as corrals for ore-carrying llamas and
smaller stone structures with utilitarian sherds
that we believe functioned as roadside camps. At
the same time, as with various aspects of ancient
mining, it is difficult to securely date these roads
(see below). Probably the best means, as just dis-
cussed, is through artifacts and architecture found
along and at the termini of the road. For example,
11
Road 4 in Figure3 connecting the Cerro Blanco
mine with the Sicn smelting centers of Cerro
Huaringa and Cerro Sajino, although in part used
by modern miners, is associated with a petroglyph
of the Sicn Deity head, an inferred llama coral,
Spondylus princeps offerings, and paleteada (paddle-
stamped) and other pre-Hispanic sherds. Different
portions of Road 6 display divergent construction
techniques and widths (including a segment literally
paved with pre-Hispanic sherds) that may reflect
different work groups.
The Cerro Mellizo mine (Figure8) is accessible
by well-established, predominantly east-west running
Road 2 (see Figure2) that continues to the major
site of Tcume (Middle Sicn to Inca periods, AD
1,000-1,532; Heyerdahl etal. 1995; Shimada 2000).
At the north base of Cerro Condor, it intersects
Road 3 that runs north-south. Farther north of the
intersection, Road 3 in turn intersects the east-west
running Road 4 that leads to the extensive Barranco
Colorado mine (see below). Slightly north of this
intersection, Road 3 bifurcates with Road 5, the east
branch, heading to the Co. H-S. Complex.
At the east base of Cerro Condor, the afore-
mentioned Road 2 from the Cerro Mellizo mine
connects to Road 6, a wide road that runs northward
to the Co. H-S Complex along the west margin of
the Pampa de Chappar (Figure2). Traffic on this
road could easily have supplied ores to at least two
(Sites 256A01 and 81C10 at the north and south
ends of the Pampa, respectively) -and perhaps even
six- Middle Sicn smelting sites that were recently
identified in the Pampa de Chaparr (Hayashida
personal communication, 2010).
For the pedestrian surveys, we adopted the
methods used by traditional prospectors (cateadores)
working in arid regions. We interviewed local inhab-
itants, particularly goat and cattle herders, as they
routinely combed through the countryside looking
for pastures, water sources and/or their animals.
The idea was that they might have encountered
mineralized areas (e.g., ore veins), pits or shafts
and/or associated talus of gangue that differed
from the surrounding landscapes, and/or floats
or ore fragments in dry streambeds. Showing them
examples of ores in which we were interested often
helped to stir their memories. It is critical to respect
the knowledge of local inhabitants.
In addition to informants, an effective, time-
honored method is surveying for floats (ore fragments
that washed downstream). We searched streambeds
12 Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig

Figure8. The east slope of Cerro Mellizo that was extensively altered by ancient mining. Note the remains of ancient workings
still visible on the slope. Photo by Izumi Shimada.
La ladera este de Cerro Mellizo extensamente alterada por la explotacin minera antigua. Ntese las perforaciones resultantes
de la explotacin antigua en la ladera. Foto de Izumi Shimada.

for floats that indicate the presence of minerals
of interest somewhere upstream. As one moves
upstream closer to the parental outcrop, the float
becomes coarser, more jagged and fresher as it is
more recently eroded and has traveled less distance.
Most of these ore sources in our study area are rather
large quartz veins stained by the slow weathering
of the pyrites they commonly contain to produce
a rusty gossan (an exposed, oxidized portion of a
mineral or ore vein). Corrosion of this matrix, in
turn, exposes the green and turquoise-blue coatings
of secondary malachite and azurite, respectively.
Little effort is then needed to expose the underlying
crystalline mass of the main ore body.
The above approaches can be creatively com-
bined to best suit a given study situation. Such an
adaptable, multi-strand approach is essential to
identify the localized, limited landscape changes
associated with small-scale, non-mechanized, highly
selective pre-Hispanic mining. We are fortunate that
these ancient workings in our study area have not
been destroyed. Modern mining companies have
largely written off much of the north coast from
their exploitation as lacking the necessary large
tonnage copper porphyry-type deposits suitable for
large-scale open pit mining and often containing
undesirable arsenic. As discussed later, the presence
of the weathered, oxidized form of arsenopyrite
(FeAsS) known as scorodite (FeAsO42H2O), is
critical to understanding local copper arsenic alloy
production. At the same time, it should be kept
in mind that, even when a mine is identified, the
high-grade ore deposits may have been long ago
exhausted.
2. Dating Pre-Hispanic Mines
As already noted above, dating of mines/mining
activity is one of the greatest challenges facing
Andean archaeometallurgy. The general scarcity
of reliably datable features and material remains
at mines, both artifactual and organic, as well as
disturbances by Colonial and/or recent exploita-
tion necessitate reliance on negative and broader
contextual evidence. The discoveries such as the
well-preserved pre-Hispanic tools with the famous
 The style, technology and organization of Sicn mining and metallurgy, northern Peru: insights from holistic study 13

