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IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg.
, Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
DESIGN OF CABLE STAYED

RAILWAY BRIDGE
S ARATH BABU J,ROLL NO:137K1D8716
M-TECH S TRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
DJR COLLEGE OF ENGIN EERING &TECHNOLOGY
UNDER THE GUIDENC E OF
L.NAGARAJA (PH.D)
ABS TRACT
A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles

transfer the forces effectively. The scour depth is
such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose
calculated in order to calculate the depth of the pile
of providing passage over the obstacle. Designs of
foundation adopted. The bore hole log and the soil
bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge, the
characteristics at different depths are studied before
nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed; the
material used to make it and the funds available to build determining the bearing capacity and type of foundation.
it. Bridge building is a complex art and science and A cost estimate is made considering the material costs as
involves extensive knowledge, skill and expertise. It is well as the construction costs. Finally the advantages of a
engineering in itself. Among the various kinds of cable stayed bridge for longer spans over other kinds of
bridges existing cable stayed bridges are found to be bridges are discussed.
highly economical and have great aesthetic appeal. These
are the preferred bridges for long spans in the recent It is found that cable stayed bridges have the following
days. Cable stayed bridges are easy to construct and advantages:
maintain. The history of bridges, bridge components and

1) Greater stiffness than the suspension bridge,
bridge terminology has been clearly discussed. General
so that deformations of the deck under live
steps involved in any bridge construction are mentioned.
loads are reduced.
A brief literature report of cable stayed bridges is also
2) Can be constructed by cantilevering out from
presented.
the tower - the cables act both as temporary
In this report we designed a cable stayed railway and permanent supports to the bridge deck.
bridge on River Gauthami between Yanam and 3) It is very economical and has a huge aesthetic
Yedurlanka. The various survey data has been collected appeal especially if very long spans are
and thoroughly analyzed before proceeding to the design involved.
of the bridge. A drawing of the alignment is also shown 1.1. INTRODUCTION
in this report. The catchment area maps have been
studied before determining the hydrographical Bridges are defined as structures, which provide a
particulars. The bridge is designed as per the IRS code connection or passage over a gap without blocking the
for M BG two tracks. Two plate girders are used and truss opening or passageway beneath. They can be over
shaped cross girders are placed at suitable spacing. Steel streams, canals and rivers, creeks and valleys or roads
pylons and cables are designed to support the deck and and railways passing beneath. These days bridges are
also being constructed over oceans to connect two or
more islands. The structure can be for passage/ carriage
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 1
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
of persons, cattle, vehicles, water or other materials scientific dimension helps the engineer in evolving
carried across in pipes or conveyers. Bridges are a civil efficient structures.
engineering creation that holds enormous appeal and
Bridges are built for improving the mobility of people
fascination to the people. Bridge building is as old as
and enhancing the quality of life of the society. Such man
civil engineering. The design of bridges depends on
made structures may have some adverse effects on the
various factors like function of the bridge, the nature of
environment. Therefore bridges should satisfy both the
the terrain where the bridge is constructed, the material
immediate and future demands of mobility and also be
used to make it and the funds available to build it etc
acceptable to people in terms of visibility, noise and
The concept of bridge building came into existence pollution during and after construction. As construction
with the felling of wooden logs across small streams due of bridges is a public welfare program, the society has to
to natural forces. With the growth of civilizations, the pay for the cost of the structure in the form of taxes and
need for travel impelled mankind to find ways and means tolls. These aspects form the social dimension of any
of bridging gaps over deep gorges and perennial streams, project.
for walking across. Owing to the above fact timber can
Technological dimension deals with the major
be considered as the earliest material to be used for
technological developments in evolution in different
bridging. This has been followed by bridges built with
forms of structures, materials of construction, design and
stone and then of brick, used by themselves or in
construction techniques and also machinery and plants
combination with timber. Such bridges however have
used for construction. Technology played a vital role in
been possible only for short spans. But with the
finding and refining a number of alternative materials for
development of steel and iron as construction materials
use in bridge building, like bricks, cast iron, wrought
bridge engineering has also expanded its horizons to span
iron, steel, cement etc Because of such technological
longer distances.
research and advances bridges of longer spans at
Design of a bridge is an art involving immense challenging locations have become possible. A
knowledge, skill and experience. It is a highly tedious job technological development in the design and manufacture
which requires through expertise in all branches of civil of vehicles has also led to a need to increase the strength
engineering like surveying, transportation, structural and geometrical requirements of the bridges bein g built
engineering, geotechnical engineering material science as well as their standards of maintenance.
etc There are three dimensions involved in the
However for a structural engineer, the scientific
planning of huge structures which are designed for a
dimension is of primary importance, but it is also
period of 50 to 100 years. They are:
necessary to balance the other two dimensions before,
1) Scientific dimension during and after construction of the structure. It is the
2) Social dimension responsibility of a structural engineer to evolve a form of
3) Technological dimension structure which is socially acceptable and at the same
time results in an economic, durable and efficient
product. For this he/she has to make use of the
Scientific dimension implies that every structure has
technological developments in an optimal manner.
to perform in accordance with laws of nature. These laws
of nature are interpreted by scientists as formulas Some of the famous bridges in the world are listed
containing relationships between various basic elements, below:
and engineers make use of such pre existing formulas
1) Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco (Fig 1)
to design the structures. Though the method of analysis
2) M illau Bridge, France
may differ depending on the structure and practice the
3) Tower Bridge, London
ultimate concept of design remains the same. The
4) Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan (Fig 3)
5) Sydney Harbor Bridge, Australia 6) Cable stayed bridges

6) Brooklyn Bridge, New York
Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end
7) Howrah Bridge, India (Fig 2)
by abutments, hence their structural name of simply
8) Chapel Bridge, Switzerland
supported. A beam bridge carries vertical loads by
9) Godavari Bridge, India
flexure.
10) Antioch Bridge, U SA
11) Royal Victoria Dock Bridge, London A truss bridge is a bridge composed of connected
elements (typically straight) which may be stressed
from tension, compression, or sometimes both in
response to dynamic loads. The truss bridge of simple
span behaves like a beam because it carries vertical loads
by bending. The top chords are in compression, and the
bottom chords are in tension, while the vertical and
diagonal members are either in tension or compression
depending on their orientation.
Loads are carried primarily in compression by the

arch bridge, with the reactions at the supports (springing)
Fig. 1 Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco Fig. 2 being both vertical and horizontal forces.
Howrah Bridge, Calcutta
A cantilever bridge generally consists of three spans,
of which the outer spans, known as anchor spans, are
anchored down to the shore, and these cantilever over the
channel. A suspended span is rested at the ends of the
two cantilevers, and acts as a simply supported beam or
truss. The cantilevers carry their loads by tension in the
upper chords and compression in the lower chords.
A suspension bridge carries vertical loads from the

deck through curved cables in tension. These loads are
transferred to the ground through towers and through
anchorages.
In cable stayed bridge, the vertical loads on the deck

are carried by the nearly straight inclined cables which
are in tension. The towers transfer the cable forces to the
Fig. 3 Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan
foundation through vertical compression. The tensile
forces in the stay cables induce horizontal compression in
1.2. BAS IC BRIDGE FORMS
the deck.
There are six basic forms of bridge structures:
1.3. BRIDGE COMPONENTS
1) Beam bridges
2) Truss bridges The main components of a bridge structure are:
3) Arch bridges
1) Decking, consisting of deck slab, girders,
4) Cantilever bridges
trusses, etc.;
5) Suspension bridges
2) Bearings for the decking;
3) Abutments and piers;

4) Foundations for the abutments and the piers:
5) River training works, like revetment for
slopes for embankments at abutments, and
aprons at river bed level;
6) Approaches to the bridge to connect the
bridge proper to the roads on either side; and
7) Handrails, parapets and guard stones.
Some of the components of a typical bridge are shown in

the figure below:
Fig. 5 Parts of Bridge
SUPERSTRUCTURE
The superstructure consists of the components that

actually span the obstacle the bridge is intended to cross
Fig. 4 Components of a typical bridge and includes the following:
1) Bridge deck
2) Structural members
The components above the level of bearings are
3) Parapets (bridge railings), handrails,
grouped as superstructure, while the parts below the
sidewalk, lighting and some drainage features
bearing level are classed as substructure. The portion
The top surface of a bridge which carries the traffic is
below the bed level of a river bridge is called the
called deck. The deck is the roadway portion of a bridge,
foundation. The components below the bearing and
including shoulders. M ost bridge decks are constructed
above the foundation are often referred as substructure.
as reinforced concrete slabs, but timber decks are
occasionally used in rural areas and open-grid steel decks
1.4. BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY
are used in some movable bridge designs (Bascule
An important first step in understanding the Bridge). As polymers and fibre technologies are
principles and processes of bridge construction is improving in the recent days, Fibre Reinforced Polymer
learning basic bridge terminology. Although bridges vary (FRP) decks are also being used these days. Bridge decks
widely in material and design, there are many are required to conform to the grade of the approach
components that are common to all bridges. In general, roadway so that there is no bump or dip as a vehicle
these components may be classified either as p arts of a crosses onto or off of the bridge.
bridge superstructure or as parts of a bridge substructure.
The most common causes of premature deck failure are:
1) Insufficient concrete strength from an structural strength of a bridge, but are important aesthetic
improper mix design, too much water, and safety items. The materials and workmanship that go
improper amounts of air entraining into the construction of these features require the same
admixtures, segregation, or improper curing. inspection effort as any other phase of the work.
2) Improper concrete placement, such as failure
to consolidate the mix as the concrete is
placed, pouring the concrete so slowly that
SUBSTRUCTURE
the concrete begins the initial set, or not
maintaining a placement rate in accordance. The substructure consists of all of the parts that support
3) Insufficient concrete cover due to improper the superstructure. The main components are:
screed settings or incorrect installation of the
1) Abutments or end-bents,
deck forms and/or reinforcement
2) Piers or interior bents,
3) Footings
A bridge deck is usually supported by structural 4) Piling.
members. The most common types are:
Abutments support the extreme ends of the bridge and
1) Steel I-beams and girders confine the approach embankment, allowing the
2) Pre - cast, pre - stressed, reinforced concrete embankment to be built up to grade with the planned
bulb T beams bridge deck. When a bridge is too long to be supported
3) Pre - cast, pre - stressed, reinforced concrete I by abutments alone, piers or interior bents are built to
beams provide intermediate support. Although the terms may be
4) Pre - cast, pre - stressed, concrete box beams used interchangeably, a pier generally is built as a solid
5) Reinforced concrete slabs
wall, while bents are usually built with columns.
The top part of abutments, piers, and bents is called

the cap. The structural members rest on raised, pedestal-
like areas on top of the cap called the bridge seats. The
devices that are used to connect the structural members
to the bridge seats are called shoes or bearings.
Abutments, bents, and piers are typically built on spread
footings. Spread footings are large blocks of reinforced
concrete that provide a solid base for the substructure and
anchor the substructure against lateral movements.
Footings also serve to transmit loads borne by the
substructure to the underlying foundation material.
Fig. 6 Bridge Deck
When the soils beneath a footing are not capable of

Secondary members called diaphragms are used as supporting the weight of the structure above the soil,
cross-braces between the main structural members and bearing failure occurs. The foundation shifts or sinks
are also part of the superstructure. Bracing that spans under the load, causing structure movement and damage.
between the main beams or girders of a bridge or viaduct In areas where bearing failure is likely, footings are built
and assists in the distribution of loads is called on foundation piling. These load bearing members are
diaphragm. driven deep into the ground at footing locations to
Parapets (bridge railings); handrails, sidewalks, stabilize the footing foundation. Piling transmits loads
lighting, and drainage features have little to do with the
from the substructure units down to underlying layers of Simple S pan: A span in which the effective length is the
soil or rock. same as the length of the spanning structure. The
spanning superstructure extends from one vertical
support, abutment or pier, to another, without crossing
over an intermediate support or creating a cantilever.
Continuous S pan: A superstructure which extends as

one piece over multiple supports is called a continuous
span.
Cantilever S pan: A cantilever span is a span which

projects beyond a supporting column or wall and is
counterbalanced and/or supported at only one end.
Fig. 7 Abutment Types
SPANS AND SPAN LENGTH
The terms bridge and span are used interchangeable;

however, to avoid confusion and misunderstanding,
Technicians and construction personnel draw a
distinction between the two.
A bridge is made up of one or more spans. A span is a

