FLUID TRANSIENTS in Hydro-Electric Engineering Practice CHARLES JAEGER MAILC.E., S.LA., Dr. &s Sc. Techn. (Zurich) Formerly Professor at the Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich Formerly Visiting Professor of Hydro-Power Engineering, Imperial College, London Formerly Visiting Professor of Rock Mechanics, Colorado State University Blackie Glasgow and LondonBlackie & Son Limited Bishopbriggs Glasgow G64 2NZ 450/452 Edgware Road London W2 1EG © 1977 C. Jaeger First published 1977 Alll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, jin any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the Publishers International Standard Book Number 0.216 90225 8 Filmset by Technical Filmsetters (Europe) Limited, Manchester, England Printed in Great Britain by Robert Macl.chose & Co. Ltd, Printers to tho University of GlasgowPreface WHILE THE BROAD OUTLINES OF THE ANALYTICAL THEORIES OF FLUID Transients were well established by the early fifties, considerable advances have been made since then. The development of graphical methods and computer techniques opened up unexpected new areas of research of particular application to industry. This book summarizes modern theories of Fluid Transients and illustrates some practical applications of new techniques. Within the last two decades, considerable experience has been gained in the design of very large hydro-power stations, modern pumped-storage plants, water distribution systems, and water cooling systems for thermal or nuclear stations. Unforeseen difficulties with surge stability of surge tank systems or with resonance in conduits led to more research, backed by model and in situ tests. The results of this research have been discussed at international engineering congresses and symposia. This book presents a discussion of problems facing design engineers, with reference to particular case histories. It will be of interest not only to designers and consultant engineers but also to students, for whom this approach represents the best method of training. There is a strong feeling in academic circles and among practising engineers that university work should, in future, be more closely involved with actual engineering projects. To make the case-history analyses understandable, the chapters on basic theories, graphical and computer methods have been developed to points at which they can be of immediate use. The book is divided into three parts: Part A covers mass oscillations in surge systems; Part B deals with the theory of water hammer; and Part C considers engineering problems, case histories, and model and in situ tests, irrespective of whether they are on surges or on water hammer, and irrespective of the method—analytical, graphical or computing—used to solvé them. Several methods often have to be used in parallel to analyse the diverse aspects of practical situations. A sound knowledge of the relevant theories is a first requirement for the designer, But, conversely, solutions of case histories have given new impulses to theoretical research. The book will frequently illustrate this reciprocal relationship between theory and practice. YContents Preface Introduction PART A: MASS OSCILLATIONS IN SURGE SYSTEMS Chapter 1. Oscillations in the Elementary Surge System (Pressure Tunnel, Pressure Pipeline and Surge Tank) Chapter 2. Notation Chapter 3. The Basic Equations of Mass Oscillations in the Simple Surge Tank (a) The dynamic equation (6) The equation of continuity Chapter 4. Solution of Equations (I) and (IJ), neglecting Tunnel Friction (a) Sudden closure of turbine valve (b) Sudden opening of turbine valve, or sudden increase in load (c) Linear rate of change of load Chapter 5. Calculation of Water-level Oscillations, including Tunnel Friction. Direct Integration (a) Sudden complete closure of turbine valve (b) Linear rate of decrease of load; sudden increase of load (6) Choice of the factor F for friction losses (A) Intake losses Chapter 6. Step-by-step Integration (a) Pressel’s method (b) Direct determination of Az from equations (1*) and (2*) (c) Escande’s finite-difference method (d) Further remarks on the analysis of surge shafts Chapter 7. Introduction of Ratios into the Calculation of Surge Tanks (a) Vogt parameters (b) Calame and Gaden parameters (c) Api otal rejection of load) tion to the calculation of instantaneous total closure (instantaneous vil il 13 21Contents (d) Gradual