Copper Man of Chuquicamata on the north coast
of Chile (Bird 1979; Fuller 2004; Mead 1921) and
diagnostic ceramics and radiocarbon-datable materi-
als at the La Primavera hematite mine in backpart
of the Ingenio Valley between Palpa and Nasca
valleys on the south coast of Peru (Vaughn etal.
2007) represent rare, fortuitous occurrences. Other
relative dating means besides diagnostic artifacts
and architecture are discussed below.
The principal working (east slope) of the Cerro
Mellizo mine (Figure2), in spite of extensive modern
mining-related disturbances, still preserved a four-
level terrace complex. The best preserved second
and third upper levels each measured ca. 20 m
long, 7 m wide and 0.5-2.6 m high with masonry
facing. Each level had a row of four standardized
rectangular, masonry rooms (4.5x5.3 m for those
on the second level and 4.5x4.5 m for those on the
third level; only their wall bases remain; Figure9).
Although these rooms were free of surface debris
(perhaps cleaned by modern miners who set up up
camp within them), atop and on the north slope
of the low ridge immediately behind and some 5
m above these structures,we surface-collected the
constricted neck of a black Middle Sicn jar as
well as fragments of grey Chim or Chim-Inca
vessels and less diagnostic paleteada vessels. The
associated ceramics, then, suggest that pre-Hispanic
mining spanned ca. AD 1,000-1,532.
The standardized rooms are quite similar in
size, shape and construction to those connected
by a walled road to the nearby La Plata mine near
the village of Chumbenique on the north bank of
the Zaa Valley (Figures2). Here too, associated
ceramics suggest a time span from Middle Sicn
to Chim or Chim-Inca periods. The standardized
structures at both mines, however, suggest Chim or
Inca affiliation and may have served as storerooms.
An additional line of evidence pointing to the
pre-Hispanic date of the Cerro Mellizo mine is our
discovery of two large Spondylus princeps frag-
ments near an ancient pit. Luis Suarez (personal
communication, 1984) reports finding a cluster of
some 20 buried Spondylus princeps shells at a nearby
location in 1982, prior to the historic 1983 El Nio-
ENSO event that badly eroded the area. S. princeps,
a thorny oyster with striking pinkish-red or orange
colored flesh and shell is derived from the tropical

Figure9. Four-level terrace complex with standardized masonry rooms at the west edge of the Cerro Mellizo mine. Looking
north. Photo by Izumi Shimada.
El complejo de terrazas en cuatro niveles con cuartos rectangulares estandarizados de mampostera ubicado en la margen occidental.
14 Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig

sea along the Ecuadorian coast and farther north and
was long used throughout the Andes as an important
offering. Artistic representations and colonial-era
documents both point to shells symbolism related
to water and fertility (e.g., Carter 2008; Glowacki
2005; Paulsen 1974). The Huarochir Manuscript,
a Quechua folklore/religious account (Andean
religion as opposed to Inca religion) recorded in
its original language sometime at the beginning of
the 17th century relates that the mullu, large tropi-
cal marine shells including Spondylus sp., are the
favorite food of deities who reside in mountains
and other sacred locations (Salomon and Urioste
1991). The Spondylus offering we documented at
the Cerro Mellizo mine, then, may have constituted
a payment or appeasement to the supernatural
beings who governed the Cerro to allow the miners
to extract ores (see below).
At the extensive Barranco Colorado mine, a
working (ca. 1.5 m wide, 100 m long, >4 m deep
[total depth undetermined yet due to the fill]) that
traced a narrow discovery vein (ca. 3.5 m wide) at
the peak of Cerro Barranco Colorado (Figure10)
yielded no datable items. A roughly U-shaped,
masonry structure (>6 x >5 m) amongst over 30
dispersed open circular and oval pits (ranging from
ca. 1.5 m across and 1 m deep to 30 x 13 m x 4 m
deep) on the west slope of the Cerro was associ-
ated with a batn (large anvil stone for crushing
ores and/or slag; 0.68x0.45 m x 0. 25 m high) and
pre-Hispanic ceramics that together suggest a time
span similar to that of the Cerro Mellizo mine.
Careful examination of tool marks in mines
provides additional chronological clues. The stone
hammers used by pre-Hispanic miners leave blunt
edged peck marks (sometime with some crushed ores
still adhered) that contrast with the sharper edged
marks that modern steel tools leave. Removal of
high-grade ore by carefully tracing veins inevitably
results in irregularly shaped workings. On the other
hand, spacious adits (nearly horizontal accesses to
mines), winzes (vertical or steeply inclined shafts
between different levels in a mine for access and/
or ventilation), and stopes (step-wise excavations
to extract ore from steeply inclined veins) suggest
Colonial and/or more recent mining (Shimada 1994a).

Figure10. Narrow pre-Hispanic working atop Cerro Barranco Colorado and associated tailings (to the left of the mine). Looking
southwest. Photo by Izumi Shimada.
La mina angosta encima de Cerro Barranco Colorado y los restos de minerales desechados (a la izquierda de la mina). Mirando
hacia el suroeste. Foto de Izumi Shimada.
 The style, technology and organization of Sicn mining and metallurgy, northern Peru: insights from holistic study 15

Additionally, we should maximize any organic
debris inside mines including soot accumulations
(torches for lighting or fire-setting or fire-quenching)
for AMS-dating and a minimum age of mines.
Again, our best approach to reliable dating
appears to be multi-pronged and opportunistic.
3. Sicn Mining: Case Study at the Cerro
Blanco Mine
The Cerro Blanco mine deserves special at-
tention here for the insights it affords us on Sicn
mining (Shimada 1994a; Shimada etal. 1982). Our
understanding is most complete for this mine, which
is one of the largest we have documented so far in
the study area. The mine was also repeatedly worked
during the historic past, and even into the present on
a sporadic basis. This continuing activity is evidence
that the deposit was unusually rich and extensive.
Megascopic and microscopic examination of ore
samples collected at two prospecting pits and the
inferred principal pre-Hispanic working indicates
the presence of high-grade malachite, Cu2CO3(OH)2
as well as a variety of weathered but high-grade (up
to 25% concentration) copper sulfides, particularly
chalcopyrite, CuFeS2, and to a lesser extent, bornite,
Cu5FeS4, and arsenopyrite, FeAsS.
Together with the Cerro Mellizo and the Barranco
Colorado mines, Cerro Blanco was most likely one
of the principal ore sources for the nearby smelting
sites of Cerro Huaringa, Cerro Sajino, Huaca del
Pueblo Batn Grande (Figure11) for much of their
existence spanning the Middle Sicn period to the
time of the Spanish Conquest.
The Middle Sicn origin of the Cerro Blanco
mine is indicated not only by the initiation of the
copper-arsenic alloy smelting at Huaca del Pueblo
Batn Grande (Shimada 1985a,b; Shimada and
Merkel 1991) and most likely Cerro Huaringa, but
also by the presence of a petroglyph of the diagnostic
Sicn Deity face (Figure12) along the road (Road 1)
that connected the mine with the Co. H-S Complex.
This road was later improved as part of the system-
atization and expansion of metallurgical production
instituted at the Complex soon after Chim conquest
of the Sicn polity at the end of the 14th century