Fig. 8 Types of Spans
segment of a bridge that crosses from one substructure
unit to the next, from abutment to abutment, from 2. THERITIC AL AS PECTS
abutment to pier, from pier to pier, or from pier to
2.1. HIS TORY OF BRIDGES
abutment. Span length refers to either the length of any
individual span within the structure or to the total bridge The history of development of bridge construction is
length. In most cases, span lengths are considered as the closely linked with the history of human civilization. The
distance between centrelines of bearing from one
efficiency and sophistication of design and the ingenious
substructure unit to the next. construction procedures kept pace with the advances in
science, materials and technology. Since ancient times,
The three basic types of spans are shown below. Any of
bridges have been the most visible testimony to the
these spans may be constructed using beams, girders or
contribution of engineers. Bridges have always figured
trusses.
prominently in human history . Nature fashioned the first
bridges. The tree fallen accidentally across a stream was Tianjin and a railway bridge at high altitude on their
the earliest example of a beam type bridge. Similarly, the recently opened rail link to Tibet.
natural rock arch formed by erosion of the loose soil
In the medieval times church has greatly influenced
below and the creepers hanging from tree to tree
bridge building. All the bridges in this age have been
allowing monkeys to cross from one bank to the other
built with stone, brick masonry and timber using
were the earliest forebears of the arch and the suspension
empirical methods for design. A typical example is the
bridges, respectively. The primitive man imitated nature
first London Bridge built by Peter of Colechurch in 1176
and learnt to build beam and suspension bridges.
1209 AD. This was masonry with 19 pointed masonry
The earliest reference to a man made bridge goes as far arches on piers, none of them with same dimensions.
as 3306 BC, an 1100 m long wooden bridge built in Wittengen Bridge built in 1758 in Germany was the
England. The oldest bridge still standing is a stone slab longest timber bridge in Europe with a span of 119 m in
pedestrian bridge across river M eles in Smyrna, Turkey those days.
said to be 2500 years old. Swiss were the pioneers of
It was during Renaissance period that the concept of
timber bridges, specially using trestle form. In known
bridge building based on scientific basis came into
history, the Chinese appear to be the earliest to build
existence. The truss system based on the principle of
stone bridges. Romans are believed to have built bridges
triangles, which cannot be deformed, was developed.
and aqueducts for carriage of water before even the start
Andrea Pallaido (1508 1580 AD), evolved several truss
of the first millennium. Romans are also credited to have
forms, including the king post type. Verrazino (1615)
used timber pile bents for foundation and piers as early as
had written about roads, machines, water wheels, bridges
95 BC. Queen Nitocrin built a bridge in stone piers and
including masonry arches with use of pre - stressing rods,
wooden deck in about 780 BC. Iron and lead were used
as well as suspension bridges and the use of iron bars for
in this bridge to bind the stones together. Gordon River
suspension bridges. First metal bridge was
Bridge built in 13 BC in France was a masonry aqueduct
Coalbrookdale Bridge built in cast iron in the year 1776.
49 m high, with three rows of superposed arches.
James was the person who patented suspension bridge
Etruscans are believed to have used vaults for bridge
form and built some with steel chains. French Engineer
construction as early as 600 BC. Europe is considered to
Vicat invented the aerial spun cables for suspension. This
be one of the birthplaces of bridge design and
type has become the major form for building longer and
technology. Therefore it may also be said that they must
longer spans today.
have been the earliest to develop bridge building as a
technique. The industrial revolution ushered in the use of iron in
bridges in place of stone and timber. The first iron bridge
Gradually the Roman Bridge building art spread to
was built at Coalbrookdale in 1779 over the Severn in
M iddle East as far as India. M acro Polo is said to have
England by Abraham Darby and John Wilkinson. It
remarked Indian cultures adopted their own tools under
consisted of five semicircular arch ribs in cast iron,
this influence for bridge building and further developed
joined together side by side to form a single arch span of
suspension bridges. Indians have built suspension
30 m. The construction details of Iron Bridge followed
bridges with use of ropes for suspension and bamboo and
the spirit of timber and masonry construction practices.
timber planks for decks in the hilly regions from early
Wrought iron replaced cast iron in bridge construction
days. They are also credited to have built cantilever type
during the period 1880 90. Wrought iron was ductile,
of bridges laying stone slabs one over the other in a
malleable and strong in tension. In 1808, James Finley in
progressive manner to bridge gaps, but have kept no
Pennsylvania patented a design for suspension bridge
records. Russians used timber as main bridge building
with wrought iron chain cables and level floor. Wrought
material until the end of 15th century. China has built
iron chains were used for a suspension bridge built by
some notable bridges using tied arch form and cable
Thomas Telford across the M enai Straits in Wales in
stayed bridges. Two elegant examples are Dagu Bridge at
1826 with a record breaking span of 177 m. The M enai plates of the structure was rebuilt. The Howrah Bridge
Straits Bridge was the worlds first iron suspension over the Hooghly River at Kolkata, built in 1943 with a
bridge for vehicles and also the worlds first iron main span of 457 m, has elegant aesthetics and possesses
suspension bridge over sea water. Japanese also built iron pleasing proportions among the suspended span,
bridges in the same period. The longest cable suspension cantilever arms and anchor spans. It was a notable
bridge, Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, with a record span of achievement at the time of construction. Developments in
1991 m was built by them. Germany was the first to welding technology and precision gas cutting techniques
introduce the concept of cantilever construction in the in the post Second World War period facilitated the
modern days and incremental launching of concrete economical fabrication of monolithic structural steel box
decks, as well as the modern form of cable stayed girders characterized by the use of thin stiffened plates
bridges. and the closed form of cross section.
Though steel is said to have been known in China by 200 Franklin D. Roosevelt once said there can be little
BC and in India by 500 BC, its widespread use doubt that in many ways the story of bridge building is
materialized only in the latter half of nineteenth century the story of civilization. By it, we can readily measure a
after the discovery of the Bessemer process in 1856. Eads progress I each particular country. Based on this saying,
Bridge at St. Louis was the first bridge to be built with the Indian civilization being one of the oldest, must have
extensive use of steel, as early as 1874. Firth of Forth built bridges well before Christian era. According to
Railway Bridge in Scotland followed suit, with use of records of Chinese travelers on Indian history, India
tubular steel sections for main girders and columns. This appears to have had a number of bridges. Firoze Shah
design had been appreciated for the bold attempt made to who ruled in Delhi is said to have built canals and
span such lengths and shaping the structure so as to bridges. One can still see some old masonry arch bridges
follow clearly the force lines and giving an elegant look built by the Portuguese in 16th or 17 th century in Goa.
th th
for a viewer. Trend in 18 and 19 centuries for longer One old bridge still in use is the stone slab bridge across
span bridges especially in USA tended towards cable River Cauvery at Srirangapatnam built by Tipu Sultan.
stayed suspension bridges. The Golden Gate Bridge in India also has a number of old masonry and stone arch
San Francisco, built in 1973 is the most famous of this bridges built in the middle of the 19 th century on the
type. Use of wrought iron and steel as basic materials Railways, which bear testimony to the skill of the local
instead of masonry and timber has revolutionized bridge people in bridge construction. The British who built the
building for many centuries till the arrival of pre - railways have brought the steel bridge girders and their
stressed concrete. The first Portland cement concrete designs form UK, but they depended on the local skills
bridge to be built was the Grand M aitre Aqueduct across and expertise to build the others. Structural forms and
River Vane in France built in 1867 1874. France is also designs for longer spans also appear to have come from
the birthplace of pre - stressed concrete, which is the the British. The technical knowledge within the country
major form of bridge superstructures all over the world has since kept pace with the developments abroad. The
today either by itself or in combination with steel. use of reinforced concrete for road bridges has become
popular in India since the beginning of the twentieth
The worlds first modern cantilever bridge was built in
century. The bridge types adopted include simply
1867 by Heinrich Gerber across the river M ain at
supported slabs, simply supported T beam span,
Hassfurt, Germany, with a main span of 129 m. The
balanced cantilever with suspended spans, arch and bow
worlds most famous cantilever bridge is the Firth of
string girder and continuous or framed structures. The
Forth Bridge in Scotland. The worlds longest span
Third Godavari Railway Bridge built in 1996 with 28
cantilever bridge was built in 1917 at Quebec, over St.
spans of 97.5 m is a recent example of elegant concrete
Lawrence River, with a main span of 549 m. The first
bowstring girder bridges.
attempt to construct this bridge ended in failure due to
miscalculation of the dead load and buckling of the web
A number of cable stayed bridges have been built in

India in the past two decades, the major one being the
VidhyasagarSethu across Hooghly at Kolkata and the
Naini Bridge on River Jamuna at Allahabad. The
railways are building a number of major bridges
including a large steel arch bridge in Jammu and
Kashmir. The Border Roads Organization has erected a
cable stayed bridge using Bailey bridge girders in early
part of this millennium, which bridge is claimed to be
only bridge of the type at highest altitude in the world at
the time of construction.
Fig. 10 Godavari Bridge, India (Steel Arch Bridge)
2.2. CLAS S IFICATION OF BRIDGES
Bridge may be classified into different types depending

on various factors as listed below:
Function: Based on the purpose for which a

bridge is constructed it may be classified as
follows
Foot
Road
Railway
Road cum rail
Pipe line
Fig. 9 M illennium Bridge, London (Steel Suspension
Water conveying
Bridge)
(aqueduct)
Jetty
Material: Based on the material used for

construction bridges may be divided into the
following type
Stone
Brick
Timber
Steel
Concrete
Composite
Aluminium
Fibre
Road over
Road under (subway)
Flyover (road over road)
Form: Based on the form of the superstructure

bridges may be classified as
With respect to connections: The joints used
Beam
in the bridge greatly affect the functioning and
Arch
analysis of bridge and based on this they may
Truss
be classified as
Suspension
Pin jointed
Cable stayed
Riveted/ bolted
Cantilever
Welded
Type of support: Bridges are also classified

Temporary Bridges: There are also many
based on the type of the structure it is
types of temporary bridges.
supported with
Pontoon
Simply supported
Bailey
Continuous
Callender Hamilton
Cantilever
Position of floor/ deck: The deck plays an
important role in classification of bridges.
Deck
Through
Semi through
Usage: The time period for which a particular

bridge is used also aids in division of bridges
into different types.
Temporary
Permanent
Service (Army)
Fig. 11 Through Type Bridge

With respect to water level: They are
classified as follows
Causeway
Submersible
High level (normal case)
Grade separators: The purpose of separation

classifies bridges as
2.3 CABLE S TAYED BRIDGES
A cable stayed bridge is a bridge whose deck is

suspended by multiple cables that run down to the main
girder from one or more towers .The cable stayed bridge
is specially suited in the span range of 200 to 900 m and
thus provides a transition between the continuous box
girder bridge and the stiffened suspension bridge .It was
developed in Germany in the post war years in an effort
to save steel which was then in short supply. Since then
Fig. 12 Simply Supported Bridge
many cable stayed bridges have been built all over the
world, chiefly because they are economical over a wide
range of span lengths and they are aesthetically attractive
.The wide application of the cable stayed bridge has been
greatly facilitated in recent years by the availability of
high strength steels, the adoption of orthotropic decks
using advanced welding techniques and the use of
electronic computers in conjunction with rigorous
structural analysis of highly indeterminate structures. The
beauty and visibility of a cable stayed bridge at night can
be enhanced by innovative lighting schemes .The early
cable stayed bridges were mainly constructed using steel
for stay cables, Deck and towers. In some of the recent
Fig. 13 Temporary Bridge
constructions, the deck and towers have been constructed
in structural concrete or a combination of steel and
concrete.
Year Bridge Location M ain Deck
Span M aterial
The Stromsund Bridge in Sweden, built in 1957 with
(m)
a main span of 183 m, and the Dusseldorf North Bridge
1999 Tatara Kamiura, 890 Steel
built in 1958 with a span of 260 m are early examples of
Japan
cable stayed bridges. Another well known bridge in
1994 Normandie Seine, 856 Steel
this category is the M aracaibo Lake Bridge in Venezuela
France
designed by Ricardo M orandi of Italy and built in 1963.
2001 Nanjing 2 Nanjing, 628 Steel
The Sunshine Skyway Bridge (1987) designed by
China
Eugene Figg and Jean M uller over Tampa Bay in Florida,
1993 Yangpu Shanghai, 602 Composite
has a main span of 360 m with pre stressed concrete
China
deck and single plane cables. The Dames Pont Bridge
1997 M aiko Chuo Nagoya, 590 Steel
at Jacksonville, Florida, built in 1987 with a span of 390
Japan
m is the longest cable stayed bridge in USA. Designed by
1999 Oresund Sweden 490 Steel
Howard Needles and Finsterwalder, the bridge features H
1992 VidyasagarSetu Kolkata 457 Composite
shaped Reinforced Concrete towers and two plane
1996 Second Severn Bristol, 456 Composite
cables supporting R.C deck girders. Currently, the Tatara
UK
Bridge in Japan (1999) with a span of 890 m is the
1987 Rama IX Bangkok 450 Steel
longest cable stayed bridge in the world. The M illau
1983 Luna Spain 440 Concrete
Viaduct, completed in 2005, with six spans of 350 m and
two spans of 240 m, supported on towers up to 235 m 1975 St. Nazaire France 404 Steel
height is a unique cable stayed bridge. 1978 Stretto di Vigo, 400 Steel
Rande Spain
Indias first cable stayed vehicular bridge is the 1982 Luling M ississippi 372 Steel
Akkar Bridge in Sikkim completed in 1988 with two 1978 Dusseldorf Germany 367 Steel
spans of 76.2 m each. The Second Hooghly Bridge Flehe
(VidyasagarSetu), completed in 1992, with a central span 1987 Sunshine Florida, 366 Concrete
of 457.2 m and two side spans of 182.9 m each, is a Skyway USA
notable engineering achievement in India. The various 1970 Duisburg Germany 350 Steel
cable stayed bridges are shown in the following table. Neuekam
Basic concepts of the application and design of the cable
1990 Tempozan Japan 350 Steel
stayed bridges are presented here. 1990 Glebe Island Australia 345 Concrete
Table 1. List of Cable Stayed Bridges