linear closure (linear reduction of load) (e) Sudden opening from rest (load suddenly thrown on; constant flow to turbine) Chapter 8. Surge Shafts with Expansion Chambers {a) General methods of computation (b) Partial increase of load, surge shafts with expansion chambers Chapter 9. Head Losses in Pipe Junctions (Pipe Branchings) Chapter 10. Throttled Surge Tanks (a) The cylindrical surge tank with throttled inlet (b) Johnson's differential surge tank Chapter 11. Other Surge-tank Problems (a) Multiple surge tanks (b) Underground power stations {c) Surge chamber with an enclosed compressed air cushion (d) Surge tanks or shafts fed by more than one tunnel (e) Long pressure tunnels fed by a series of intermediary adits or intake shafts (f) Determination of the rate of valve closure ensuring a required’sequence of pressures at the downstream end of a tunnel (g) The problem of a burst in the pipeline Chapter 12. The Stability of Single and Multiple Surge Tanks (a) Stability of cylindrical surge tanks and of shafts with expansion chambers cases of small and large amplitudes (b) Stability of throttled, differential, and multiple surge tanks (0) Other factors which may influence surge-tank stability (d) Choice of the factor of safety n. Effect of the factor n on the course of the oscillations (2) Additional remarks on the stability of downstream surge tanks Chapter 13. The Graphical Method of Schoklitsch (a) Basic principles of the method (b) Surge tank with overflow (0) Flow Q, into the surge shaft, from external sources (d) Throttled surge tank (sudden loading and sudden rejection of load) {e) The differential surge tank (f) Analysis of multiple surge tanks Chapter 14. Computing Techniques Chapter 15. Comparison of Experimental Results with those of Computation 29 36 42 52 73 105 119 123Contents ix PART B: THEORY OF WATER HAMMER Chapter 16. Allievi's Theory of Water Hammer in a Pipeline of Constant Diameter and Constant Thickness of Wall 127 (a) Notation (b) Derivation of basic equations of water hammer (0) Physical meaning of equations (II) (d) Note on the calculation of the velocity of propagation a (2) Allievi’s interlocked series of equations for a simple pipeline () Analysis of particular problems of importance (g) Pressure surges at any point along the pipeline (A) Water hammer in pipes with reversed flow Chapter 17. General Theory of Water Hammer in a System of Pipelines or Tunnels 148 (a) Main equations (b) Calculation of the reflection coefficient 9, (c) Parallel pipelines (d) Conical pipelines {e) Approximate method of water-hammer analysis Chapter 18. Theory of Water Hammer in Pipelines with Surge Tanks 159 Chapter 19. Theory of Pipelines with Air Vessels 162 (a) Fock’s theory for large air vessels (without allowing for the vessel's elasticity) (b) Allievi’s theory for smaller clastic air vessels (c) The perfect-gas law Chapter 20. Theory of Periodic Motion and Resonance in Pipelines 166 (a) Periodic motion in simple pipelines (6) Basic equations of periodic motion in compound pipelines (@) Resonance in compound pipelines. Overtones (d) Self-excited oscillations Chapter 21. Governing of Turbines 177 (a) Change of power with time (0) Determination of rotating masses {c) Inclusion of governor equation {d) Inclusion of the inertia of rotating masses in step-by-step calculations Chapter 22. The Graphical Method of Schnyder and Bergeron 189 (a) Basic principles of the method (b) Analysis of water hammer in a pipeline of constant diameter: friction neglected (c) Water-hammer analysis for a pipeline with variable diameter: friction neglected (d) Intersection of three pipes: case of a simple branch (e) Water hammer in a system consisting of a reaction turbine placed between upstream and downstream pressure tunnels, (/) Allowance for friction (g) Introduction of the inertia term WR? into Schnyder-Bergeron diagramsContents Chapter 23, Computer Techniques for Hydraulic Transients 218 (a) The digital computer (6) The electronic analog Chapter 24. Controlling Pressure Rises. Valve Stroking. Controlling Valves for Pumped-storage Schemes 226 Chapter 25. Comments on the Theories and Methods on Surges and Water Hammer 228Contents PART C: ENGINEERING PROBLEMS, CASE HISTORIES, MODEL TESTS AND IN SITU TESTS ON HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS I. Introduction Il. Stability of Surges in Hydro-Power Plants. Jn situ Tests Chapter 26. Stability