Figure11. Middle Sicn smelting workshop at Huaca del Pueblo Batn Grande showing three superimposed sets of smelters. Note
offerings placed near and atop the abandoned smelters. Looking northwest. Photo by Izumi Shimada.
El taller de fundicin Sicn Medio en el sitio de Huaca del Pueblo Batn Grande sealando los tres conjuntos superpuestos de
hornos de fundicin. Ntese las ofrendas puestas cerca y encima de los hornos abandonados. Mirando hacia el noroeste. Foto
de Izumi Shimada.
16 Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig

Figure12. Petroglyph of the Sicn Deity figure (his face measures roughly 18 cm wide and 10 cm high) on a boulder at the north
base of Cerro Blanco close to the ancient road connecting the mine and the Cerro Huaringa and the Cerro Sajino smelting sites.
Photo courtesy of Juan Carlos Santoyo.
El petroglifo representando el Dios Sicn (su cara mide aproximadamente 18 cm de ancho y 10 cm de altura) grabado en una
pea en la base norte de Cerro Blanco. Est ubicado cerca del camino antiguo que conecta la mina de Cerro Blanco por un lado
y los sitios de fundicin de Cerro Huaringa y Cerro Sajino. Foto cortesa de Juan Carlos Santoyo.

(Epstein and Shimada 1984). For much of its length,
the elevated road had stone-faced embankment and
was wide enough to accommodate llama caravans
(Shimada and Merkel 1991). In our 1979 survey of
the road, we found six whole Spondylus princeps
shells that had eroded out of embankments, clearly
attesting to the symbolic importance of the integrated
mine-metallurgical complex.
Ore extraction at the mine started at the dis-
covery-vein which radiated out from Cerro Blanco
with a vertical dip and strike of 90. Not a vestige
of mineralization remains in this narrow trench
(Figure 13) that slices through highly metamor-
phosed cherty limestones and shales now altered to
marbles, phyllites, and hornfels. This vein pinched
out at shallow depth and was abruptly terminated a
few meters within the adjacent hillside by a major
transverse fault and gouge zone, both of which were
also mineralized.
Sicn miners removed the ore, most likely to
have been malachite, from the 25x3x9m discovery
vein entirely by hand, leaving the cajas (barren
country rock walls) completely clean and undis-
turbed. A similar trench-like caja characterized the
nearby Cerro Barranco Colorado mine (Figure10).
Hanging wall surfaces are quite clean and geo-
metrically shaped surfaces are absent. There are
no indications that fire-quenching was employed
at either mine. Thus, we suspect that the vein and
ore material were deeply weathered and friable.
The discovery-vein trench was followed along
its length to the abrupt end created by a large
concentric fault roughly parallel to Cerro Blanco.
Prehistoric miners followed this new and even
larger vein, probably in both directions, although
only one side now remains relatively undisturbed
by later exploitation. Again, there is nothing to sug-
gest that they used any special tools or techniques
 The style, technology and organization of Sicn mining and metallurgy, northern Peru: insights from holistic study
Figure13. Trench left behind after removal of the discovery vein
at the Cerro Blanco mine. Looking east. Photo by Izumi Shimada.
Una zanja grande que result de la explotacin antigua de la
veta (discovery vein) en la mina de Cerro Blanco. Mirando
hacia el este. Foto de Izumi Shimada.
distinct from those found with the Copper Man
of Chuquicamata.
Inside prospecting pits and larger workings
at Cerro Blanco, we found roughly triangular and
oblong stones (17-22cm long, 9-13cm wide, and
3-6cm thick), resembling the hammers found
associated with the Copper Man (Bird 1979:114,
his Figure4). The battered apices of the triangular
stones and their heavy weight (around 0.5kg) sup-
port the notion that at least some of them served
as picks or hammers to crack or batter ores into
small pieces that could then be collected in bags or
baskets much as Copper Man did. Wedges, pegs,
and levers made of algarrobo (Prosopis pallida) or
other hardwood (palm tree heart?) and/or of hardened
copper arsenic alloys may have been employed to
pry loose larger ore fragments. We have, however,
no supportive physical evidence of their use other
than associated river cobbles that could have served
as hammers to drive them into ore bodies.
17
Today, the Cerro Blanco mine consists of three
levels developed along a concentric mineralized
vein, plunging at 41 toward the intrusive stock.
Several large stopes and winzes have been opened
in connection with these levels and it is doubtful
they represent pre-Hispanic workings. If Sicn and
other pre-Hispanic miners did, in fact, follow the
complex ore shoots, more recent exploitation have
obliterated traces of their efforts.
Identifying and estimating the quantity of ore
removed from the pre-Hispanic mines we have ex-
amined in the study area is a difficult task; at Cerro
Blanco, Cerro Mellizo and a few other mines, nothing
diagnostic was left behind to indicate the type and
richness of the ore they removed. Additionally, we
suspect that the bulk of relatively less accessible
ores that had remained at the mine was taken out