2004 M illau Viaduct M illau, 342 Steel
France
1974 West Gate Australia 336 Steel
The main components of a cable stayed bridge are: 1978 Zarate - Brazo Argentina 330 Steel
1) Inclined Cables
1993 Karnali Nepal 325 Composite
2) Towers (also referred as pylons)
1972 Kohlbrand Germany 325 Steel
3) Deck
1969 Kniebrucke Germany 320 Steel
In a simple form, the cables provided above the deck 1977 Brotonne France 320 Concrete
and connected to the towers would permit elimination of 1971 Erskine Scotland 305 Steel
intermediate piers facilitating a larger width for purposes 1959 Severins Cologne 302 Steel
of navigation. When the number of stay cables in the 1987 Dongying China 288 Steel
main span is between 2 and 6 the spans between the stay 1976 WadiKuf Beida, 282 Concrete
supports tend to be large (between 30 and 60 m) Libya
requiring large bending stiffness. The stay forces are

large and the anchorages of cables become complicated.
The erection of such bridges involves use of auxiliary
structures. On the other hand , the use of multiple stay
cables would facilitate smaller distances between points
of supports (between 6 and 10 m) for the deck girders ,
resulting in reduced structural depth and facilitating
erection by free cantilever method without auxiliary
supports .
The multiple stay cable system also permits easy

replacement of cables if needed and enhances
aerodynamics stability through increased damping
capacity. The deck can be supported by a number of
cables in a fan form (meeting in a bunch at the tower) or
in a harp form (joining at different levels on the tower) as
Fig. 14 Types of Cable Systems
shown in the figure. The figure shows a typical fan-
shaped cable arrangement with the anchorages at the
tower distributed vertically down a certain length
Based on the span arrangement, the cable stayed bridge
(modified fan form). This arrangement facilitates easy
can be one of four types:
replacement of cables at a later date in case of accidents.
The fan type configuration results in minimum axial
1) Bridge with an eccentric tower, e.g. Hoescht
force in deck girders. The harp form requires larger
Bridge on main river
quantity of steel for the cables. Includes the fan shape is 2) Symmetrical two span bridge, e.g.
superior from a structural and economical view. The harp
Ottmarshein Bridge in France
shape possesses enhanced aesthetics. The harp
3) Three span bridge, e.g. Brotonne Bridge,
configuration cables also permits erection of the tower
France
and the deck to progress at the same time. Because of the
4) M ulti span Bridge, e.g. M illau Viaduct,
damping effect of inclined cables of varying lengths, the
France
cables stayed decks are less prone to wind induced
oscillation than suspension bridges.
TYPICAL CABLE STAYED BRIDGES
The first modern cable stayed bridge was the

Stromsund bridge in Sweden, built in 1956 with a main
span of 183m and two side span of 75m each .This
bridge consist of continuous plate girders supported by
two plane radial cables anchored to the tops of towers of
portal shape. The deck is of reinforced concrete slab
supported on strings and cross beams. The Dusseldorf
north bridge (1958) has harp type cables in two vertical
planes attached to single towers. The decking is of
orthotropic steel deck with box shaped main girders
stiffened by cross beams. The bridge has spans of 108-
260-108 m. The Severins Bridge (1959) in cologne has a
single A-frame tower with fan type cables, converging at m corresponding to width-to-span ratio of 1:31.7. The
the apex of the A- frame. The decking is of orthotropic center span was erected by the cantilever method. The
steel deck with two main girders of box section as in fig. aesthetic appeal, the economic advantage and the ease of
The Norderelbe Bridge (1962) in Hamburg was the first construction make the cable stayed bridge the preferred
bridge with cables arranged in star type in single plane. option in the span range of 200 to 900 m.
The bridge has a box section at centre with one single
web girder on either side as in fig. The cable
configuration is justified more from aesthetic
considerations than on economic grounds. The Brotonne
Bridge built in 1977 with a main span of 320 m has a
single plane of cable stays and uses a precast pre -
stressed concrete box girder deck. The Yangpu Bridge in
Shanghai, china built in 1994 with a main span of 620 m
marked a significant development. This was surpassed in
the same year by the Normandie Bridge in France with a
main span of 856 m. The Sunniberg Bridge in
Switzerland built in 1999 with main spans of 140 m and
the M illau viaduct in France completed in 2005 with
main spans of 342 m are outstanding applications of
multi-span cable stayed bridges.
Akkar Bridge (2 spans of 79.0 m) and Hardwar bridge (2

spans of 65.0 m) are early examples of Indian cable Fig. 15 Tatara Bridge, Japan
stayed bridges, essentially evolved as forerunners for
longer spans to follow .The second Hooghly bridge
(Vidyasagarsethu) completed in 1992 with a main span
of 457 m and side spans of 182.9 m each, using fan type
cable arrangement, is a land mark of bridge construction
in India. The Tatara Bridge on the Onomichi Lmabari
highway route of the Honshu-shikoku bridge project in
Japan is the longest span cable stayed bridge in the world
with a main span of 890 m. The steel towers are 176 m
high above the bridge deck, corresponding to 0.2 of the
main span. The towers are shaped like an inverted Y after
examining the wind resistance, structural efficiency and
aesthetics. The stay cables have two-plane multi-fan
shape. The cables are anchored at spacing of 20 m at
deck level and at 3 m spacing at the tower. Based on
wind tunnel tests, the surface of the polyethylene cover
of the stay cables was provided with indentations, with a Fig. 16 M illau Viaduct Bridge, France
view to prevent the turbulence that results from wind
blowing on rain water running on the surface of the long ARRANGEM ENT OF CABLES
stay cables. This innovation provides sufficient damping
The cables may be arranged in one central plane (axial
and avoids the need for ties between the cables. The deck
suspension) as in Norderelbe bridge, in two vertical
is of streamlined steel box girder. The deck width is 28.1
planes with twin-leg tower as in Stromsund or
Dusseldorf North bridges, or in two inclined planes as in orthotropic plate deck, as adopted for the Normandie
Severins bridge (lateral suspension) .The single-plane Bridge and the Tatara Bridge. Torsion box deck sections
system has the advantage that the anchorage at deck level in pre stressed concrete have been used with single-plane
can be accommodated in the traffic median resulting in system, as in Brotonne Bridge and the sunshine bridge.
the least value of required total width of deck. With the Composite deck section have been employed in the
two -planes system, additional widths are needed to second Hooghly bridge at Kolkata, India and the Second
accommodate the towers and deck anchorages. Severn crossing, U K. Special attention should be
Aesthetically, the single-plane system is more attractive devoted to the anchorage of cables to the deck. The
as this affords an unobstructed view on one side for the superstructure of the main span is normally constructed
motorist. Other notable examples of single-plane system using the segmental cantilever method.
are the Rama IX Bridge (1987) in Bangkok, Thailand,
The ratio of the side span (Ls) to the main span (Lm)
the Sunshine Skyway Bridge (1987) in Florida, USA and
for the case of a bridge with towers on both sides of the
the Normandie Bridge (1994) in France. In the case of a
main span usually lies between 0.3 and 0.45.The ratio
two-plane system of cables, a side view of the bridge
Ls\Lm can be 0.42 for concrete highway bridge decks
would give the impression of intersection of the cables.
and not more than 0.34 for Railway Bridge. This ratio
The choice of the cable arrangement should be done with
influences the changes in stress in the back stay cables
care and diligence, so as to ensure an enhanced aesthetic
due to variation of live load. It further influences the
quality of the bridge through a system in harmony with
magnitude of vertical forces at the anchor pier, the
the environment.
anchor force decreasing with increasing Ls\Lm. The
The two inclined plane system of cables with the choice of Ls\Lm depends also on the local conditions of
cables radiating from the apex of an A-frame as in water depth and foundation.
Severins bridge facilitates the three-dimensional
TOWERS
structural performance of the superstructure and reduces
the torsional oscillations of the deck due to wind, thus Towers carry the forces imposed on the bridges on the
enhancing the aerodynamic stability of the bridge. The bridge to the ground. They are not replaceable during the
torque due to eccentric concentrated loads would life of the bridge. Hence they should be designed to be
necessitate the use of box section orthotropic deck for the structurally strong, constructible, durable and
single-plane system. The decking is generally of
economical.
orthotropic plate system with box girders for the two-
plane system also, but can be of pre stressed concrete The tower may take any one of the following forms:
girders as in M aracaibo bridge in Venezuela and Hoescht
1) Single free standing tower, as in Norderelbe
bridge over main river in Germany. The Rama VIII
Bridge
Bridge in Bangkok uses a combination of two-plane and
2) Pair of free standing tower shafts, as in
single plane systems. Using an inverted-Y pylon, the 300
Dusseldorf North Bridge
m main span is supported with twin inclined stays while
3) Portal frame, as in Severins Bridge and
the back span has a single plane system of stays.
Second Hooghly Bridge
DECK STRUCTURE 4) A frame, as in Severins Bridge or inverted
Y shape as in Yangpu Bridge
While the deck is merely supported by the cables in 5) Diamond configuration, as in Globe Island
suspension bridge, the deck of a cable stayed is an
Bridge, sydney
integral part of the structure resisting the axial force and
bending induced by the stay cables. For bridge width When the stay cables are in one plane, a single free
greater than 15 m and spans in excess of 500 m, the need standing tower may be adopted. In this case, the pier
to reduce dead weight prompts the use of all-steel below the box girder should be sufficiently wide for
bearings to resist the torsional moments of the The single tower or towers consisting of a pair of
superstructure. For bridges with cables in two planes, the separate columns will be stable in the lateral direction
towers can be a free standing pair, or a portal frame with due to the restoring force provided by the cables in case
a slender bracing. An additional bracing may be of lateral displacement due to wind forces, as long as the
introduced below the deck. The A-shaped tower and the cable anchorages are situated at a level above the base of
inverted Y-shaped tower have been favoured for long the tower. The towers may be designed to be hinged or
bridges having shallow box girder decks in regions of fixed at the base, depending on the magnitude of the
strong wind forces. The land take at the base can be vertical loads and distribution of the cable forces. While
reduced by adopting a diamond configuration, as used in a tower with a fixed base induces a large moment, the
the Tatara Bridge. Typical arrangements of towers are increased rigidity of the total structure resulting from a
shown in figure. fixed base at the towers and the relative ease in erection
as compared with a hinged base may be advantageous.
On the other hand, the hinged base results in reduced
bending moments in the towers and may be advantageous
with weak soil conditions. The towers should be slender
and should have a low bending stiffness in the
longitudinal direction so that back stay cables will be
functional in partially catering to live loads in the main
span. Towers should normally be vertical.
The height of the tower should be preferably being in

the range of 0.2 to 0.25 Lm. The higher the tower, the
smaller will be the quantity of steel required for the
cables and the compressive forces. But it is not
advantageous to increase the height beyond 0.25 Lm .
CABLES
The stay cables constitute critical components of a

Fig. 17 Types of Pylons
cable stayed bridge, as they carry the load of the deck
Since the tower is the most conspicuous component in and transfer it to the tower and the back stay cable
a cable stayed bridge, besides structural considerations, anchorage. The main requirements of stay cables are:
aesthetics plays a prominent part in the selection of the
1) High load carrying capacity
particular shape of the tower. For example, the proximity
2) High and stable Youngs M odulus of
of cologne cathedral influenced the adoption of the A-
elasticity
frame for the Severins Bridge. Sometimes, an additional
3) Compact cross section
height is provided for the tower above the point of
4) High fatigue resistance
connection of the cable for architectural reasons, as in
5) Ease in corrosion protection
Norderelbe Bridge. Anchorage of cables at the tower
6) Handling convenience
should follow good order. Since the cables at the deck
7) Low cost
level are anchored along a line along the edges or at the
middle of the deck, it is natural that these should end The ultimate tensile strength of wire is of the order of
along a vertical line at the tower head. In the case of A- 1600 MPa. A typical section of a stay cable is shown in
shaped tower, the anchorage line can be parallel to the figure 18 (Fig.18). While locked coil strands have been
tower leg it is not desirable to spread the anchorages used in early bridges, the recent preference is towards the
transversely in one layer at the tower. use of cables with bundles of parallel wires or parallel
long lay strands. The sizes of cables are selected to

facilitate a reasonable spacing at the deck anchorages.
Parallel wires cables using 7mm wires of high tensile
steel have been adopted in Second Hooghly Bridge.
Corrosion protection of the cables is of paramount
importance. For this purpose, the steel may be housed
inside a polyethylene (PE) tube which is tightly
connected to the anchorage. The cables are anchored at
the deck and at the tower. The anchorage at the deck is
fixed and has a provision for a neoprene pad damper to
damp oscillations. The length adjustment is done at the
tower end.
The cables are pre - stressed by introducing additional