of Large Surges. In situ Tests (a) Developments of theory (b) In situ test results and case histories (c) Method for improving the stability of surges {d) Model tests for checking Bersimis II surge stability (2) Norwegian model tests (/) Additional remarks on the stability factor to be adopted (g) Conclusions concerning the theory of stability of large surge oscillations Chapter 27. Stability of Systems of Surge Tanks (a) Two surge tanks located in series along the same pressure tunnel or collecting gallery (i) General equati (ii) Stability conditions ii) Discussion of stability conditions (b) Double surge-tank system: one tank on each side of a reaction turbine (c) One turbine fed by two pressure systems Chapter 28. Stability of Medium and Low-head Power Stations connected to a Large Electric System (a) Investigation of a surge tank working on an isolated system (b) The unstable hydraulic system is connected to a large electric system III. Resonance in Industrial Pressure Systems Chapter 29. The General Analytical Equations Governing Resonance in Systems of Conduits (a) Resonance of the fundamental of the system (6) Resonance of harmonics in a system of pipelines (c) Resonance in parallel pipes Chapter 30. Solving Resonance Problems on Digital Computers Chapter 31. Case Histories and Comments (a) The Lac Blane—Lac Noir case (b) The accident at Kandergrund tunnel {c) Resonance at Bersimis II Power Station (Quebec Hydro-Blectric Commission) (a) The Flestiniog incidemt (e) Other cases (/) Remarks on the shape and dimensions of hydro-power conduits in relation to possible resonance (g) Conclusions (i) Natural frequeney of components Gi) Prevention und cure of resonance 231 235 252 279 285 290 293xii Contents Chapter 32. In situ Tests on Resonance (a) Early tests on resonance in pressure conduits (b) Tests and measurements on the Bersimis II system IV. Water Hammer Caused by Pumps Chapter33. General Information on Hydraulic Transients Caused by Pumps (a) Simple treatment of pumping problems (b) Typical water-hammer problems involving pumps Chapter 34. Trip-outs of Pumps: Correlation of Graphical or Computer Calculations and Tests Chapter 35. Pumped-storage Projects (a) General remarks (b) Systems equipped with reversible runners (0) Systems with separate runners (a) Remarks on runner characteristics V. Special Problems, Methods and Results. Checking and Testing Hydro-power plants. Other Engineering Problems Chapter 36. Methods and Results: a Comparative Analysis (a) Analytical and graphical methods (b) Model tests (c) Field testing 2 (d) Hussain on methods and field tests (i) First method: based on equation of masses (rigid column theory) i) Alternative method based on the theory of pressure transients Gi) Comparative calculations with mass equations and elastic wave equations iv) In situ tests carried out at the Simmentluh power station Chapter 37. Water-column Separation. Vacuum. Cavitation (a) Cavitation (b) Vacuum caused in pipes or conduits by gate or valve movements (© Column separation and vacuum in hydro-power plants (d) Water-column separation in pumping systems. (@) Laboratory and in situ tests, Chapter 38. Vibrations of Conduits other than Resonance Vibrations (a) Vibrations in the Geesthacht pumped-storage plant (6) Case history concerning the rupture of a large steel lining inside a hydro- Power tunnel VI. Concluding Remarks Selected References Indexes Author Index Subject Index Index of yeogruphicul names 311 319 349 362 371 379 381 401Introduction THE PREFACE SUMMARIZES THE LINES ALONG WHICH THIS BOOK HAS BEEN conceived. It aims to bridge the gap between the theories of fluid transients and real engineering problems, as solved by practising engineers. Detailed analyses of case histories, describing not only the problems to be solved but also the methods used by designers and manufacturers to analyse them, is the main contribution of this book. To guide the reader in his approach, basic information on surges (Part A) and on water-hammer theories and methods (Part B) precedes Part C, which deals with the practical applications. As mentioned in the Preface, the choice of practical cases and examples was influenced by the topics selected for discussion at international engineering conferences and symposia. To cope with more advanced theories and to benefit fully from the powerful computing methods developed over the last two decades, there has been in technical universities a trend towards scientific and mathematical aspects of engineering, However, more recent inquiries have detected a change and have shown there to be “a strong feeling that university work should in future be more closely involved with actual engineering projects and with the engineers responsible for such work”.’ Direct contacts with great technical universities have proved this development to have a con- siderable body of support. The present book has therefore been written for practising engineers who may be interested in comments on case histories but also for advanced students anxious to study some “real life” situations. Students may have to go through the basic information summarized in Parts A and B before really coming to grips with Part C. (a) The problems to be solved The range of engineering problems connected with hydraulic transients has been considerably widened in the last ten to twenty years. As large hydro- power stations with complex pressure conduits are interconnected to large Ss¥ducution, leme mathe, move involvement,” New Cled! Prigineer, 14 Maveh 1974, p. 48xiv Introduction electric systems, responsive turbine governing and reliable surge stability are becoming increasingly important. Resonance in conduits has always interested theoreticians but, when severe cases of resonance have occurred in large industrial conduits, practising engineers have also become involved, and theories and testing methods have had to be taken a step further. To balance the electric base-load generated by large thermal or nuclear power stations, pumped-storage plants are now becoming favoured. Such plants were developed in great numbers within a few yearsin many industrial countries. A series of difficult problems of pump design and of water hammer generated by pumps or reversible turbines had to be solved. Large pumps were also used to circulate water in the cooling systems of thermal power stations. While, in the past, pump designers and manufacturers could be guided by practical experience, new methods and accurate analyses of pressure waves became of paramount importance to modern engineering. (b) The methods to be used Progress has been achieved in the methods to be used for the analysis of such real cases. The introduction of electronic analogues and digital computers into engineering has caused a reappraisal of earlier methods of transient analysis and research. There was a time when some experts predicted that graphical transient analysis would render analytical methods obsolete. Now, similarly, it is being argued that electronic and digital computing will supersede graphical methods. Certainly computer programming methods for transients have been devised which allow practising engineers to solve any problems which arise. The precision of the analyses obtained by such computing methodsis greater than that ofanalytical or graphical methodsin the past. But the progress of recent years presents a somewhat different picture. Graphical and analytical methods are still in use and have not lost their importance. A typical example is the analysis of the severe resonance pressure waves which originated in the Bersimis IT pressure system (11 and 29 June, 1961). They will be described in detail in Part C. As soon as news of the pressure oscillations was published, and the type of oscillations was described, it was possible to check that they were a special case of analytical theories developed—as an academic exercise—in the years 1936 and 1939," (The same theories had already been used in 1946 to explain the rupture of the Kandergrund pressure tunnel).? These analytical equations were used * Jaeger, C.,"Notesur lesphénoménes périodiques dans les conduites foretes dcaractéristiques multiples”, La Houille Blanche, Vol. 35, Nos. 233-236, May-August 1936, Jaeger, C, “Theory of Resonance in Pressure Conduits”, Trans. A.S.M.E,, February 1939, pp. 109-115. 