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Introduction
The traction vector, T, is simply the force
vector on a cross-section divided by that
cross-section's area.

F
T =
Area

So T has units of stress, like MPa, but it is


absolutely a vector, not a stress tensor. So
all the usual rules for vectors apply to it. Ref: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:stress_vector.svg
For example, dot products, cross products,
and coordinate transforms can be applied.

Calculating a Traction Vector

The object below has a 400 mm2 cross sectional area and is being pulled in tension by a
4,000 N force (red) in the x-direction. So the (arbitrarily chosen) rightward pointing internal
force vector (blue) is

F = 4, 000 i N

y
F F F
x

It is cut (virtually) so the traction vector is

1
T = ( ) 4,000 i N = 10.0 i MPa
2
400 mm
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400 mm

Note the units are MPa now rather than N.

This time, the object is cut (virtually again) at a 30 angle.

y
F F F
x

The applicable area in this case is

2
400 mm
2
A = = 462 mm

cos(30 )

And the traction vector is

1
T = ( ) 4,000 i N = 8.66 i MPa
2
462 mm

Note the direction of the traction vector is always the same as the internal force vector. Only
its magnitude changes with cut angle.

Normal and Shear Stresses


Normal and shear stresses are simply the
components of the traction vector that are
s
n
normal and parallel to the area's surface as
shown in the figure. Using n for the unit
normal vector to the surface, and s for the unit
vector parallel to it, means that T
= T n and = T s

It's very important to recognize that and


t s
here are each scalar values, not full tensors.
This is the natural result of the dot product
operations involving T, n, and s . (Dot
products produce scalar results.)

The normal and shear stress values here are


scalars rather than tensors because they are
only two individual components of the full stress tensor.

Also, note that in 3-D, there are in fact an infinite number of s vectors parallel to the surface, each
having a different component in-and-out of the page, so to speak. This is why it is common to specify
one parallel to the page and a second perpendicular to it
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one parallel to the page and a second perpendicular to it.

Normal and Shear Stress from a Traction Vector


Recall that the traction vector from the above example was

1
T = 4,000 i N = 8.66 i MPa
2
462 mm

The unit normal to the surface is


n = (cos 30 , sin 30 , 0)

So the normal stress on the surface is


= T n = (8.66, 0, 0) (cos 30 , sin 30 , 0) = 7.5 MPa

The vector parallel to the surface is


s = ( sin 30 , cos 30 , 0)

The shear stress on the surface is


= T s = (8.66, 0, 0) ( sin 30 , cos 30 , 0) = 4.33 MPa

Stress Tensors and Traction Vectors


The relationship between the traction vector and stress state at a point results directly from setting the
sum of forces on an object equal to zero, i.e., imposing equilibrium.

xx A cos + xy A sin = Tx A

xy A cos + yy A sin = Ty A

The area, A, cancels out of both sides leaving

xx cos + xy sin = Tx

xy cos + yy sin = Ty

A cosO A T
but cos and sin are the components of the
O
unit normal to the surface, n = (cos , sin ),
that T is acting on.
sxx Ty
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xx y
Replacing the cos and sin with n x and n y y
gives Tx
x

txy
xx n x + xy n y = Tx

syy
xy n x + yy n y = Ty

A sinO
Both equations can be summarized as

T = n
T
or in tensor notation as
O
Ty
Ti = ij n j
sxx Tx
y
The above equations are very useful, compact, n = (cosO , sin O)
matrix and tensor notation representations of
the equilibrium equations. The full equations, in x
3-D, are
txy
xx n x + xy n y + xz n z = Tx syy
yx n x + yy n y + yz n z = Ty

zx n x + zy n y + zz n z = Tz

The tensor notation term, ij n j , leads to nine separate stress components. For example, both xz and
zx are present above, and both are always equal. This is in fact common in all equations involving
stress and strain.

Traction Vector from Stress Tensor


Given the stress tensor (in MPa)

50 10 30

= 10 95 20

30 20 15

Calculate the traction vector on a surface with unit normal n = (0.400, 0.600, 0.693) .

Tx 50 10 30 0.400 46.79

Ty = 10 95 20 0.600 = 74.86




Tz 30 20 15 0.693 34.40

So T = 46.79 i + 74.86 j + 34.40 k MPa .