tensile force is the cables in order to improve the stress in
the main girder and tower at the completion stage, to
Fig. 18 Typical cross section of Stay Cable
prevent the lowering of rigidity due to sagging of cable,
and to optimize the cable condition for the erection. The ANALYSIS
magnitude of the pre - stress is determined by taking into
consideration the following factors: I) the horizontal The cable stayed bridge with multi stay
component of each cable tension in balanced such that configuration is a statically indeterminate structure with a
there is no in-plane bending of the tower due to balanced high order of indeterminacy. The deck acts as a
horizontal force due to dead load at the completion stage: continuous beam on elastic supports of varying stiffness.
and ii) the net force on the main girder member at the Bending moments in the deck and pylons increase due to
connection of the cable at the completion stage be zero. second order effects due to deflection of the structure.
The effects of creep and shrinkage during construction
Currently the steel used for cables have ultimate and service life should be considered for concrete and
tensile of the order of 1600M pa. Carbon fibre cables composite decks. The internal force distribution in the
having UTS of about 3300Mpa are under development. deck and tower can be managed to be compression with
The latter cables are claimed to have negligible corrosion minimum bending, by adjustment of the forces in the
and to possess high fatigue resistance. However, carbon stay cables. A rigorous analysis considering three
fibber cables are presently very expensive. dimensional space action is quiet complex. Approximate
designs can be made using a two dimensional
approach. Though the cable stays show a non linear
behaviour due to large displacements, sag in cables and
moment axial force interactions in stays, girders and
towers, an approximate analysis assuming linear
behaviour leads to satisfactory results in most cases.
However, a non linear analysis is essential for very
long span bridges.
CONSTRUCTION BY CANTILEVER M ETHOD
The cantilever method is normally adopted for the The sequence of planning for bridges forming part of
construction of long span cable stayed bridges. Here the a new highway or railway project will form part of that
towers are built first. Each new segment is built at site or particular project planning. But, in case of a major
installed with precast segment, and then supported by crossing across a large or important river or a major road
one new cable or a pair of new cables which balance its intersection, a more detailed planning for the particular
weight. The stresses in the girder and the towers are bridge itself will be required.
related to the cable tensions. Since the geometric profile
Different steps involved in planning for such a bridge
of the girder or elevation of the bridge segments is
and for major links are:
mainly controlled by the cable lengths, the cable length
should be set appropriately at the erection of each 1) Study the need for a bridge
segment. During construction, monitoring and
2) Assess the traffic requirement
adjustment of the cable tension and geometric profile 3) Location study
require special attention. 4) Study of alternatives
5) Short listing feasible alternatives
A notable example of construction of a major cable
6) Developing concept plans for alternatives
stayed bridge by cantilever method is the Yangpu Bridge
including choice of form, materials, span
in Shanghai, China, built in 1994 with a main span of
arrangements etc...
602 m. The composite girders of this bridge consisted of
7) Preliminary design and costing
prefabricated, wholly welded steel girders and precast
8) Evaluation of alternatives, risk analysis and
reinforced conceret deck slab.
final choice
Depending on the bridge site, cable stayed bridges can 9) Finding resources, detailed survey and design
have any one of four general layouts of spans: 10) Implementation including final preparation of
bid documents, fixing agency, construction
1) Cable stayed bridges with one eccentric
and commissioning
tower, eccentric with respect to the gap to be
bridged, e.g. Severins Bridge A new highway or railway line may need to be
2) Symmetrical two span cable stayed bridges provided as part of development of an area; linking two
e.g. Akkar Bridge or more places of commercial or tourist interest and
3) Three span cable stayed bridges, e.g. strategic importance; as a link to a port, mines, industrial
Second Hooghly Bridge area and/or a large thermal power plant. Their need is
4) M ulti span cable stayed bridge e.g. M illau usually established by evaluating their socio economic
Viaduct. and/or financial viability.
Of these the most common type is the three span Once the need for the project is established the
cable stayed bridge, consisting of the central main span various details have to be worked out. Any highway or
and the two side spans. Temporary stability during rail line will be crossing a number of small and large
construction is a major problem, particularly just prior to streams, canals, rivers and lakes, over which culverts or
closure at mid span. The structure must be able to bridges will have to be provided. Need for a culvert or
withstand the effects due to wind and accidental loads bridges become automatically established in such cases
due to mishaps during erection. When intermediate piers during preparation of project sheets. When a bridge
are provided in the side spans, the stability is very much forming part of such new road or rail projects has to be
enhanced. In this case, the side spans are built first on the provided over a large river, a more detailed initial
intermediate supports, and later the lon g cantilevers in planning is required involving various steps listed above.
the main span. Apart from this, need may arise to provide additional
bridges across major rivers, for linking two major
2.4 GEN ERAL S TEPS IN BRIDGE DES IGN
highways or rail lines or a network of roads in an urban Where artificial gorging is necessary due to absence of
area, including grade separators at busy road firm inerodable high banks, it should be possible to build
intersections in urban areas. Similar planning approach is protection works like guide bunds on a dry location or in
required in such projects. shallow water if unavoidable.
LOCATION OF BRIDGE Approaches
Cross drainage works on alternative alignments of a The approach bank should be secure, and not
road or rail alignment can differ considerably and since be liable to flash flood attacks or major spills
they tend to form 15 to 20 % of the cost of the total during floods.
project, it is essential to analyze and consider the effect It should not be too high or too expensive to
of all the CD works on the alignment, before choosing build; it should not pass through high hills or
the alignment. While fixing the horizontal alignment of major drainage basins or built up areas or
the line/road, it is desirable to select a bridge site such religious structures.
that the bridge/culvert is: It should have reasonable proximity to the
main road or railway to be served without need
On a straight reach of the stream avoiding any
for long or costly connecting links.
bends or meanders
It should be such as to avoid excessive
Clear of the confluence of any tributaries or
construction works under water or over marshy
branches
lands.
Confined within well defined banks
Approaches and protection works should be
With the road approach on either side straight
such as to involve minimum recurring
to maximum extent and
maintenance expenditure and be reasonably
With the crossing normal to the road alignment
safe from flood damages which would
and if skew is unavoidable, limit the skew
otherwise put the bridge out of use for long
angle
periods.
In addition, major river crossings should satisfy

INVESTIGATIONS FOR MAJOR BRIDGES
following conditions to the maximum extent.
Planning and design of major bridges call for more
River Regime
detailed survey and collection of data. Such requirements
are detailed in ensuing paragraphs:
The upstream reach of the river, should be
straight, and any sharp bend downstream
TOPOGRAPHIC DETAILS `
should be avoided.
The river in the reach should have a regime The survey of the river course should extend up to the
flow free of whirls, eddies and excess current. firm banks or up to the HEL line, if it over-tops the banks
It should preferably not have any confluence of and water spreads out. It should cover a distance of about
streams immediately upstream. 2 km upstream and 2 km downstream of the alignment in
The channel in the reach should be well the case of smaller streams and 5 km upstream and 2 km
defined and as narrow as possible. downstream for larger rivers. This is necessary for
It should have firm high banks which are fairly locating a straight reach of river where a good normal
inerodable (the ideal site is at a gorge). crossing can be provided. The extent of water course at
In a meandering river, it should be at a nodal flood time (excluding, of course, spill) will give an idea
point of` the minimum width of waterway that will be required

for providing a bridge with minimum obstruction to the
natural flow.
The plan of the water course should be drawn to a irrigation works in the vicinity should be clearly
scale of l : 2000 for smaller rivers and l : 5000 for larger indicated. The direction of flow of the stream and the
ones. Cross sections should be taken at the proposed north line are the most important markings that are
crossing, one upstream and one downstream, each about sometimes omitted by oversight.
2 km apart. They should be drawn to the same horizontal
scale as that of the plan. In case it is fairly flat, the cross
section can be plotted to different vertical and horizontal
scales (the latter being the same as that of the plan), with
the proportion between the two not less than 1:10 this CATCHM ENTS AREA MAP
will give a better idea of the area of section of flow for
The catchments area map for major bridges can be
working out the observed discharge and also correctly,
prepared from the available topographic sheets of the
determining the position of the bridge so as to cover the
most recent survey made in the area. The Survey of India
deeper and perennially flowing channels.
has prepared maps for the entire country to scale 1 to a
The plan should cover the details of all streams mile or 1: 50,000. They are now preparing maps to scale
joining the main stream river within the reach surveyed, 1: 25,000 and such maps for some areas are available.
the location and value of any benchmark, and the closest The map available to the largest scale should be obtained
inhabited locality; it should also provide sufficient spot - from them. All these maps contain contours for areas
levels for drawing contours, and indicate clearly the covered. Hence, the ridge line bounding the watershed
alignment and position of the proposed bridge with its contributing to the flow to a particular stream/river can
change marked. The low water level, highest flood level be easily traced on such maps. A tracing showing the
(HFL) and ordinary flood level (OFL) should be marked river, tributaries and the ridge or catchments boundary
on the cross section. The position of any borings and trial line prepared will form the catchments area map. The
pits should be indicated on the plan while the details of` area bounded can be worked out either by a planimeter or
bore data should be indicated on the section. The position using squared paper to proper scale. Where the
of GTS benchmarks with their values and also any catchments is small, close enough contours may not be
survey reference pillars left by the survey party should be available on these topographical sheets and a tracing of
marked, indicating, by the side, benchmark values. Such the ridge line may be difficult.
detailing will give an idea of all related data governing
Additional details to be marked on the catchments area
the siting of the bridge at a glance. If any checking
map are:
becomes necessary later, referencing will be easy and
quick, without any need to refer to a number of detailed 1) All irrigation tanks and reservoirs in the
drawings. catchment area intercepting the contributing
streams and which are likely to affect the
The survey can be conducted by triangulation in the
bridge if any of them is damaged
case of a small stream or by a closed traverse in the case
2) Rain gauge stations
of larger streams. (For detailed procedure for
3) Discharge observations
triangulation and other detailed surveys, in order to
4) River bed levels along the river up to the
achieve a good accuracy of the plan, suitable cross
source, as may be available
checks in the case of running open traverses along the
5) Levels of peaks on ridges and peaks of
bank should be established. Some spot-levels should be
isolated hillocks falling within
taken so that the contours can be plotted on the plan also.
This plotting of contours will help in proper location of If possible, the heaviest intensity of rainfall recorded
the axis of bridge with respect to the stream and at the rain gauge stations can be indicated on the
determining the sew angle, if any. Any marginal bunds, catchments plan. The work of preparation of this map can
other flood protection works, and any tanks, lakes and
be done in the office itself and supplementary 8) Settlement characteristics of the soil for
information obtained from enquiries from other determining the settlement and differential
departmental officers. settlement
9) Frictional and porosity properties for
determining sinking or driving effort
10) Any possible constructional difficulties
HYDROLOGIC PARTICULARS
Some particulars which come under this heading have

been covered under `topographic details and catchments SEISM OLOGY OF THE AREA
area. The hydrographical, i.e., gauging and discharge

India is divided into five seismic zones based on the
details available for the bridge site or the nearest
likely intensity and frequency of earthquakes. The
available site should be collected for the longest periods
coefficients to be used for arriving at horizontal and
available, either from irrigation or flood control
vertical seismic forces induced on the structure in
engineers. If not available, some short term
different zones are covered in IS: 1893. It may be
observations for velocity and discharge can be made by
necessary to modify the coefficients in specific cases or
the survey team. Enquiries should be made regarding the
carry out model studies to determine these coefficients in
data, formulae and coefficients adopted for working out
the case of very long spans in highly earthquake-prone
the design discharge for the same or similar
areas, particularly for the sub Himalayan zone, the
streams/rivers in the same area by other engineers. The
entire north eastern India and in some areas like Koyna
size of the openings which have been provided for
where there is a past history of occurrence of disastrous
existing bridges on the same river upstream and
earthquakes. Detailed information can be obtained from
downstream should be ascertained along with
the Geological Survey and M eteorological Departments
information on past experience regarding their adequacy
regarding the seismic history and intensity as well as of`
or otherwise. Hydrographical details available for such
damages caused by past earthquakes in the area. This
bridges can be of much help.
information can be used for modifying the coefficient of
design of structures or Carry out model studies. In case
GEO-TECHNICAL DETAILS
there is any geological fault along the river course, the
The scope of geo-technical investigations should be M eteorological Department should be consulted
such as to enable the designer determine or comprehend regarding the likelihood of its buffing action.
the following:
NAVIGATIONAL REQUIREM ENTS
1) Location and extent of soft layers and gas
There may be some plans by the Inland Navigation
pockets, if any, especially in apparent hard
Department of the State or Union Government for
founding strata
introducing navigation in the water course to be bridged
2) The type of rock, dips, faults and fissures
in the foreseeable fixture. Provision should be made for
3) Possibility of subsidence due to mining in the
adequate headroom above the OFL (or normal HFL) in
neighbourhood
such cases. The general standards suggested for different
4) Sub soil water level and artesian conditions
types of craft (boats and barges) used in inland
5) Quality of ground water
6) Particle size and classification of the soils at navigation are indicated in table 2.
various levels
7) Physical properties of the soil to determine
the bearing capacity
Table 2 Navigational Clearance for Bridges the infra-structure requirement for transporting materials
and equipment.
Tonnag Lengt Bea Draf M inimu M inimu
e of h (m) m t m clear m PARTICULARS OF NEAREST BRIDGES
Vessel (m) (m) span (m) headroo
During the investigations, particulars with regard to
m over
foundation details, clearances and other physical
mean
features of the bridges that might have b een constructed
HFL (m)
on the same water course on the nearest railway line or
50 18 5.0 1.5 15 2.0
road should be obtained. Enquiries should also be made
100 24 5.0 1.5 17 3.0
of the bridges that have been overtopped or breached
300 35 6.5 2.0 25 3.9
since their construction or any other type of failure to the
600 60 7.0 2.0 30 6.0
structure. In the case of bridges of smaller magnitude, it
900 and 75 10.0 2.0 90 to 10 to 12
should be sufficient if particulars of such bridges within
more 110
about l0 km radius are obtained. In the case of larger
bridges, particulars should be gathered for those situated
CONSTRUCTION RESOURCES even 50 to 60 km away.
During the field survey, sufficient information should TRAFFIC FORECAST
be collected to have an idea of the type of labour that will