2 Jaeger.C.." Water Hammer Effects in Power Conduits”, Civil Engineering and Public Works Review, Vol. 43, Nos. 500 503, February May 1948 On auto-oscillations, see also Jaeger, C., Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Blackie, Glasgow, 1986, pp. 322 323: und Rocurd, Y.. Les phénoménes d'auto-oscllation dans lex msrallarions bvdraudiques, Merman, Paix WAT; and [unstalilté en mécanique, Masson, Paris 1954Introduction xv for an analysis of the resonance waves which had occurred in Bersimis IT. The consultants, H. G. Acres (Niagara Falls)' and the Hydro-Electric Commission, Ontario, the owners of the Bersimis II underground power station, analysed the same pressure oscillations with Schnyder-Bergeron diagrams when preparing the extensive in situ tests to be carried out a few months later. In 1965, Streeter and Wylie, using a very elaborate digital-computer programme? carried out afar more searching analysis of the same resonance tests, Their paper became a classic. The sequence of steps in this inquiry is characteristic: first the analytical approach develops the basic equations, then the graphical diagrams illustrate them, and finally the computer treatment searches for more details and precision. The mathematical analysis opens the way to the more powerful computer treatment of hydraulic transients. Examples of alternative methods used in parallel for solving transient problems will be given in Part C. They concern surge tank stability where electronic analogues, model tests and in situ tests are used to check mathematical analyses. For the interpretation of in situ tests along the whole system of pressure conduits and surge tank of the Simmenfluh power plant, Hussain* developed a computer programme partly based on surge equations and partly on water-hammer wave theory. For this last programme he followed closely the Bergeron diagrams. A recent symposium on water hammer in pumped-storage plant* has shown. how graphical and computer solutions are used equally by competent experts. The ways in which practising engineers solve their many problems * have convinced the author that the analytical theories, the graphical methods and the computer programmes are equally important techniques which must be explored in parallel. (c) The historical development of hydraulic transient theories, methods and engineering. The preceding paragraphs demonstrated the reciprocal interactions of engineering requirements and theoretical research. A detailed history of hydraulics of this period and of these reciprocal interactions has still to be written. Theearly developments of the theories on surges and water hammer to the year 1950 were outlined in the author's Engineering Fluid Mechanics. More ‘Abbott, H. Gibson, W. L. and McCaig, .W.," Measurements of Auto-oscillation in a Hydro-electric Supply Tunnel und Penstock System”, Journal Busic Eng., Vol 85, December 1963, pp. 625-630. AStrecter, V. L. and Wylie, K. B.. Hydraulic Transients, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967, pp. 116-149. ‘Husain, Chambren déquilibre, Parix, Dunod, 1966, * Amencan Society of Mechanical Lingineers (A.8.M 1.) International Symposium on “Water Hammer in Pumped Stonige Plant", New York, 1968xvi Inteusduction recently C. S, Martin’ extended his inquiry into the state of the art to 1973. His paper, together with the discussions it aroused, givesan excellent picture of the more recent developments of theories, methods and model tests in Europe. The efforts of the International Association of Hydraulic Research (LA.H.R.) and of many national organizations in Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, etc., should also be mentioned in a complete review of the state of the art. A similar inquiry into research work carried out in eastern countries would be of equal interest. Joukovsky?, a Russian, was one of the first authors to analyse pressure rises caused by water-hammer waves, and it is very likely that since these early beginnings Russian scientists have been studying hydraulic transients systematically. Roumanian scientists have continued research on sonic vibrations initiated by Constantinescu*. More important for a correct estimate of the trends of modern research in the field of hydraulic transients is the contribution of the English-speaking section of the Western world. American and English authors were among the first to contribute to the computer analysis of transients. As early as 1953, the American Society of Civil Engineers arranged for an important paper on electrical analogues to be published*. The paramount importance of American publications on the use of digital computers to investigate hydraulic transients is known to all?. Obviously the American efforts have been followed closely by British scientists who contributed equally important papers. A second area in which American and British