If the area is 100 mm2, then the force on it would be F = 4, 679 i + 7, 486 j + 3, 440 k N .
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If the area is 100 mm , then the force on it would be F .
4, 679 i + 7, 486 j + 3, 440 k N

Stress Transforms
This section introduces an aspect of coordinate transformations of stress tensors that is a subset of the
general case, which comes later. It does so by combining different equations involving the traction
vector.

Recall that the normal and shear stresses on a surface are related to the traction vector by

= T n and = T s

Recall that the normal and shear stresses here are just scalar quantities on the surface, not a full stress
tensor.

But we also saw that the traction vector is related to the full stress tensor by

T = n

Substituting this equation for T into the above ones gives

= n n and = s n

In tensor notation, the equations are

= ij n i n j and = ij si n j

These represent very useful relationships between the stress tensor in the global coordinate system and
the normal and shear stress components at any other orientation.

Stress Transform Example


Recall the above stress tensor

50 10 30

= 10 95 20

30 20 15

We had calculated the traction vector on a surface with unit normal


n = (0.400, 0.600, 0.693). This time, calculate the normal and shear stresses on this

surface.

The normal stress on the surface is

{0.400 0.600 0.693} 50 10 30 0.400


= 10 95 20 0.600


30 20 15 0 693
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30 20 15 0.693

= 87.47MPa

In order to compute a shear stress, we first need a specific one of an infinite number of unit
vectors parallel to the surface. Let's choose s = (0.832, 0.555, 0.000). A dot product will
verify that this vector is perpendicular to n.

{0.832 0.555 0.000} 50 10 30 0.400




= 10 95 20 0.600


30 20 15 0.693

= 2.62MPa

So there is very little shear on this face in the given s direction. But this doesn't mean that
there is no shear on the face at all. To see this, choose a second direction parallel to the
surface and perpendicular to the first s. Obtain this by crossing the unit normal vector with the
first tangential vector.

n s = (0.400 i + 0.600 j + 0.693 k) (0.832 i + 0.555 j + 0.000 k)

= 0.385 i 0.576 j + 0.721 k

So the shear in the direction perpendicular to the first is

{-0.385 -0.576 0.721} 50 10 30 0.400


= 10 95 20 0.600


30 20 15 0.693

= 36.33MPa

So there is a good bit of shear stress in this perpendicular direction. And the negative value
indicates that it is in the direction opposite of the s direction.

Transformation Tip
This transformation "trick" could be used to compute the normal and shear stresses on all six
faces of a cube at any random orientation, and in the process, perform a complete coordinate
transformation of a stress tensor. But it's actually easier to do = Q QT just as is the
case for strain tensors.

But the opposite is also true. The stress tensor can be replaced with the strain tensor to obtain

normal = n n and /2 = s n

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Or in tensor notation as

normal = ij n i n j and /2 = ij si n j

This works because since both stress and strain are tensors, then any math operation that
applies to one also applies to the other.

For a quick math review, note that si n j in the above equations can be interpreted as a diadic product of
the two vectors, s n. And then this result is "double dotted" with the stress or strain tensor to obtain
the final scalar shear value. So the calculation could be written as

= s n = : (s n)

(The same could also be done to compute the normal stress as well.)

This diadic product for shear arises so often in metal plasticity that it is represented by the single letter
p, and named the Schmidt tensor after the engineer who studied metal plasticity in the early 1900's.

s1 n 1 s1 n 2 s1 n 3

p = s n = s2 n 1 s2 n 2 s2 n 3

s3 n 1 s3 n 2 s3 n 3

Forces on Cross Sections


Before closing, recall one more time that the force on a
cross-section is

F = T dA = n dA

Both forms turn up often in literature.

Textbooks

2 Comments Continuum Mechanics Brajesh Kumar

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Brajesh Kumar 4 days ago


Sir i have confusion in this sentence."And the negative value indicates that it is in the direction
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opposite of the s direction." What will be the opposite direction since the two directions of shear stress
are perpendicular.
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BobMcG Moderator > Brajesh Kumar 4 days ago


Thanks for the interest, Brajesh. The "s" is a vector with direction: 0.385i0.576j+0.721k. The
fact that this led to a negative shear value (tau = -36.33 MPa) means that the net shear force
on the face is in a direction opposite to the "s" vector direction. Or in other words, the shear
stress, resulted from a shear force in the opposite direction.
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