If the bridge forms part of an overall project like the
be available locally and if they will have to be
construction of a new railway line or construction of a
supplemented by bringing people, particularly skilled,
new road, the traffic forecast would have been already
from outside. If all the required labour is locally
made earlier. If not made already, this forecast will have
available, they should be able to come to the site, from
to be done for purposes of:
their homes; they will not need much of site
accommodation and may only need some transport 1) Determining the size of the bridge, i.e., the
arrangement. If any type of skilled and other labour has number of lanes or tracks to be provided and
to be brought from outside, residential and! Or camp whether a footpath has to be provided.
accommodation will have to be provided for them as 2) Working out the benefits that will accrue by
close to the site as possible. Such people will have to be providing such a bridge (if it is a project by
paid higher rates of wages and given additional leave and itself).
also travel expenses from and to i - their homes.
There may be some traffic across the stream already at
Information collected will give an idea of the extent
the location, but that may be using some other mode like
which temporary accommodation for such imported
a ferry, or a crossing may be made only when the water
labour will have to be provided and also to arrive at
level is low. It may also be taking the route over a bridge
correct unit rates for the labour component of the
already existing over the stream by a detour Hence, an
various items of work. The availability of construction
assessment has to be made first of the diversion of the
materials, particularly bricks, quarry materials like stone
existing traffic which will use the bridge after it is
and aggregate, and good quality sand and timber in the
provided. Second, the provision of the bridge itself can
vicinity will have to be found out to determine the extent
create development opportunities on either side and also
to which transportation will be involved in carrying these
increase the inter- flow, and this will have to be forecast
to the site. While doing so, the existing roads, pathways,
taking into consideration the economic and social
the availability of the various types of transport, their
conditions of the area. The structure to be provided
cost, etc. should be considered. This will give a better
should be for a volume of traffic that will develop over a
idea to work out to the unit cost to be adopted for
foreseeable future so that no additional work or
material components of various items of work and also
reconstruction will be called for in that period. A time Catchment areas over 15 sq. km:
space of 40 to 50 years is generally advisable for this.
1.5 km and to scale
REPORT AND DRAWING 1:5000
c) A site plan to a suitable scale should show the
The documents to be prepared for the bridge project
selected site and ground details for a distance
will comprise a brief report giving the salient features for
of 100 m upstream and 100 m downstream for
aiding in detailed design and an estimate along with the
small bridges and 500 m on either side for
under mentioned drawings: larger bridges. It shall contain the following
details:
a) An index map to scale, 1; 50,000 in the case of
1) Name of the channel and road, chainage
small rivers and 1: 2, 50,000 in the case of
and identification mark (number etc...)
larger ones. It should show the road/rail
allotted to the crossing
alignment, the position of the proposed bridge
2) Direction of flow, maximum and
with the chainage, general topography of the
minimum discharges
area, existing communication lines. Important
3) Existing and proposed alignments, if it
towns and villages, rivers, canals and other
is in replacement
irrigation works.
b) A survey plan showing all topographical 4) Angle and direction of skew
5) Name of the nearest identifiable town at
features in the immediate vicinity for sufficient
either end of the road
distance on either side of the proposed bridge
6) Position of any bench marks and their
showing the contours at 1 to 2m intervals
values
should be prepared; All alternative sites should
7) Reference to the value of the bench
be marked on this plan. All features that can
marks, the mean sea level taken as
influence the design of the bridge should also
datum
be marked on this plan. A longitudinal section
8) Location of cross section lines
along the proposed alignment to the same
9) Longitudinal section (i.e., alignment
horizontal scale as that of the plan and one-
centre) line with reduced levels marked
tenth of the same as the vertical scale should be
10) Location of trial pits and bore holes with
drawn. The line showing the top of the
identification numbers/ marks
proposed formation should be marked in red on
11) Location of any obstruction for road
the same sheet. These distances can be reduced
alignment, such as nullahs, buildings,
for artificial (like men-made irrigation and
wells, outcrops of rocks etc... (the scale
navigation canals) and in difficult countries by
should preferably be to 1:1000) the
the engineer to suit site conditions. The Indian
alignment line shall be shown in form of
Roads Congress requires this sheet to cover
a thick green line.
details for distances on either side and to scales
d) Cross Sections, one along the proposed
as indicated below.
alignment and two others, one upstream and
Catchment areas less than 3 sq. km:
one downstream at a suitable distance to scale
100 metres and to scale
1 : 1000 horizontal and 1 : 100 vertical. It
1:1000
should contain the following:
Catchment areas of 3 to 15 sq. km: 1) Bed levels up to tops of banks/ bunds
and ground levels for sufficient distance
300 metres and to scale
beyond, the intervals being such as to
1:1000
give a clear idea of the uneven features bridge opening, and locating abutments and
both in the bed and ground piers so that the bridge covers the deepest and
2) Location and depth of trial pits or perennially flowing channel. The flood levels
borings and nature of soil in bed, banks are required for the purpose of determining the
and approaches (in cases of smaller deck level of the bridge after allowin g for the
bridges and shallow bores, the section of necessary clearance. The low water level helps
soil profile at each bore/ pit can be given in fixing the top of the well or pile foundations
on this itself). taking into consideration the working
3) HFL, OFL, LWL on the entire three conditions.
cross sections. Collection of data: The collection of data with
e) In addition, a few more cross sections to the reference to construction resources and the
same horizontal and vertical scales as that of details of the nearest bridge across the same
the site plan- river are required for obtaining an idea of the
f) A longitudinal section along the channel, construction problems that are likely to be met
showing the site of the bridge, to the same with and working out the unit cost for
horizontal scale as the survey plan (in the case preparation of the estimate for the cost of the
of small bridges this can be plotted on the bridge and appurtenant works. Forecast of the
survey plan itself), the vertical scale not less traffic is likely to use the bridge is made for
than 1: 1000. determining the width of the bridge and in the
g) Typical cross sections along alternative sites case of a costly alternative, for working out the
considered, if any, with a brief note giving relative cost benefit ration also.
reasons for selection of the proposed site to the Report: After the collection of these data and
same scale as in (d) above. working out the details, a report has to be made
out bringing the salient features of the bridge,
its estimated cost, cost benefit ration, etc...
for helping to obtain the sanction. This report
The purposes of these drawings are given below briefly:
should, as far as possible, be so detailed that
Index map: The index map will indicate the when work is sanctioned, the site work can be
geographical location of the bridge and the commenced immediately.
nature of the area served by the bridge
Survey plan: It will give an idea of the nature 3.DES IGN PROCEDURE
and direction of flow of the river and will help

in choosing a location that will ensure a
3.1 EXIS TING BRIDGE D ES CRIPTION
straight flow through the bridge. The
catchment area map is required to assess the A road bridge presently exists across Gauthami River,
catchment areas and the type of terrain to work a tributary of Godavari between Yanam and Yedurlanka.
out the design discharge using a flood formula It is named as BalayogiVaradhi. It is a simply
Plan: The plan will show the exact location supported Pre stressed Concrete (PSC) box girder
and lay out of the bridge for the purpose of bridge with 43 spans @ 40 m and 2 end spans @39.4 m
future setting out between centre to centre (c/c) of pier/ face of dirt wall.
Cross sections: These are required firstly for The total length of the bridge is 1798.8 m between the
working out the area of flow as existing and the river faces of dirt walls. The bridge was constructed by
slope of the river with which the volume of M /s. Navayuga Engineering Company Limited,
discharge that has passed over the site can be Visakhapatnam under Build Operate and Transfer (BOT)
worked out. It is also used for centring the vide Government Order (G.O) as a part of construction
works of National Highway (NH) 214. The work was of Andhra Pradesh with lush paddy fields and coconut
supervised by Consulting Engineering Services (India) groves. The village is located in the Godavari Delta
Private Limited (CES) and PWD, Andhra Pradesh. region. The main soils in the area are alluvial red soil,
sandy loam and sandy clay.
Now using the topographical survey data,
hydrographical survey data, sub soil investigation data 3.3 NEED FOR BRIDGE
conducted by PWD, Andhra Pradesh for the construction
of this bridge we are designing a Cable Stayed Railway During the time of bridge construction there was no
Bridge in the same location is proposed in this report in bridge existing across the river Gauthami, branch of
order to compare the advantages of each bridge. Godavari River, connecting Yanam to Yedurlanka in
East Godavari District in Andhra Pradesh. Ferry service
3.2 AREA D ES CRIPTION
was being operated for crossing the river. However, since
The bridge is located between yanam (one of the four the width of the river is very large between the banks, it
districts of the Union Territory of Pondicherry in India) was a huge inconvenience to the large crowds who had to
and Yedurlanka (East Godavari District of Andhra cross the river daily. It was therefore felt necessary to
Pradesh in India) on Gauthami River, a tributary of the construct a high level bridge at this location for smooth
perennial river Godavari. An extensive survey of the flow of daily traffic. Before finalizing the project bridge
area was done before deciding on the site for the bridge. expert from CES along with representatives of PWD,
visited the site to have firsthand information about the
Yanam (Latitude1642' N 1646' N; Longitude: work and local conditions.
8211' E 8219' E)is a town in the Indian union
territory of Pondicherry; it is located in Yanam district. This stretch from Yanam Yedurlanka is now a part of
Yanam has about 300 years of history and it was NH 214. At the time of survey the people in Konaseema
transferred to India in 1954. It forms a 30 km enclave in area covering Yedurlanka, M uramalla, Polavaram,
the district of East Godavari in Andhra Pradesh. It Pallamkurru and other villages up to Amalapuram of East
occupies the delta of Godavari River, the town is situated Godavari District had to cross the Gauthami, Branch of
where the River Coringa(Atreya) branches off from Godavari River by ferry service from Yedurlanka in
Gauthami into two parts, 9 km from the Bay of Bengal in Konaseema area to Yanam in Pondicherry Union
the Coromandel Coast. It has a population of about Territory and then proceed by road to Kakinada, the
32,000. Due to some relaxation in Tax and other District Head Quarters of East Godavari District. When
exemptions, lots of Business activities go on in Yanam. the river is in floods, there is much inconvenience in
M any people are getting employment in these transportation of their agricultural produce to the markets
industries/firms. The major business areas in this region of Yanam and Kakinada and vice versa. Yanam is fast
are Coconut Dwelling, Rice M ills, Fishing and Other growing Industrial center and several Gas Based
Traditional Occupations. According to the 19952005 Industries are now coming up around Yanam and
Development Records it was the first best constituency Kakinada. Kakinada port is fast developing and two
in Pondicherry, which is moving forward in the M ajor fertilizer Companies i.e., Godavari and Nagarjuna
development sector, and also one of the best fertilizers are located at Kakinada.
constituencies in India.
If a high level bridge is constructed across Gauthami
Yedurlanka (Latitude 16 42 N; Longitude 82 12 E) a
0 0
branch of river Godavari between Yanam and
village in East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh is Yedurlanka, it will help in development of 2 regions i.e.,
situated on the banks of Gauthami River. It is located Yanam of Pondicherry State and Konaseema area
28.7 km from the district main City Kakinada in (Central Delta) of Andhra Pradesh. As the O.N.G.C
I.Polavarammandal. The District is known as rice bowl activities in Godavari basin are in full swing it will
facilitate government and transportation of their vehicles (CD) works. The skew angle is also taken into
and also supply of Natural Gas to Yanam and other consideration. Skew angle is the angle between the major
industrially developing centers in East Godavari Dist rict. axis of the substructure and a perpendicular to the
Also several raw materials particularly, that required for longitudinal axis of the superstructure. The
coir industries and edible oil units can be easily representatives of CES, with assistance from PWD,
transported from Konaseema area to Yanam. Further the examined the site. The site was inspected from both
construction of the bridge reduces the distance between Yedurlanka and Kakinada sides.
Amalapuram and Kakinada by 40 km, by road. Apart
from the above mentioned facts, the fact that both Yanam The alignment proposed after analyzing all the
and East Godavari Districts are centers of tourism is well contributing factors is shown in Drawings. The
known. Therefore providing a bridge in this region will proposed alignment is shown in green. The reasons for
enable the development of tourism in this area. selecting this particular alignment are as listed below:
Railway track always leads to improvement in

the economy of any area. The provision of this railway
link between Yanam and Yedurlanka will prove 1) This gives shorter bridge length
advantageous both to the industries in the area as well as 2) This is at a smaller skew angle
tourism. 3) This lies beyond the territory of pondicherry
3.4 TOPOGRAPHICAL S URVEY The alignment starts at km. 22/2 +175 of Kakinada
Yanam road (now part of NH214) goes round of Yanam
A detailed survey has been carried out in the area in town and crosses the river Gauthami in a normal
order to decide the alignment of the bridge. Due to lack direction (1 km upstream side of the existing ferry point)
of resources and permissions we could not conduct the and then turns right and runs parallel to flood bank before
survey, but as a part of the project we have collected the joining the Amalapuram Yedurlanka road at km 24/6.
data from R&B, Andhra Pradesh and made a detailed The total width of the river at site of crossing is 2.331 km
study of the same. The method used in surveying and the form flood bank to flood bank. The approach length of
various facts observed thereby in the finalization of the Yanam side is 5.285 km and on Yedurlanka side is 4.115
alignment are briefly described below. km.
The survey of the river course was done up to the 3.5 HYDROGRAPHIC PARTICULARS
High Flood Level (HFL) line covering a distance of
about 5 km upstream and 2 km downstream for locating a The terms necessary for the hydrologic design of a
straight reach of river where a normal crossing can be structure are as follows:
provided. Hydrographic surveying was used for

AFFLUX (h) is the rise in water level upstream
surveying over the body of water and determining the
of a bridge as a result of obstruction to natural
levels at various points across the stream. A contour
flow caused by the construction of the bridge
survey i.e., triangulation by closed traverse was also
and its approaches.
carried out to determine the levels at various points near
CAUSEWAY or Irish bridge in a dip in the
the river. Before deciding the alignment the soil profile at
railway track which allows floods to pass over
all the suitable sites was taken into account. A
it.
reconnaissance survey team has carried out the on field
CLEARANCE(C) is the vertical distance
survey to assess the site and determine the final
between the water level of the design discharge
alignment. The alignment of the bridge was proposed
(Q) including afflux and the point on the bridge
along the ridge line in order to reduce the Cross Drainage
super-structure where the clearance is required

to be measured. navigational purpose and
DEPTH OF SCOUR (D) is the depth of the varying
eroded bed of the river, measured from the from 3.66 m to 1.5 m
water level for the discharge considered. LTL
DESIGN DISCHARGE (Q) is the estimated = -0.60 m
discharge for the design of the bridge and its HTL
appurtenances. = +1.20 m
DESIGN DISCHARGE FOR FOUNDATIONS
(Qf) is the estimated discharge for design of
foundations and training/protection work.
FREE BOARD (F) is the vertical distance Width of river at gorge portion
between the water level corresponding to the = 520 m
Design Discharge (Q) including afflux and the Scour level : Normal
formation level of the approach banks or the condition = -29.00
top level of guide banks. Seismic condition
FULL SUPPLY LEVEL (FSL) in the case of = -25.62
canals is the water level corresponding to the Width of river in at M .F.L
full supply as designed by canal authorities. = 2331 m
HIGHEST FLOOD LEVEL (HFL) is the Flood discharge
highest water level known to have occurred. = 56,700
LOW WATER LEVEL (LWL) is the water level cumecs
generally obtained during dry weather. Water current velocity