contributions have been important is in the practical application of scientific research to engineering problems. The American Societies of Civil and Mechanical Engineers and the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (London) have set up committees and organized symposia which have contributed greatly to the advancement ofengineering techniques, bridging the gaps between theory and reality. The meetings they organized were attended by experts from many countries. A typical example was the Symposium on Pumped Storage®, which witnessed a lively exchange of ideas and knowledge between designers, manufacturers and theoreticians. The author will endeavour, especially in Part C, to outline some of these contributions to what might be called the cross-fertilization of science and engineering. * Martin, C. S., “Status of Fluid Transients in Western Europe and the United Kingdom: Report on laboratory visits by Freeman Scholar”, Journal of Fluids Engineering, June 1973, pp. pp. 301-317. ? Joukoysky, N. E., “Water Hammer”, Mem. Imperial Academy Sc. of St Petersburg, 1898 and 1900, Vol.9, No. 5 (translated by Miss O. Simin, Proc. Am. Water-Works Ass0c.. 1904), p. 341 + Constantinescu, G., Theory of Sonics, A Treatise on Transmission of Power by Vibrations, Vol. 1, London, + American Soci of Chul Engncers, “Electrica! Analogies and Elesteone Compu” Paper No 2569, Trans., Vol. 118, 1953, pp. 961-1067. * Streeter and Wylie’s book Hydraulic Transients is a classi * AS.M.E. International Symposium on “Water Hammer in Pumped Storage Pla 1966. which includes @ detailed bibliography. New York,PART A Mass Oscillations in Surge Systems1 OSCILLATIONS IN THE ELEMENTARY SURGE SYSTEM (PRESSURE TUNNEL, PRESSURE PIPELINE AND SURGE TANK) Let us consider the elementary hydraulic system consisting of reservoir (1) pressure tunnel (2) pressure pipeline or penstock (3) surge tank (4) control valve-(5), as shown in figure 1.1. The pressure tunnel is sensitive to pressure variations, and the purpose of the surge tank is to protect the pressure tunnel from high pressure variations by intercepting pressure waves travelling up the pipeline. As will be shown later, the insertion ofa surge tank also reduces the pressure oscillations in the pipeline. Unlike the tunnel, however, the pipeline must be constructed, in most cases, with sufficient strength to withstand considerable shock. a) Figure 1.1 The elementary surge system In order to give a clearer picture of the behaviour of the surge system, manometers are connected to the lower (m2) and upper (m,) ends of the pressure pipeline. The upper manometer m, registers pressure oscillations with a long period (100 to 500s). Simultaneous water-level readings in the surge tank show that the oscillations there synchronize with the manometer oscillations. The oscillations of the upper manometer m, depend solely on the free-surface oscillations in the surge tank. The lower manometer m, registers two pressure oscillations of quite different types. The first oscillation is one of very short period (a few seconds). This is superposed on the other, much slower, oscillation which is readily2 Part A Mass Oscillations in Surge Systems seen to be identical with the oscillation at the upper end of the pressure pipeline (m,). Frequently the first (short-period) oscillation has died down before the second (slow) oscillation gradually sets itself in motion. The short period of the first oscillation which is only registered by the lower manometer m, indicates its elastic origin. Pressure waves, similar to sound waves in air or water, or to elastic pressure wavesin solids, are set up in the pressure pipeline oflength L, as may be confirmed by simple experiments. For example, ifa sudden movement of the control valve (5) sets up a pressure wave (see figure 1.2), its progress along the pipeline may be followed to and fro by means of manometers, and the wave velocity or celerity a may be deduced (a = 800 to 1400 m/s or 2700 to 4700 ft/s). The time taken by the wave to travel from the control valve to the surge tank and back is identical with the period of the first (rapid) oscillations which are called pressure waves or, in certain cases, “water hammer”. Figure 1.2 Pressure wave Figure 1.3. Mass oscillation in communicating vessels The first oscillation of long periodicity, which is registered by both manometers m, and mz, is readily comparable with