during historic times. At the same time, if we ar-
bitrarily assign a conservative mean grade of 3-4%
of copper oxide to the Cerro Blanco ore body, we
believe its copper production alone is sufficient to
account for much of the copper and copper alloy
artifacts curated in all museums on the Peruvian
coast with which we are familiar.
4. Characterizing Sicn and Late Pre-
Hispanic Mining in the Lambayeque Region
Based on our investigation of six pre-Hispanic
mines in the study area (Table2), we offer the fol-
lowing characterization of late pre-Hispanic mining
in the Lambayeque region:
1. Mining focused on ore deposits at or near the
surface, carefully following and thoroughly
removing them, leaving behind open pits that
matched exactly the shape of the original ore
body, regardless of size. Mine interior shape,
size, and orientation are generally irregular
or sinuous as dictated by the ore deposits that
were removed, a conclusion identical to that
reached by Craddock (1995:31) for the early
mines of Europe.
2. Mining targeted secondarily enriched, high-grade
oxide ore bodies, small and large (mostly in the
form of high-grade malachite (Cu2CO3[OH]2;
up to 25% copper in weight (Merkel et al.
1994) as well as arsenopyrite [FeAsS], and a
variety of weathered copper sulfides, chalco-
pyrite [CuFeS2)]) resulting in tailings that are
relatively small in size and volume. Weathered
arsenopyrite near the surface was noted at
 Table2. Location, available ores, and inferred dates of the pre-Hispanic mines in the study area that were located and examined by the I. Shimada, J. L. Suarez, and/or A. Craig.
Ubicacin, minerales disponibles, y fechas inferidas de las minas prehispnicas en la zona de nuestro estudio identificadas y revisadas por I. Shimada, J. L. Surez, y/o A. Craig.
Name Location
Cerro Blanco South of the modern town of Batn
Grande, mid-La Leche Valley;
63134.52S, 793829.46 W;
Elevation ca. 280-300 m.asl.
Cerro Mellizo South of the Cerro Blanco Mine;
63339.38S, 793934.74W;
Elevation ca. 420-480 m.asl.
Cerro Barranco Southwest of the modern town
Colorado of Batn Grande and the Cerro
Blanco Mine; 63416.11S,
794056.30W; Elevation ca.
310-328 m.asl. (Cerro peak) and
ca. 215-225 m.asl (north base of
the Cerro)
Cueva de Len Between Cerros Pelado and Pan
de Azcar on the north bank of
the mid-La Leche valley, ca. 7 km
northwest of the modern town of
Batn Grande
Quebrada de Agua South of the village of Pampa
Salada Grande near the south base of
Cerro Gentiles between the
Lambayeque and the Zaa valleys
Cerro La Plata At the base of Cerro El Alumbral
ca. 2.5 km northeast of the
village of Chumbenique - north
bank of the mid-Zaa Valley;
65143.07S, 792242.14W;
Elevation ca. 155-160 m.asl
Cerro Leque Leque Ca. 6.5 km due south of the town
of Nueva Arica on the south
bank of the mid-Zaa valley;
65550.31S, 791956.64W;
Elevation ca. 320 m.asl
Identified Ores
Malachite, chalcopyrite,
bornite, arsenopyrite
Malachite, arsenopyrite,
scorodite (ca. AD 1,000-1,532); modern
Malachite, arsenopyrite,
Malachite Prehispanic mining techniques;
Malachite, arsenopyrite
Malachite; The presence
of a a silver-bearing ore
that Luis Suarez (personal
communication, 1984)
reported has not been
confirmed
Malachite, arsenopyrite
Exploitation Span
Middle Sicn to Chim-Inka
(ca. AD 1,000-1,532); Colonial
and modern Cerro Sajino metallurgical complex to the north;
Middle Sicn to Chim-Inka
Cerro Condor [aka Cerro Portachuelo]; Associated
Sicn to Chim-Inka (ca. AD
1000?-1532); modern
No diagnostic ceramics
associated
Non-diagnostic plain redware
sherds present - Late pre-
Hispanic? and modern
Predominantly Sicn, Chim
and Chim-Inka (ca. AD
1,000?-1,532); may be as early
as Moche V
Sicn? Chim and Chim-Inka
(ca. AD 1,000?-1,532) and
modern
18
Comments
Mineralized by the Cretaceous intrusion called
Cerro Blanco; Supplied ores to the Cerro Huaringa-
Small scale mining continues today
Mineralized by the Cretaceous intrusion called
with a major four-level stone terrace complex with
standardized rooms; Small scale mining continues
today
Mineralized by the Cretaceous intrusion called
Cerro Condor [aka Cerro Portachuelo]; Pre-
Hispanic workings at the peak (ca. 100 m long
trench following a rich vein) and the north base
(over 30 open pits) of the Cerro
Mineralization resulting from a small Cretaceous
intrusion (Cerro Pan de Azcar); Relatively small
mine with a sinuous tunnel big enough for one
miner beyond the wide mouth
A steeply angled vein visible on both sides of the
narrow gorge in the upper reaches of the Quebrada;
Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig
the entrance to the principal working (north side)
blocked with stones and dirt; the south
working consists of an over 25 m-long sinuous
tunnel
Both open pits (up to 16 m long, 5.5 m long
and 3 m deep) and semi-subterranean mining;
workings linked by a walled pathway to a cluster of
standardized masonry rooms (ca. 5.3 m to a side;
no visible entrance - storerooms?)
Ancient workings (open pits and shallow vertical
shafts [piques]) at three levels of the north slope of
the Cerro
 The style, technology and organization of Sicn mining and metallurgy, northern Peru: insights from holistic study 19