= 3.5 m/s
The department has also carried out the

On Yanam side, there is a flood bank approximately
hydrographical survey and has provided the hydraulic
600 m form the water line. From this bank about 600 m
details such as HFL, Design Discharge, HTL, LTL, and
length of the river bed is generally dry except for the
Water Current Velocity etc The catchment area maps
HFL condition which occurs once in 10 years or so. This
of the region have been collected and studied carefully
600 m stretch of bank is cultivated and there are a large
before determining the hydrographical details. The
number of coconut and other trees. It shows scouring
discharge data has been collected as per the specification
does not take place in this portion. The average bed level
in Indian Railway Standard Code of Practice for Design
in this stretch is little above Reduced Level (RL) 3.00 m.
of the Substructures and Foundations of Bridges (Bridge
There after the waterline starts and well demarcated bank
Sub-structure and Foundation Code). The particulars are
line have been noticed, where ferry has been operated.
as shown below:
This bank of the river has been protected by stone
Deepest Bed Level = pitching at number of stretches and to prevent further
14.860 m erosion, spurs also exist.
M aximum flood level =

In the middle portion of the river there is an island
+4.58 m
which separates the shallow channel from the deep
T.B.L =
channel. The river on Yedurlanka side channel is much
+4.94 m (on Yedurlanka side)
deeper (about 18 to 19 m in depth), whereas on
+5.060 m (on Yanam side)
Yanamside channel is shallower (about 4 to 6 m in
Free board
depth). The total waterway width under HTL condition
= 3.66 m for central spans for
will be approximately 1700 m whereas only during HFL gradient of 1 in 50 with introduction of vertical curve of
condition the waterway spreads further and waterway 50 m. M inimum abutment clearance of 1.5 m is provided
width becomes about 2300 m. at the abutment ends thus providing formation level at
abutments as +8.73
The proposed bridge site is located near the sea and is
subject to tidal variation. Under HTL condition, the
waterway is restricted between the banks which are about
1700 m apart.
Because of close proximity to the sea, during the rainy 3.6 SCOUR DEPTH AND LIN EAR WATERWAY
season when the high flood occurs, the river cannot
generate a very high velocity with the result the water CALCULATION OF SCOUR DEPTH
spreads on the banks and the highest flood known is only

The scour depth is calculated in accordance with IRS
1.5 m above the ground. There are lots of trees and
cultivation is going on in all the seasons and there is no substructure code.
visible sign of any scour that has taken place in this

As per Laceys formula
stretch.
Under HFL condition Laceys waterway comes out to

1370 m which is less than 1700 m. Therefore, the bridge
length of 2150 m as suggested by the survey team is not Where Q = Discharge = 56700 cumecs
necessary. It is proposed to have 1798.8 m length of
f = Laceys silt factor for bed material
bridge between river faces of dirtwalls, which is more
than Laceys waterway, thus excluding the 600 m D = mean scour depth
shallow depth stretch towards Yanam side from the
existing bund up to the Ferryghat, over which approach f shall be determined for representative samples of bed
embankment of suitable height may be provided, to material collected from scour zone.
minimize the cost.
On Yanam side well demarcated bank line starts at

Where m = weighted mean diameter of the bed material
chainage 580. This bank is being pitched by the Irrigation
in mm.
Department to protect it. Hence, we propose the
abutment A1 at chainage 560.3 (19.7 m beyond the bank
line). Pitching around the abutment is proposed to be
For standard silt
done after construction.
Particle size = 0.32mm

On Yedurlanka side flood bank (bund) is at chainage
2320 with top of bund at RL + 4.94. We propose the Therefore silt factor (f) =1
abutment A2 at chainage 2359.7 i.e., 40 m away from the
The depth calculated has to be increased to obtain
bund.
maximum as per clause 4.6.6 of IRS sub-structure.
It is suggested that vertical clearance for navigational
Hence depth is increased by 1.25D
purposes i.e., 3.66 m above the exceptional HFL of +4.58
may be provided at the center of the bridge and towards
the ends the bridge may be sloped on either side with a
Therefore Corresponding
founding level =
= 18.17 say
18.2 m = - 44.0
(RL)
Afflux for non erodiable beds
However in design, considering factor of safety founding
level is kept at
RL - 45.8 m
Where H = afflux
For abutment, scour level =
v = velocity in m/s
A = un-obstructed sectional area in sq.m

= 4.58-1.27(18.17)
a = sectional area of river at obstruction

= -18.50
in sq.m
However in design of abutment wall, we consider 2
For piers scour level is given by
cases.
= H.F.L-2(mean scour depth)

1) Earth protected by pitching
= 4.58-2D 2) Scour all around
= 4.58-2(18.17)
= -31.8 (RL)
For seismic scour level, it has to be multiplied by a factor

of 0.9.
CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE WATERWAY
Seismic scour level = HFL-(2(D) 0.9)

As per IRS substructure code the linear waterway is
= 4.58-2(18.2) (0.9) calculated as below.
= -2.82 (RL) Linear waterway,
M inimum grip length =
Where Q = 56700 cumecs.
= 12.13 say 12.2m C = 4.8
=1143 m
Effective width of pier foundation = going on in all the seasons and there is no visible sign of
any scour that has taken place in this stretch. Under HFL,
condition Laceys waterway comes out to 1370 m which
is less than 1700 m.
= 4.91 m
Effective width of abutment foundation = Therefore it is felt that as proposed earlier a bridge
span of 2150 m is not really required. It is proposed to
have 1798.8 m length of bridge between river faces of
dirtwalls, which is more than Laceys waterway, thus
= 2.92 m
including 600 m shallow depth stretch towards Yanam
Total obstruction = side from the existing bund up to the Ferryghat, over
which approach embankment of suitable height may be
provided, to minimize the cost.
= 222.9 say 222m
3.7 SOIL PARTICULARS
Total waterway = 1143 + 222
The scope of this soil investigation includes

=1365m say 1370m
exploration of subsoil using 150 mm diameter bore holes
form ground surface to hard rock or 1m below refusal
The distance between flood banks at site of crossing is
resistance. It includes conducting various field tests,
2331 m but water spread under HTL condition is about
collection of samples from the field and conducting
1700 m only. On Yanam side there is a flood bank
approximately 600 m form the water line. From this bank various laboratory tests analyzing the results and
preparation of soil investigation report and
about 600 m length of the riverbed is generally dry
recommendations. The field tests conducted include SPT
except for the H.F.L. condition, which of course occurs
once in 10 years or so. This 600 m stretch of bank is at all depths where change of strata occurs and VST for
soft marine clay in bore holes at specified depths in
being cultivated. Thus it shows clearly that scouring does
enclosed bore logs.
not take place in this portion. The total length of the
bridge proposed by contractors is 1800 m (leaving 530 m
The field tests also include collection of US form bore
for approaches) which is more than the water spread
holes, and DS were collected at every meter depth
under HTL condition. The laceys regime width for the
intervals or where the strata changes. The samples
discharge was worked out to be 1143 m. The clear water
collected from the field are subjected to various
way proposed was (1800 224) m = 1576 m is therefore
laboratory tests including atterberg limits, NM C, dry
more than the laceys regime width. The additional water
density, bulk density, void ratio and specific gravity tests
will cater for the flow in the portion of the river, which is
at each bore. The laboratory test program also includes
proposed to be blocked by the approach embankment
grain size analysis tests, undrainedtriaxial tests and
under HTL condition.
consolidation tests in each bore. The results of laboratory
and field investigations are used for classification of soil,
The proposed bridge site is located near the sea and
determination of shear parameters and appropriate
subject to tidal variation. Under HTL condition, the
recommendations for foundation.
waterway is restricted between the banks which are about
1700 m apart. Because of close proximity to the sea,
FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
during the rainy season when the high flood occurs, the
river cannot generate very high velocity with the result
Actual field investigations were carried out with 14
the water spreads on the banks and the highest flood is
bore holes using power driven mechanical auger and
only 1.5 m above the ground. There is cultivation is
wash water. In this method, water was forced under that the vane is rotated at the rate of 0.1 /sec. the
pressure through an inner tube which is rotated inside a maximum dial reading attained is noted. From initial and
casing pipe. The slurry flowing out gives an indication of final dial gauge readings the deflection may be found out.
the soil type. Whenever a change in strata is indicated by Torque may be obtained from the calibration chart. By
the slurry flowing out, washing was stopped and a tube the torque value shear strength of the soil may be
sampler was attached to the end of the drill rod. Soil computed from the height diameter ratio is 2 for the
samples were obtained by driving the sampler into the apparatus using in the field.
soil. The entire boring operation was conducted in
accordance with the provisions laid in IS: 1892 1962 SOIL PROFILE
The diameter of the bore hole was 150 mm and casing At bore hole number LB 3, the soil profile consists
was used to support the walls of the bore hole. US of yellowish clay with sand from + 2.632 m to + 2.032 m
samples were collected using seamless thin walled followed by soft clay from + 2.032 to 1.268. M edium
sampling tubes at all bore holes. The thin walled sampler sand from -1.268 to 3.618, soft clay from 3.618 to
is 100 mm in diameter and 1.7 mm in wall thickness. The 6.868, medium sand from 6.868 to 12.268, soft clay
inside and outside clearances as well as the area ratio of from 12.268 to 17.268, stiff clay from 17.268 to
the sampling tube are within the permissible limit. The 26.468, coarse sand from 26.468 to 30.368, stiff clay
collection of UD samples was done as per provisions laid from 30.368 to 36.868, yellowish very stiff clay from
in IS: 2132 1963. 36.868 to 47.088, yellowish very stiff clay with
pebbles from 47.088 to 55.368, very stiff clay from
SPT were conducted at change of strata in each bore 55.368 to 57.768. Where the bore was terminated the
hole, depending on the soil strata, throughout the depth water table was met with at a depth of 2.5 m below the
of exploration, the SPT was conducted by driving a split EGL.
spoon sampler under the blows of 65 kg weight with a 75
cm free fall. The initial 15 cm penetration was taken as At bore hole number LB 4, the soil profile consists
the seating drive. The number of blows required to drive of yellowish silty sand from + 3.076 to + 0.576 followed
the sampler 30 cm beyond the seating drive is taken as by soft clay from + 0.576 to 6.424, sandy clay from
the SPT N value. Refusal is considered to have been 6.424 to 9.674, stiff clay from 9.674 to 16.424, stiff
reached when the rate of advance is less than 2.5 cm for clay with pebbles from 16.424 to 23.424, coarse sand
50 blows. All standard penetration tests are carried out as from 23.424 to 26.674, yellowish stiff clay from
per provisions in IS: 2131 1963. D S samples were 26.674 to 39.174, yellowish very stiff clay with pebbles
collected at required intervals to assess the nature of soil from 39.174 to 46.124, yellowish very stiff clay with
and to evaluate geo technical properties in the pebbles and traces of mica from 46.124 to 50.924,
laboratory. very stiff clay with pebbles from 50.924 to 57.374.
Field VST is conducted as per IS: 4434 1978 code At bore hole number M B 1, the soil profile consists
to determine inplace shearing resistance in saturated soft of sandy clay from 2.268 to 3.268, medium sand
marine clay. The test was conducted at various depths. 3.268 to 6.768, coarse sand with pebbles sand shells
For conducting tests, the shear vane is pushed into the from 6.768 to 17.268, soft clay from 17.268 to
ground up to a depth of 4 times the diameter of the bore 27.268, sandy clay from 27.268 to -29.268, yellowish
hole or 50 mm whichever is more below the bottom of very stiff clay from 29.268 to 51.968, yellowish very
the bore hole. It was ensured that no torque is applied to stiff clay with pebbles from 51.968 to 63.018 where
the torque rods during the thrust. No hammering was the bore was terminated.
permitted. A minimum period of 5 minutes was allowed
after insertion of the vane. The gear handle is turned so
At bore hole number M B 2, the soil profile consists yellowish clay with pebbles from 27.168 to -66.318
of sandy clay from 4.297 to 4.797, medium sand with where the bore was terminated.
traces of silt from 4.797 to 10.297, medium sand with
traces of silt and clay from 10.297 to 15.047, medium At bore hole M B 8, the soil profile consists of sandy
sand from 15.047 to 21.797, soft clay 21.797 to - clay from 4.113 to 5.613, medium sand with traces of
32.297, yellowish stiff clay from 32.297 to -65.247, silt from 5.613 to 22.613, soft clay with pebbles from
where the bore was terminated. 22.613 to 28.113, yellowish very stiff clay with
pebbles from 28.113 to 64. 963, where the bore was
At bore hole M B 3, the soil profile consists of sandy terminated.
clay from 1.496 to 2.246 followed by medium sand
with traces of silt from 2.246 to 7.746, medium sand At bore hole M B 9, the soil profile consists of
with traces of silt and clay from 7.746 to 13.246, medium sand from 10.250 to 17.45 followed by soft
medium sand 13.246 to 17.596, soft clay from clay with pebbles from 17.45 to 31.05, yellowish
17.596 to -17.796, medium sand from 17.796 to very stiff clay with pebbles from 31.05 to 72.20
20.996, soft clay from 20.996 to 26.996, yellowish where the bore was terminated.
very stiff clay from 26.996 to -62.996, where the bore
was terminated. At bore hole LB 5, the soil profile consists of
brownish stiff clay from + 2.892 to 1.908 followed by
At bore hole M B 4, the soil profile consists of sandy medium sand with traces of silt from 1.908 to -13.108,
clay from 1.413 to 2.163 followed by medium sand soft clay from 13.108 to 25.608, yellowish very stiff
2.163 to -20.913, coarse sand with shells from 20.913 clay with pebbles from 25.608 to 57.858 where the
to 23.913, soft clay 23.913 to 30.413, yellowish bore was terminated.
very stiff clay with pebbles from 30.413 to 62.563
where the bore was terminated. LABORATORY TEST RESULTS
At bore hole M B 5, the soil profile consists of sandy The various soil samples namely the US samples, the
clay from 1.768 to 3.768 followed by medium sand - DS samples and SPT samples were used to determine the
3.768 to 20.768, soft clay from 20.768 to 25.768, following soil properties.
soft clay with pebbles from 25.768 to 28.768,