the mass oscillation in communicating vessels (see figure 1.3). Let us suppose that one of the vessels shown in figure 1.3 is large (the reservoir), so that its amplitude of oscillation (z,) becomes negligibly small and only the oscillation (z3) in the narrower vessel (the surge tank) need be taken into account. The pressure tunnel is represented by the horizontal connecting pipe. Slow oscillations in such a system are called mass oscillations or mass surges. It is possible to show’ that pressure waves represent the primary phenomenon and mass oscillations the secondary one. A logical treatment would, therefore, start with a study of pressure waves, but the simpler physics of mass oscillations makes it preferable to reverse this sequence. Jaeger, ©. Théorte générale dir coup de baller, Dunod, Pur, 191,2 NOTATION H = gross head, Ho = head available at surge tank, in steady state. Ay = area of cross-section of tunnel. L = length of tunnel. horizontal area of cross-section of surge tank. Ap = area of cross-section of pipeline. v = velocity of flow in tunnel, positive for flow from reservoir to surge tank. flow or discharge in tunnel flow in tunnel at full load, in steady state. instantaneous flow required by turbines. flow required by turbines at full load, in steady state. Qo = flow required by turbines at part load. head loss in tunnel (F is constant), positive when v > 0. head loss in tunnel in steady state. wnQH = power output of turbines. efficiency of turbines plus pipeline. water level in surge tank above reservoir level. — Fvo? = water level in surge tank at full load, in steady state. maximum water level in surge tank. = minimum water level in surge tank. time. lz aes ae = — = vertical velocity in surge tank, positive upwards. ILA, T=2n oat = period of mass oscillation, neglecting friction. r LA; . ace == 00, 2G. = Amplitude of oscillation at sudden stoppage of flow s to turbines, neglecting friction. = period taken by turbine valve to close, or to open.3 THE BASIC EQUATIONS OF MASS OSCILLATIONS IN THE SIMPLE SURGE TANK’ We define the “simple” surge tank’ asa tank or shaft of constant horizontal cross-sectional area As (figure 3.1). In the analysis which follows, and which relates only to surge tanks fed by tunnels under pressure, it has been assumed that the tunnel walls are inelastic and that water is incompressible.” This means that pressure changes are propagated along the tunnel with infinitely high velocity, and that the water along the whole length of the tunnel behaves like an incompressible solid. Mathematically, 4v/6x = 0 or v = const for the whole tunnel length L. (a) The dynamic equation Ifanelement of length dL of the pressure tunnel is considered in isolation, the forces acting on it in the direction of the tunnel axis (figure 3.2) are: The component of the weight = dW. sina = w.A,.dL sinx = wAydh because dh = dL sing, The pressure = — Ay. dp. The frictional resistance = —w. Ay.i.dL, where iis the energy gradient. As the mass of the clement of water in the tunnel is (w/g)4 dL, the dynamic equation for this element is (w/g)A, dL év/ét = wAy dh — Apdp — wAzidL or (dL/g)(év/ét) = dh — (dpjw) — idL ? Leauté, “Mémoires sur les oscillations a longues périodes dans les machines actionnées par des moteurs hydrauliques”, J. Ecole polytechn, Cahier XLVI, Paris, 1880.—Rateau, A., Traité des ‘Turbomachines, Dunod, Paris, 1900,—Prasil F.," Wasserschlossprobleme”, Schweiz Bauctg. 52,271 ff, 1908/11,—Johnson, R. D.,“The Surge Tank in Water Power Plants”, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., New York, 30,443, 1908,—Preseel, “Beitragzur Bemessung des Inhaltes von Wasserschldsscrn”, Schweiz, Bauztg.,53,57,210, 1909/1. —Vogt. F Berechnung und Konstruktion des Wasserschlosses, Enke, Stuttgart, 1923——Calame, j., and Gaden, Théorie des chambres d’équilibre, Paris and Lausanne, 1926—Frank, J.and Schiller, J, Schwingungen i den Zuleitungs- und Ableitungskandlen von Wasserkraftanlagen, Springer, Berlin, 1938.—Escande, L, Recherches théoriques et expérimentales sur les oscillations de 'vaudans les chambres déquilibre, Patis, 1943, Stucky, A., Cours diuménagement des chutes d'eau: Chambres déquilibre, Ecole Polyt. Univ. Lausanne, 1951—Zieman, B.,"Méthodes nouvelles pour le calcul des cheminées d'équilibre", La Halle Blanche, 8, No 5, Oct. 1953.