various mines including Cerro Mellizo and structures adjacent to or near workings found at
Cerro Leque Leque (Zaa Valley; Fig. 2), while large mines (Barranco Colorado, Cerro Blanco,
chalcopyrite was available at Cerro Blanco. Cerro La Plata, and Cerro Mellizo) could have
3. Mines penetrated less than 10m in vertical depth provided short-term resting places for workers
(no definite stopes) and up to 100m horizontally and/or storage for mining and beneficiation
with discontinuous concentrations worked by equipment as well as extracted ores waiting
means of separate, shallow pits as at Cerro to be transported. These structures need to be
Barranco Colorado and Cerro La Plata. excavated to properly test the above inferences.
4. Well-developed roads (some with embankment, 10. Initial ore beneficiation was conducted near
wall borders and/or some pavement [including each mine, although it was minimized by the
use of sherds for the purpose]) that would have highly selective nature of their mining and use
accommodated llama caravans provided access of blunt tools that tended to crush or break up
to mines. ores into relatively small usable pieces (thus
5. Ore extraction relied on a limited range of el- leaving only small gangue piles and/or taluses).
ementary stone tools with triangular hammers 11. Final ore beneficiation was performed at smelt-
(perhaps hafted?) being the most essential as ing sites using batn-chungo sets (Figure14;
miners focused on weathered and friable (thus a large stable anvil and a heavy, companion
easily extractable) ore bodies. Distinctive peck rocking stone) that efficiently crushed ores into
marks were noted on wall faces at various mines. tiny pieces, facilitating quick hand and visual
Given that ore extraction did not require much sorting.
technical expertise once the target deposit was 12. Last - but by no means the least important was
identified, the task could have been performed the widespread symbolic importance of mines
by conscribed non-specialists, although it would
have been physically taxing wielding heavy
stone hammers.
6. We found no conclusive evidence of fire-setting
or fire-quenching (e.g., charcoal and ash on the
mine floor, heat-alterations on mine interiors,
and/or relatively smooth mine wall surfaces
resulting from the exfoliation of heat-fractured
layers) that would have facilitated extraction
by shattering and fracturing the exposed ore
bodies. Although the subsequent extraction
of the desired ore from areas affected by fire-
setting or fire-quenching may have removed
much of the above lines of evidence, we would
expect at least to find some easily identifiable
evidence. Yet, we did not find any.
7. Provisions for light, ventilation, drainage, and
safety were generally lacking, although the arid
conditions of the region minimized problems
of water seepage.
8. Torches may have been used for light as soot
was noted on the ceilings of some mines.
9. Evidence for a regular supply of provisions
including water, on-site food preparation, and
protective shelters for workers at mines is
scant. Given that the mines we located were
Figure14.A batn-chungo set used for crushing ores and slag
all within a days walk to at least one smelting at Sector III, Cerro Huaringa. Photo by Izumi Shimada.
site, mining may well have been conducted on a Un conjunto de batn y chungo utilizado para triturar minerales y
commuting basis. Simple rectangular masonry escoria en el Sector III, Cerro Huaringa. Foto de Izumi Shimada.
20 Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig
(mines as huacas or sacred places or entities)
or belief in the supernatural power of mines.
Offerings of mullus (e.g., Spondylus princeps)
placed at workings and along roads suggest
the sanctity of mines and extracted ores. The
aforementioned presence of the petroglyph
of the Sicn Deity at the north base of Cerro
Blanco (Fig. 11) is particularly noteworthy
is this regard. Ethnohistorical sources offer
strong support of the preceding view (Ramrez
1994:95-96).
Overall, Sicn and later pre-Hispanic metal
mining in the Lambayeque region of the north
coast of Peru was technically simple, labor
intensive, and focused on readily accessible
outcropped, weathered and enriched, high-grade
oxide, carbonate and sulfide ore bodies bearing
copper and arsenic (arsenopyrite and scorodite).
The Sicn opted for a spatially dispersed mining
pattern that exploited all accessible sources and
thus the scale (and perhaps intensity as well) of
mining varied according to the size and extent
of the ore body. As discussed below, our holistic
investigation of mines and associated smelting
sites has shown that Sicn copper-arsenic alloy
production was essentially autochthonous and
based on local ores supplied by mines of varied
size within a days walking distance.
Mining-Metallurgy as an Integrated System:
A Holistic Vision
1. Sicn copper-arsenic alloy production:
local ores and co-smelting
In the preceding sections, discussion about
dating mines, identifying extracted ores, the in-
tensity and organization of mining, and the roads
that interconnected specific mines and smelting
sites all illuminated the importance of coordinated
investigation (i.e., holistic approach) of both mines
and smelting sites to gain an overall understanding
of the system these constituted. Perhaps the most
instructive case demonstrating the value of the
holistic approach is its contribution toward resolv-
ing the nature of smelting charge used in the Sicn
metallurgy that produced copper arsenic alloys with
typical arsenic concentrations of 1 to 5% by weight.
It has been long debated whether pre-Hispanic
metallurgists successfully smelted sulfarsenide ores
such as arsenopyrite (FeAsS), orpiment (As2S3) and
realgar (AsS) by first roasting them to eliminate
sulfur to produce these alloys and, if so, the sources
of these ores (Caley 1973; Caley and Easby 1959;
Lechtman 1979, 1981, 1991, 1996; Lechtman and
Klein 1999). Caley (1973) interpreted the presence
of arsenic in Sicn objects as indirect evidence that
sulfide ores were being smelted. Lechtman (1979,
1991) argued that the idea of deliberately producing
this type of bronze on the north coast was a cultural
innovation introduced along with highland arsenic-
bearing ores at the time of the highland-based Wari
expansions around AD 600-850.
As noted earlier, however, some Moche ceremo-
nial and ornamental copper objects dating to as early
as AD 200-300 from Dos Cabezas and Moche in the
Jequetepeque and the Moche valleys, respectively
(Donnan etal. 2008; also see Kroeber 1954), contain