1) Grain size distribution by wet mechanical
yellowish stiff clay with pebbles from 28.768 to
analysis and hydrometer
62.718 where the bore was terminated.
2) The Atterberg limits i.e., liquid limit, plastic
At bore hole M B 6, the soil profile consists of sandy limit and plasticity index
clay from 3.925 to 4.825 followed by medium sand 3) The specific gravity of soil solids
from 4.825 to 24.925, coarse sand with shells

24.925 to -26.925, soft clay from 26.925 to 30.925,
yellowish very stiff clay with pebbles from 30.925 to -
The US samples collected from the field are testes for the
64.875 where the bore was terminated.
following soil properties
At bore hole M B 7, the soil profile consists of sand

1) Natural moisture content, bulk density and
clay with silt from 5.168 to 6.918 followed by
dry density hence void ratio
medium sand 6.918 to 9.268, sandy clay 9.628 to
2) Shear parameters using triaxial tests in
9.668, medium sand with traces of silt from 9.668 to -
undrained conditions
24.168, soft clay with pebbles from 24.168 to 27.168,
3) Consolidation characteristics using
consolidation tests.
All the soil properties in laboratory are determined as = 4.58 2

per the provision in relevant Indian Standards IS: 2720 Dsm
part I through VIII. Using the test results of the soil
= 4.58 (2)
sample, the soil at the site at different bores and at
16.78
different depths has been classified as per IS: 1498
1970. = - 28.98 m
(RL) say 29 m
SILT FACTOR:
Seismic scour level
M ost of the bore holes have medium sand / sandy clay in
the upper region. The mean particle diameter is obtained = 4.58 (2
from the average grain size distribution curve as shown * 16.78 * 0.9)
in the figure.
= - 25.62 m
M ean particle size
Abutment scour level
= 4.58
Silt factor
(1.27 * 16.78)
= - 16. 73
say 16.75 m
After critical review of field conditions, laboratory

test results and probable foundation systems for bridge
=
sub structures, Bored cast in situ piles are selected
1.27
for bridge abutments and pylons. All piles should be
SCOUR DEPTH: designed as friction cum end bearing piles
The depth of pile foundation is taken from

As per Laceys formula
consideration of scour, settlement and overall stability.
The depth of foundation is generally governed by scour
depth. All the piles shall be taken up to at least 29 m
Where Q = Discharge = 56700 cumecs (RL) at all the bore holes investigated for major bridges.
f = Laceys silt factor for bed material = 1.27 As soft clay layers of large thickness are encountered
in most of the bore holes, considerable amount of
D = mean scour depth
negative drag is expected on piles. However the negative
drag need not be considered under scour conditions. It is
advised to use larger diameter piles which would increase
= 16.78 m the negative friction linearly but would also improve the
vertical load carrying capacity at a higher rate that the
Pier scour level
negative drag. A factor of safety of 2.5 shall be used on
the ultimate capacity estimated by static formula. In stiff
clay layer the C values to be adopted for the pile In this case
capacity are shown in the table 3.
Table 3 C values for stiff clay layer
Depth (RL) C value (t/m2)

-30 to -35 m 63.0
-35 to -40 m 54.0
=47539.2*1000/400
-40 to -45 m 43.5
-45 to -50 m 48.0 =118848 kN/m
-50 to -55 m 48.0
LIVE LOAD: The actual loads i.e., live loads consist of
-55 to -60 m 75.0
axle loads from engine and (i.e., cable stayed bridge of
-60 to -65 m 95.0
span 1000m) bogies. In this case it is necessary to
proceed from the basic wheel loads. The EUDLS for
bending moment and shear force for BG main line
loading are obtained by regression analysis
For bending moment
3.8 LOAD COMPUTATIONS

For shear force
The loads to be considered on the bridge are taken as

specified in IRS Bridge rules. The track is a BG-main
Where L is the effective span for bending moment and
line. The width of the track is taken as 1676 mm. The
loaded length for the maximum effect in the member
various load considered to compute stress in the bridge
under consideration of shear.L is expressed in m
members as follows:-
In this case the wheel loads are considered as shown in

1) Dead load
fig.20.
2) Live load
3) Dynamic effects The train length is taken as 910metres in level grade.
4) Temperature effect From the entire length of the train the segment of loading
5) Frictional resistance of expansion bearings. producing worst effect in the constituent members of the
6) Longitudinal forces bridge is taken as shown in the fig 20 by trial and error.
7) Racking force
8) Wind pressure effect It is clearly evident that the load is moving load and the
9) Forces on parapets shear force and bending moments at various sections are
10) Erection forces and effects. computed by ILDs.
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
DEAD LOAD: The dead load is the weight of the It is evident that the maximum shear force will occur
structure and any permanent load fixed thereon. The dead at the centre of the span. M aximum shear force will
load is initially assumed and checked after design is occur when the entire moving load of span 910m is on
completed. the deck.
In order that maximum positive shear force is The distribution of wheel loads on steel troughing or
produced the leading load should be at section X which is steel or wooden beams spanning transversely to the track
at a distance of x as shown in the figure and supporting the rails directly shall be designed in
accordance with the constant elastic support theory.
Positive shear = 33701.42 kN
DYNAMIC EFFECTS
In order that maximum negative shear force is
produced the trailing load should be at section X When a train moves over a bridge an additional impact
load is caused due to factors such as fast travel of load,
Negative shear = - 3095.42 kN
uneven track, rough joints, imperfectly balanced driving
wheels and lateral sway. The increase in load due to
As the load crosses the centre of the span c the negative
dynamic effects should be considered by adding a load
shear produced at c is
equivalent to a CDA multiplied by the LL giving the
F = - 931.814 kN maximum stress in the member under consideration. The
speeds up to 160 km/h are taken for BG.
Now in order to find the absolute bending moment we
should find the centre of gravity of load system. For main girders of double track spans with 2 girders
C.G of load system = 364.53m from first train load as

shown in the figure
It is also known that the absolute maximum bending Where L is loaded length of span in meters for the
moment will occur when the heaviest load is close to the position of the train giving the maximum stress in the
centre of span. member under consideration
Assume maximum bending moment will occur under L = 910 m

245.2kN load.
For maximum bending moment to occur the load

should occupy such a position on the beam, that the
= 0.114
centre of the span is midway between the centre of
gravity of the load and 245.2kN load. Increase in load due to dynamic effect = 0.114 (47539.2)
Therefore 245.2kN load should be at a distance

= 4519.468 kN/m
= 461m from A as shown in the TEMPERATURE EFFECT

figure
Where any portion of the structure is not free to
The ordinate at the centre is expand (or) contract under variation of temp., allowance
should be made for stresses arising from this condition.
In computing these stresses, the co-efficient of expansion
is assumed as 11.7*10-6 per degree centigrade for steel.
Increase in load due to temperature effects =

The absolute maximum bending moment
M = 4536767.218kN-m
= 0.556 kN/m considered as acting horizontally through the

grider seat where the girders have sliding
bearings. For spans supported on sliding
bearings, the horizontal loads are d ivided
FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE OF EXPANSION
equally between the two ends.
BEARINGS
Frictional resistance of expansion bearings has to be The loaded length L is taken as follows:
taken into account; the co-efficient of friction for steel

1) The length of one span, when
bearings of steel on steel (or) cast iron is 0.25.
considering the effect of the
longitudinal loads on
For expansion (or) contraction of the structure, due to
variation of temperature under dead load, the friction on The girders
the expansion bearing shall be considered as an The stability of abutments
additional load throughout the chord to which the bearing The stability of piers under
plates are attached. the condition of span

loaded, or when piers carry
Load increase due to frictional resistance of expansion one fixed and one roller
bearings bearing.
2) The length of two spans, when
considering the stability of piers
=
carrying fixed or sliding bearing for
11884.8 kN/m
the condition of both spans loaded. In
LONGITUDINAL FORCES this latter case, the total longitudinal

force is to be divided between the 2
Longitudinal loads are caused due to one (or) more of the spans in proportion to their lengths.
following Causes: 3) For determining the value of tractive
effort, L should not be taken to
1) The tractive effort of the driving wheels of
exceed 29m for BG. Where the
locomotives = 490.3kN/m
structure carries more than one track,
2) The braking force due to application of the
the longitudinal loads shall be
brakes to all braked vehicles.
considered to act simultaneously on
Braking force per locomotive =
all tracks. The maximum effect on
0.25*axle load
any girder with 2 tracks so occupied
= 0.25*245.2 should be allowed for, but with more

than 2 tracks a suitable reduction
= 61.3kN/m may be made on the loads for the
additional tracks.
Braking force per train load =
Total longitudinal loads =
0.25*train load
3551.6 + 887.9
= 0.25*80*150 =
4439.5kN/m
= 3000kN/m RACKING FORCES
3) Resistance due to the movement of bearings Lateral bracings of the loaded deck of railway spans
due to change in temperature. These forces are should be designed to resist, in addition to the wind and
centrifugal forces, a lateral load due to racking forces of 3.9 DECK DES IGN
5.9KN/m is treated as a moving load. This lateral load
Generally, the main girders require web stiffening
need not be considered for computing the stresses in
(either transverse or both transverse and longitudinal) to
chords or flanges of main members.
increase efficiency. Sometimes variations of bending
FORCES ON PARAPETS moments in main girders may require variations in flange
thickness to obtain economical design. This may be
Railings or parapets should have a minimum height
accomplished either by welding additional cover plates
above the adjacent roadway or footway surface of 1m
or by using thicker flange plate in the region of larger
less one half of the horizontal width of the top rail (or)
moment. In very long continuous spans (span > 50 m)
top of the parapet. They are to be designed to resist a
variable depth plate girders may be more economical.
horizontal force and the vertical force each of 1.5 kN/m
MAIN GIRDER DESIGN
applied simultaneously at the top of the railing (or)
parapet. The main span is taken as 1000 m and the side spans are
399.4 m each. The plate girders for the main span are
WIND PREESURE EFFECT
designed here and a similar consideration is considered
for the side spans also. The loads are moving loads and
The basic wind pressure is obtained from IS: 875. No
the deck is designed to withstand the worst position of
live load on the bridge need to be considered when the
loading i.e., the maximum bending moment is considered
basic wind pressure at deck level exceeds for BG bridges
for the loading which causes maximum stress in the
1.5kN/m2.
members.
a) For unloaded spans:
One and half times the horizontal Total Load = 188731.52 kN/m for 1000 m
projected area of the spans for decks

As it is not feasible to design a plate girder for the entire
other than plate girders.
span the span of each plate girder is taken as 200 m.
For plate girders, the area of the
windward girder plus a fraction as Effective span (L) = 200m
below of the area of the leeward
girder.
M aximum Bending M oment is calculated as follow

For spacing of leeward girder.
Less than half its depth 0
Half depth to full depth 0.25
Full depth to 1.5 depth 0.50
As the effective span is taken as 200 m the load should
1.5 depth to 2.0 depth 1.00
also be considered proportionally in order that the design
b) For loaded spans: is economical
The area as above for the unloaded portion, plus the area Therefore, for 200 m span length
of the windward girder above and below the moving load
Total Load = 37746.304 kN/m
plus the horizontal projected area of the moving load. For
railway bridges, the height of the moving load is the L = 200m
distance between the top of the highest stack for which
the bridge is designed and the rail level, less than
600mm. In case of foot bridges, the height of moving
load is to be taken as 2m throughout the span.
= 2.494
188731520 kN mm2
m
Assume b=1500 mm
=
188731520*106 N mm
M aximum shear force is calculated as follows

= 2049.7
mm say 2100 mm
Therefore provide 4 plates
Thickness of plates = 525mm

= 3774630.4 kN
Size of the flange plate = (1500*525) mm2
Design of Web
Assume
= 376225.68 mm
= 376.225 m
= 372025.690 mm
=188112.84 mm
= 372.025 m
=
188112.84 +
= 101.46 say 110 1050
mm
=189162.845
Provide a web of =
mm
(372025.690*110) mm
=
40922825.9 mm2
= 5.283447875*1017 mm4
=
40.92 m2
Design of Flange Plate
= 67.19 N/mm2
=
307459
67.19 < 165 N/mm Hence

it is safe
Curtailment of Flange Plates = 92.23 N/mm2
1) = 2107.301 mm
X 1 = 308.67 mm say 310 mm 2) = 2225.392 mm
X 2= 436.525 mm say 440 mm 3) =( ) / 85 = 2225.392 mm
X 3 = 534.632 mm say 535 mm The actual thickness of web 110 mm is less than the
above values hence vertical stiffeners should be
Design of Stiffeners
provided.
It is essential to provide stiffeners at appropriate
In case only vertical stiffeners are provided then the
distance in order that the plate girder is safe.
thickness of web required is as follows:
Bearing Stiffeners:
1) = 934.664 mm
The permissible bearing stress is given by
2) = 945.814 mm
But the actual web thickness of web is 110 mm,