variable and generally low concentrations of arsenic,
raising the possibility that Moche metallurgists were
either unable to effectively control the alloy process
or produced copper-arsenic alloys unintentionally,
perhaps through co-smelting of copper oxide and
arsenic-containing sulfide (e.g., arsenopyrite;
emphasis added) ores (Bezr 2003; Rostoker and
Dvorak 1991; Lechtman and Klein 1999).
Pursuing rich outcropped copper oxide ores,
Moche and later Sicn miners may well have in-
advertently tapped into underlying sulfarsenide ore
bodies or nearby oxidized forms of arsenopyrite
(Bezr 2003). The preceding data and argument,
together with the absence of imported arsenic-
bearing ores such as realgar and orpiment at any of
the Sicn smelting sites we excavated or surveyed,
question the earlier argument of externally derived
sulfarsenide ores and smelting technology. Orpiment
and realgar are visually quite distinct and easily
recognizable, having a golden to orange-yellowish
and a reddish color, respectively.
To the contrary, our analyses of primary
context samples of ore and smelting products and
byproducts recovered at smelting sites such as
Huaca del Pueblo Batn Grande have shown that
copper-arsenic alloys were deliberately and locally
smelted and that arsenic was derived partially, if not
predominantly, from scorodite available at the large
Cerro Mellizo mine (Merkel etal. 1994; Shimada
and Merkel 1991) and quite likely at other mines in
the study area with weathered arsenopyrite. Given
that much of the eastern slope of Cerro Mellizo
was removed prehistorically in an extensive open
pit, we cannot disregard the possibility that large
 The style, technology and organization of Sicn mining and metallurgy, northern Peru: insights from holistic study
quantities of both copper oxide and scorodite ores
were extracted from this mine. The presence of
matte, a mixture of sulfides formed in smelting
sulfide ores, in direct association with smelters at
Huaca del Pueblo Batn Grande (Merkel etal. 1994)
further supports the aforementioned co-smelting.
Together with gradual improvements in the design
and construction of smelters and tuyeres (durable
ceramic blowtube tips) that we have documented
over the span of some 500 years from the beginning
of the Middle Sicn (Shimada and Merkel 1991), we
believe that, over the same time span, Sicn metal-
lurgists refined the nascent co-smelting technology
inherited from their earlier Moche counterparts.
2. Fire-setting and fuel management
The holistic approach also illuminated an
important issue that has not received much atten-
tion in Andean archaeometallurgy: namely, fuel
management and fire-setting. The latter involves
deliberately setting an intense, sustained fire against
the wall face and has been well documented in many
ancient European mines (e.g., Craddock 1992). The
intense heat causes the ore deposits to both expand
and contract as moisture within vaporizes, result-
ing in their fracture and shattering and facilitating
extraction.
We have not found, however, evidence of
its application in the study area. The occasional
patches of soot on the ceilings of workings we
detected appeared to have resulted from torches,
not fire-setting. Given that fire-setting would have
significantly facilitated mining, particularly with
primitive pre-Hispanic stone tools, why this method
was not utilized begs consideration. The holistic
approach points to the ecological exigencies of the
arid environment of our study area and its limited
fuel supplies as key considerations.
Our paleoethnobotanical and replicative ex-
perimental studies of fuels used in smelting and
metalworking clearly reveal careful management
of wood and charcoal.
Sicn copper-arsenic smelting was fuel and labor
intensive. Our smelting experiments necessitated
the continuous labor of three to four individuals
providing continuous draft into a small furnace
through narrow blowtubes with ceramic tuyeres for
roughly three hours to produce slag lumps weighing
ca. 700-800g with embedded prills (tiny metallic
pieces) (Shimada and Merkel 1991; Figures 15,
21
16). Approximately 30g of copper prills were hand-
retrieved after crushing the resultant slag lump with
a batn-chungo set. Each experiment used about
1kg of smelting charge prepared from finely ground
high-grade malachite ore from the Cerro Blanco
mine roughly 30% in copper concentration in weight
combined with an equal part of finely ground, local,
high-grade hematite (readily available in outcrops
west of Cerro Blanco) as flux, and about 6kg of high
quality charcoal prepared from a locally available
hardwood, algarrobo (Prosopis pallida). If we
consider that the furnace had to be preheated prior
to smelting and prills had to be further refined and
consolidated to produce ingots and preforms, then
each smelting workshop equipped with three to five
furnaces at Huaca del Pueblo Batn Grande, Cerro
Huaringa, Cerro Sajino and other sites could easily
have consumed over 30kg of charcoal each day.
Microscopic analysis of charcoal in ceramic
kilns, metalworking furnaces, and domestic hearths
that coexisted at the ceramic-smithing workshop
of Huaca Sialupe (Goldstein 2007; Goldstein and
Shimada 2007; Figure 17) further revealed that
desirable algarrobo charcoal was reserved for craft
production and that residual algarrobo charcoal
from ceramic kilns was recycled for working both
copper-arsenic and gold alloys. Long-lasting and
high-energy yielding algarrobo charcoal was clearly
the mainstay of smelting (at Huaca del Pueblo
Batn Grande, Cerro Huaringa, Cerro Sajino) and
metalworking (at Huaca Sialupe). Well-preserved
algarrobo charcoal pieces at the Sialupe workshop
that were examined had relatively small diameters
and beetle holes and galleries. Apparently, infested
and/or dying trees and branches as well as fallen
trunks and branches were maximized as fuel rather
than harvesting healthy trees.
In sum, our holistic approach points to careful,
sustainable utilization of wooden resources. In this
sense, the absence of fire-setting or fire-quenching
is not an enigma, but instead appears to have been
a rational decision that appropriately weighed the
ecological exigencies of the arid Lambayeque region
and attendant limitations of high quality wooden
fuel supplies and the cultural importance of metals.
3. The style, technology and organization
of sicn metallurgy
We end this paper with a brief discussion of the
organizational principles and cultural preferences
underlying Sicn mining and metallurgy.
22 Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig

Figure15. Replicating smelting experiment conducted at the Cerro Huaringa site using a well-preserved Chim-period smelter.
Photo by Izumi Shimada.
Una escena del experimento de fundicin realizado en el Sector III del sitio de Cerro Huaringa utilizando un horno de fundicin
muy bien conservado de la poca de la dominacin Chim (siglo XV). Foto de Izumi Shimada.

Figure16. Slag with entrapped prills that resulted from our replicative smelting experiment shown in Figure14. Photo by Izumi
Shimada.
El trozo de escoria con gotas metlicas (prills) entrampadas de distintos colores que result de nuestro experimento de fundicin
ilustrado en Figura 14. Foto de Izumi Shimada.
 The style, technology and organization of Sicn mining and metallurgy, northern Peru: insights from holistic study 23

W2

Fe21-
Fe10-'01 '01
Fe20-'01
broken urn

Fe12-'01
Hearth
1
Fe8-'01
Fe14-
Fe9-'01 '01
Hearth
2

Fe18-
Fe60 Fe19-'01 '01
U4
Fe59
U3

Fe58
U1

Fe70
U2

Fe71

HUACA SIALUPE, MOUND II

N
0 250
ash, charcoal, and/or
burnt soil
cm
quincha wall

Figure17. A group of Middle Sicn metalworking furnaces (identified by Fe) excavated at the east end of the Huaca Sialupe
workshop. Drawing by Izumi Shimada.
Un grupo de hornos de metalistera (identificados por Fe) excavados en el margen este del taller en Huaca Sialupe. Dibujado
por Izumi Shimada.

Over the course of the 34 years of the Sicn
Archaeological Project, we have excavated four
and identified three additional Sicn smelting sites
(Figure2), most in relative proximity to a mine with
high-grade copper oxide and arsenic-bearing ores.
As noted earlier, the Ynalche Project directed by
Frances Hayashida (2009) documented two defi-
nite Sicn smelting sites and tentatively identified
an additional four within Pampa de Chaparr. The
multiplicity of smelting sites and mines points to
task redundancy on a regional level (emphasis
added; Bezr 2003:130) or what Shimada (1994a,
2001; Shimada and Merkel 1991; Shimada and
Wagner 2007) has termed modular organization
that crosscut a variety of Sicn productive activities
ranging from corporate architectural construction
to craft production.
At Cerro Huaringa and nearby Cerro Sajino,
copper-arsenic smelting was carried out at a series
of contiguously built workshops with similar dimen-
sions, organization and equipment, each equipped
with a row of smelting furnaces, one to three
24 Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig

batn-chungo sets, a charcoal storage pit, and at least
one large storage urn that probably kept water for
workers (Epstein 1993; Epstein and Shimada 1984;
Figure18). This general technological homogeneity
and organizational redundancy did not eliminate
variation among workshops. For example, the number
of furnaces (and presumably workers) in each work-
shop varied from 3 to 5. During the Middle and Late
Sicn periods, tuyeres were distinctly decorated and
made with pastes prepared with ground glassy slag
as a temper, suggesting the self-sufficient character
of these workshops (emphasis added; Shimada and
Merkel 1991). In general, prior to the establishment
of the administrative control of production by the
intrusive Chim state starting from the end of the
14th century (Epstein 1993; Epstein and Shimada
1984), there is little evidence of standardization or
streamlining of production (Bezr 2003; Shimada
and Merkel 1991). During the earlier Sicn peri-
ods, each workshop had a good deal of autonomy
in their daily productive activities resulting in an
appreciable amount of product variability among
workshops (emphasis added).
Essentially the same picture of organizational
and productive redundancy and autonomy emerged
at the Middle Sicn ceramic and metalworking
(copper-arsenic alloys and gold alloys) site of Huaca
Sialupe (Figure2). Potters of inferred Moche eth-
nicity independently produced basically the same
array of mold-made ceramics of similar quality and
finish in contiguous but discrete rooms (Klaus 2003;
Shimada and Wagner 2007; Taylor 2002). They
produced vessels of Sicn and persistent Moche
styles concurrently at the workshop. The use of
molds assured that the same forms and images
were produced efficiently at the level of individual
potter or group of potters, but neither streamlined
production nor standardized products at the site
level (Shimada and Wagner 2007); in other words,
the specific chine opratoire and the number of
molds used to produce them differed just as did their
decoration in minor details. Formed ceramic vessels
were then fired in small batches using small kilns
that varied in size and shape but were placed close
to each other in a large open, well-ventilated area.
Highly efficient, natural draft-based metalworking