2
= 187.5 N/mm therefore both vertical and horizontal stiffeners are
necessary. After providing the stiffeners the
values should be as follows:
= 20131362.13
1) = 747.73 mm
mm2
2) = 756.651 mm
= 20.13 m2 Since even now the actual thickness of web is less the
required thickness a horizontal stiffener should be
provided at the Neutral Axis. The stiffeners are steel
plates of (10.9 * 0.91) m size with a spacing of 5 m
between each other. All the connections are butt welds
and the design procedure is done in accordance with IS:
800.
Therefore t = 0.91 m
CROSS GIRDER DESIGN
b = 10.9 m A cross girder is very important as it connects the two
main girders and is also responsible for supporting the
Hence provide a plate (10.9 * 0.91) m as bearing stiffener
bridge against all the lateral forces. A cross girder is a
beam column acted upon by the lateral forces i.e., the
Intermediate Stiffener:
wind pressure etc... and also a concentrated transverse
load at the centre of the span of the girder. As the bridge possibility of corrosion. The steel tubes here are taken as
is a double track BG bridge the width of the bridge is 4.5 per the specifications in IS: 228 and steel tables.
m. The direct stress in compression on the cross sectional
For a span of 1000 m 100 cross girders placed at a area of axially loaded steel tubes should not exceed the
spacing of 10 m are found necessary to balance the values of c as per IS: 806. The maximum shear stress in
lateral force and provide bracing of the main girders. a tube is calculated by dividing the total shear by an area
Total Lateral Force is found out to be P = 8900 kN equal to half the net cross sectional area of tube, and
The concentrated load acting on each cross girder is W = this should not exceed the b values mentioned in IS:
475.392 kN 806.
The maximum bending moment is found using the The round tubular sections provide the most efficient
following formula cross sectional shape for compression members having
lateral restraint in all directions normal to the axis of the
member. The diameter of the member should be as large
as possible with the additional requirement of d/t should
= 9334869.523
be small enough to assure that pressure failure by local
N mm
buckling will not occur.
= 9.33 kN m
The local buckling strength of very short perfect tubes
Steel ISHB sections are provided as cross girders.
depends primarily on L/d ratio. The local buckling is
obtained using the following equation.
3.10 PYLON DES IGN

The towers are the most visible elements of a cable-
Where C is approximately equal to 0.6
stayed bridge. Therefore, aesthetic considerations in
tower design are very important. Generally speaking,
In the design of steel tubular compression members
because of the enormous size of the structure, a clean and
attention is to be paid against crinkling and heat
simple configuration is preferable. Though concrete is
treatment. The yield strength of mild steel considerably
the best choice for the pylon, in this case a steel tower is
reduces by any heat treatment which it receives such as
considered as the loads are large and concrete is not
welding. On this account, the precautions should be taken
economical. Steel tubular members are therefore
to prevent heat treatment or the strength must be taken as
considered in the pylon design. The pylon is subjected
that of the annealed material. The former is the better
primarily to compressive loads. The forces acting on the
option as it is both safe and economical. The effective
deck are transferred to the cable in the form of tension;
length is taken as per the specifications in IS: 800. In
these tensile forces in turn are transferred to the pylon.
addition to this the member should also satisfy minimum
Therefore the pylon is designed to withstand the axial
thickness requirement.
forces to which it is subjected. Tubular sections are an
The steel tubes used for construction exposed to the
economical choice especially if the member is designed
weather should not be less than 4 mm thick and for
to resist axial forces. The round tubular sections have 30
construction not exposed should not be less than 3.2 mm
to 40 percent less surface area than that of an equivalent
thick when the structures are not readily accessible for
rolled steel shape. Therefore, the cost of maintenance,
maintenance, the minimum thickness should be 5 mm.
cost of painting reduces considerably. The tubular
The thickness can be found out using the following
sections are used to advantages in structural designed for
formula.
material handling equipment like a bridge where weight
savings are a substantial economic consideration. Apart
from these moisture and dirt do not collect on the smooth = 1.47 m
external surface of the tubes thereby reducing the The crinkling is calculated as follows
that is the weakest point in a cable with respect to

capacity and fatigue behaviour. Therefore consider steel
tables of 7 mm diameter spanning 30 m on the deck.
Hence the number of cables is 17.
3.12 FOUNDATION DES IGN
Where p is stress causing the collapse
Taking into consideration the soil characteristics it is
t is thickness of the tube
found that pile foundations are the most suitable type of
R is M ean radius of tube
foundation in this case. The bearing capacity for pylons
and abutments is as under.
3.11 CABLES DES IGN
For pylon locations, bearing capacity is calculated with c
The basic element for all cables to be found in modern
= 0.8 kg/cm2 and = 80
cable supported bridges is the steel wire characterized by
Calculation of Bearing Capacity for Pylon Foundation
a considerably larger tensile strength than that of
For C = 0.8 kg/cm2
ordinary structural steel. In most cases, the steel wire is
= 80
of cylindrical shape with a diameter between 3 and 7
Nc = 7.606
mm. typically, a wire with a diameter of 55.5mm is
Nq = 2.110
used in the main cables of suspension bridges whereas
Nr = 0.912
wires with diameters up to 7mm are used for parallel
Therefore
wire strands in cable stayed bridges. In the present cable
Sc = 1.3
stayed bridge a harp type cable system is adopted.
Sq = 1.2
Cables are the most important elements of a cable-stayed
Sr = 0.6
bridge. They carry the load of the girder and transfer it to
the tower and the back-stay cable anchorage. The actual
stiffness of an inclined cable varies with the inclination
angle, a, the total cable weight, G, and the cable tension
force, T.
EA(eff) = EA {1+ G2 EA cos2 a(12 T3)} Hence
Where E and A are Youngs modulus and the cross- dq = dr = 1 for = 80

sectional area of the cable. And if the cable tension T For = 0
changes from T 1 to T 2, the equivalent cable stiffness ic = iq = ir = 1
will be w = 1
EA(eff) = EA {1+ G2 EA cos2 a(T1+ T2) (24 T12 T22 )}
In most cases, the cables are tensioned to about 40% = 141.79 t/m2
of their ultimate strength under permanent load all = 141.79 /2.5 = 56.7 t/m2
condition. Under this kind of tension, the effective cable
stiffness approaches the actual values, except for very Addition should be made to the bearing
long cables. However, the tension in the cables may be capacity for skin friction
quite low during some construction stages so that their As per IS: 2911 for cohesive soil,
effectiveness must be properly considered. Skin friction (Qs) = C
A safety factor of 2.2 is usually recommended for cables. As
This results in an allowable stress of 45% of the Here = 0.3
guaranteed ultimate tensile strength (GUTS) under dead C = 8
and live loads. It is prudent to note that the allowable t/m 2
stress of a cable must consider many factors, the most Hence Qs = 0.3 * 8 * D H = 636.4
important being the strength of the anchorage assemblage
D = 6 m and H =
14 m
all = 7.1 t/m2
Therefore total all = 7.1 + 56.7 = 63.8 t/m2
Surcharge = 14 * 1 = 14 t/m2 Hence
Total gross bearing capacity = 63.8 + 14 = 77.8 t/m2
Under seismic / wind case, bearing capacity = 77.8 *
1.25 = 97.25 t/m2 For = 0
Calculation for Bearing Capacity for Abutment A1 ic = iq = ir = 1
For C = 0.1 kg/cm2 w = 1
= 220
Nc = 17.19
Nq = 8.1
= 246.95 t/m2
Nr = 7.59
all = 246.95 /2.5 = 98.8 t/m2
Therefore
Surcharge = 14 * 1 = 14 t/m2
Sc = 1.3
Sq = 1.2
Founding level is at 14 m below scour level and due
Sr = 0.6
to this large embedment, deep seated failure theory
which is nothing but General shear failure theory will
be applicable as there is no chance of punching shear
failure. On this basis bearing capacity has been
calculated by General shear failure theory as per IS:
Hence
6403. The foundation system adopted is group piles at
45 m reduced level.
For = 0
ic = iq = ir = 1
w = 1
= 210.83 t/m2
all = 210.83 /2.5 = 84.3 t/m2
Surcharge = 14 * 1 = 14 t/m2
Calculation for Bearing Capacity for Abutment A2
For C = 0.45 kg/cm2
= 190
Nc = 14.060
Nq = 5.908 CONCLUS ION
Nr = 4.842
Therefore The main aim of this report is to highlight the advantages
Sc = 1.3 of cable stayed bridges. The design of a cable stayed
Sq = 1.2 bridge is presented taking into consideration all the active
Sr = 0.6 forces of nature. The designs have been computed as per
the specifications in the various Indian Standard Codes
and Indian Railway Standards. The cable-stayed bridge is to wind induced oscillation during construction. The
related to the cantilever bridge. The cables are in tension, cables require careful treatment to protect them from
and the deck is in compression. The spans can be corrosion.
constructed as cantilevers until they are joined at the
centre. A cable stayed-bridge lacks the great rigidity of a REFERENCES
trussed cantilever, and the continuous beam compensates
for this. Indeed, while a long cable-stayed span is under 1) Victor Johnson. D., Essentials of Bridge
construction, there can be great concern about possible Engineering, Sixth Edition.
oscillations, until the cantilevers are joined. 2) Ponnuswamy. S., Bridge Engineering,
Second Edition.
Advantages of cable-stayed bridges are that the two 3) Niels J. Gimsing., Cable Supported Bridges
halves may be cantilevered out from each side. There is Concept and Design, Third Edition
no need for anchorage's to sustain strong horizontal 4) Bridge Engineering Handbook
forces, because the spans are self-anchoring. They can be 5) Indian Railway Standard Bridge Rules
cheaper than suspension bridges for a given span. M any 6) Indian Railway Standard Bridge Sub
asymmetrical designs are possible. They can be built structure Code
with any number of towers. The number of cables 7) Indian Railway Standard Steel Bridge Code
required is also less and the time taken for construction is 8) Khurmi .R.S, Theory of Sturctures, Revised
also very less. The aerodynamic design of a cable stayed Edition
bridge is very effective and in spite of very long spans 9) Ram Chandra, Design of Steel Structures,
the lateral sway due to wind pressure can be easily Volume 1
countered by a cable stayed bridge. These bridges do 10) Troitsky, M .S., Cable stayed bridges
not block the waterway and thereby provide greater Theory and Design
width and height for navigation. 11) Department of Roads and Building,
Government of Andhra Pradesh
Disadvantages of cable-stayed bridges are that in the
longer sizes, the cantilevered halves are very susceptible

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IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg.

, Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005

DESIGN OF CABLE STAYED

A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles

days. Cable stayed bridges are easy to construct and advantages:

maintain. The history of bridges, bridge components and

5) Sydney Harbor Bridge, Australia 6) Cable stayed bridges

Loads are carried primarily in compression by the

A suspension bridge carries vertical loads from the

In cable stayed bridge, the vertical loads on the deck

3) Abutments and piers;

Some of the components of a typical bridge are shown in

Fig. 5 Parts of Bridge

The superstructure consists of the components that

The top part of abutments, piers, and bents is called

When the soils beneath a footing are not capable of

Continuous S pan: A superstructure which extends as

Cantilever S pan: A cantilever span is a span which

Fig. 7 Abutment Types

SPANS AND SPAN LENGTH

The terms bridge and span are used interchangeable;

A bridge is made up of one or more spans. A span is a

A number of cable stayed bridges have been built in

Fig. 10 Godavari Bridge, India (Steel Arch Bridge)

2.2. CLAS S IFICATION OF BRIDGES

Bridge may be classified into different types depending

Function: Based on the purpose for which a

Material: Based on the material used for

Form: Based on the form of the superstructure

Type of support: Bridges are also classified

Usage: The time period for which a particular

Fig. 11 Through Type Bridge

Grade separators: The purpose of separation

2.3 CABLE S TAYED BRIDGES

A cable stayed bridge is a bridge whose deck is

Table 1. List of Cable Stayed Bridges

requiring large bending stiffness. The stay forces are

The multiple stay cable system also permits easy

TYPICAL CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

The first modern cable stayed bridge was the

Akkar Bridge (2 spans of 79.0 m) and Hardwar bridge (2

The height of the tower should be preferably being in

The stay cables constitute critical components of a

long lay strands. The sizes of cables are selected to

The cables are pre - stressed by introducing additional

CONSTRUCTION BY CANTILEVER M ETHOD

LOCATION OF BRIDGE Approaches

In addition, major river crossings should satisfy

point of` the minimum width of waterway that will be required

Some particulars which come under this heading have

area. The hydrographical, i.e., gauging and discharge

CONSTRUCTION RESOURCES even 50 to 60 km away.

During the field survey, sufficient information should TRAFFIC FORECAST

be collected to have an idea of the type of labour that will

and direction of flow of the river and will help

Railway track always leads to improvement in

tourism. 3) This lies beyond the territory of pondicherry

provided. Hydrographic surveying was used for

super-structure where the clearance is required

between the water level corresponding to the = 520 m

formation level of the approach banks or the condition = -29.00

top level of guide banks. Seismic condition

FULL SUPPLY LEVEL (FSL) in the case of = -25.62