Figure18. A Late Sicn smelting workshop at Cerro Huaringa Sector III. Note a row of smelting furnaces in foreground and three
well-worn batanes. Photo by Izumi Shimada.
Un taller de fundicin del perodo Sicn Tardo en el Sector III, Cerro Huaringa. Ntese una hilera de hornos de fundicin en
primer plano y tres batanes bastante desgastados. Foto de Izumi Shimada.
 The style, technology and organization of Sicn mining and metallurgy, northern Peru: insights from holistic study 25

PLAN OF THE RECONSTRUCTED,

INVERTED PORRON FURNACE
OUTER EDGE OF
SHERD
THE PORRON
WING

ADOBE

DIRECTION OF
PREVAILING WIND

SHERD SHERD

WING

DRAFT HOLE

MUD MORTAR

0 10 20
CENTIMETERS

VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH THE

RECONSTRUCTED, INVERTED
PORRON FURNACE
TOP OPENING

ADOBE BRICK
AND MUD
INSULATION
"WING" WALL FLANKING THE
DRAFT HOLE

DRAFT
HOLE
GROUND
SURFACE
CHARCOAL

PORRON
(INVERTED
URN)

0 10 20
CENTIMETERS SHERD LINING

Figure19. Construction of a Middle Sicn metalworking furnace built with a well-insulated, inverted ceramic urn excavated at
Huaca Sialupe. Drawing by Izumi Shimada.
Diferentes vistas de un horno de metalistera Sicn Medio construido con una botija grande invertida y bien aislado encontrado
en el taller de Huaca Sialupe. Dibujo de Izumi Shimada.

furnaces (Figure19) that varied in size and construc-
tion details were similarly organized in a distinct
area of this site (Shimada etal. 2007; Shimada and
Wagner 2007; see Figure17).
In essence, the same redundant, modular ap-
proach was employed for both ceramic production
and metalworking throughout their respective
chine opratoire (Figure20). Only in a general
sense (emphasis added) can we speak of standard-
ized products.
These examples show the clear preference for
relatively small-scale production units that, while
26 Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig

Figure20. Chine opratoire of the Sicn metallurgical process. Drawing by Izumi Shimada and Steve Mueller.
Chine opratoire (secuencia de operacin) del proceso metalrgico Sicn. Dibujo de Izumi Shimada y Steve Mueller.
 The style, technology and organization of Sicn mining and metallurgy, northern Peru: insights from holistic study
sharing basic technology and achieving equivalent
or similar outputs, enjoyed a good degree of techni-
cal, artistic and perhaps even political, autonomy.
This modular approach to productive activities had
characterized the preceding Late Moche society as
well (Shimada 2001).
The existence of multiple smelting centers each
in close proximity to at least one mine clearly points
to the considerable economic and political importance
of copper-arsenic alloy production. At the same time,
we do not see the overriding concern for productive
efficiency at either individual sites or the regional
level that one might expect during the Sicn periods.
We argue that this situation reflects the multi-ethnic
composition of Sicn society in which a local ethnic
Moche population constituted the primary labor
force administered by the ethnic Sicn elites. This
multi-ethnicity and attendant social inequality have
been documented by multiple independent lines of
evidence - iconographic representations, genetic
variation and patterns elucidated by biodistance and
mitochondrial DNA analyses, paleo-mobility and
dietary data from stable isotope analyses (strontium,
oxygen, carbon and nitrogen), and differences in
mortuary practices and health status, among others
(Klaus etal. 2011; Shimada 2009; Shimada etal.
2004). For the Sicn polity, preserving the existing
ethnic/kinship-based social fabric and groups, each
with its own functioning political and administrative
setups would have minimized both potential social
and political conflicts among the subject popula-
tions and investment of administrative personnel
and resources, while gaining a desired quantity of
workable/acceptable (as opposed to highly standard-
ized and refined) products. Ethnic Moche workers
would have retained a sense of social autonomy and
identity, at the same time, effectively preserving
the technical knowledge, skills and style that they
inherited from their own renowned predecessors.
One wonders if the inferred organization and ac-
companying mindset or psychology contributed to
the strong temporal continuity and conservatism of
Sicn mining and metallurgy.
27
Conclusion
The subject of pre-Hispanic metal mining has
remained under-studied and under-appreciated. To
advance and attract a wider range of researchers
to the subject, it is critical that mining and metal-
lurgy be investigated as an integrated process and
system and that its behavioral, social and ideologi-
cal significance be explored in depth. The holistic
approach we advocate is an ambitious undertaking
that entails a regional, multi-site perspective and
long-term, interdisciplinary collaboration in and
out of the field focusing on both production and
use contexts. We hope we were able to illustrate in
this paper that such investment of time and effort is,
indeed, worthwhile as it generates valuable insights
and reveals varied and important connections among
different facets and phases of the integrated process
of mining and metallurgy.
Acknowledgements: This paper presented
salient findings and insights gained on Sicn ar-
chaeometallurgy over the course of more than three
decades of investigation by the Sicn Archaeological
Project under the direction of I. Shimada. For their
generous support of our research, we thank the
Committee for Research and Exploration of the
National Geographic Society, the National Science
Foundation, the Tokyo Broadcasting System, the
Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological
Research, and the Heinz Family Foundation. Many
Project members contributed to our archaeometal-
lurgical research; in particular, we are grateful to
Aniko Bzur, Stephen M. Epstein, John F. Merkel,
Juan Carlos Santoyo, and Jos Luis Suarez. Melody
J. Shimada provided valuable editorial critique on an
earlier and this version of our paper. Lastly, we also
thank the members of the organizing committee of
the Primera Reunin Internacional sobre Minera
Prehispnica en Amrica for inviting us to present
an earlier draft this paper.
28 Izumi Shimada and Alan K. Craig
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