—Rich, G.R.. Hydraulic Transients, New York, 1951, _Jacger, C, Present Trends in Surge Tank Design”, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 168, No. 2, 1954. Ghizzeti, A.. Culeul dex condultex ean avee cheminges d'équilibre, Paris 1933, *The elasticity of the walls of the pressure tunnel is allowed! for in the theory of pressure waves treated in chapter 16.Basic Equations of Mass Oscillations in Simple Surge Tanks 8 GS eae ee ete = eee Figure 3.1 Definition diagram In order to make possible the integration of these equations from 0 to L, the following assumptions are necessary: (a) Both the tunnel and the water are incompressible (as stated above), and év/ét = dv/dt. (b) As a first approximation the velocity head v?/2g is negligible. (c) Thevalue for the frictional resistance substituted in the equationsis the value for steady flow at any one time ¢ when, instantaneously, the energy gradient i obtains. The head loss iL is proportional to v®, or iL = Fv. (d) The mass of the water in the surge shaft, in a first approximation, is negligible. Following the Some ot figure 3.1, i Wate 1 f= fav ft ju L dv or Par A,—(H,+2z—H)—iL and as iL = + Fv, +2+ Fv? =0 (dy The positive sign is to be used when the direction of flow is from the reservoir to the surge tank. amponi, br, Emerg. elettr, Vol, 28, No, 9, 194%, 1 paper where the mays of water in the surge tank is, conyidered6 Part A Muss Oscillations in Surge Systems Figure 3.2 (b) The equation of continuity Using the nomenclature of figure 3.1 we obtain dz v.Ar= Asa +O dy) where u = (dz/dt) is the velocity of rise of water level in the surge tank. The equations (1) and (II) implicitly assume that the area of the upstream reservoir is very large and that the water level remains unchanged during the surges. When, on the contrary, the reservoir area A, is not large, we can assume that some type of spillway is used to maintain the water levels. Let Q, be the river inflow in the reservoir, Q,, the spilling water and Q = vA; the water flowing through the pressure tunnel. The static level in the reservoir corresponds to the case of closed turbines, Q =0, and the levels Y are measured from that level. The steady dynamic conditions correspond to Q = Qo, v = v9 and Y= Yy. The continuity equation at the reservoir end yields dy =O. +vArt+ AE which determines the level in the reservoir at any time Remark on the energy head Should the velocity head v?/2g in the tunnel be appreciable, substitution of the boundary conditions for the piezometric pressure at the intake leads to Hotz dp w Hi boti2g and the dynamic equation becomes Ldv gat? +E x Fotno (la) Further calculations can be developed by writing 1 = Fe? $ 22g —[F + LQgye?Basie Equations of Mass Oscillations in Simple Surge Tanks 1 z in (Ia) represents the water level in the surge tank. Conditions in the surge tank are sometimes unstable, the water level jumping suddenly from the piezometric level to the kinetic-energy level, so that the boundary conditions are not clearly defined, especially if the water level is low. Model tests nevertheless clearly show that v?/2g can be included in the calculation In this discussion, it has been assumed that the surge tank is on the upstream side of the turbine. If the surge tank is on the downstream side, most of the velocity head v?/2g may be lost in the tailrace and at the inlet to the river or lake, so that it is doubtful if its full value can be retained in equation (Ia).4 SOLUTIONS OF EQUATIONS (1) AND (II), NEGLECTING TUNNEL FRICTION (a) Sudden closure of turbine valve Direct integration of equations (I) and (II) is only possible in a few special cases, One of these is the sudden rejection of load, causing sudden closure of the turbine valve. For the sake of simplicity friction in the tunnel is neglected (F = 0). together with any other tunnel losses. At the time t = 0 — ¢,Q = Qo, and at : dz the time (= 0 +6 Q=0. Also Ap.v = 43.57 or _ As dz dv _ As dz aged ee apa io) As F =0, Q) or (3) This is a linear homogeneous differential equation of the second order, with constant coefficients. As the term (dz/df) is absent, the general solution of the equation is 2n 2n z= C,cos—t + C2 sin roost + C2 sine When t = 0,z = 0,andconsequently C, = 0. Putting C, = z, we obtain the equations 2 z= z,sin re (4) Qn and v= Yocos—-t (5) 5 2 JL Ar The equations 2y = Uo oa (6) LAs and T=%/".“% (7) & ArSolutions of Equations (I) and (11) may be shown, by differentiation, to be valid, as follows: These values satisfy equation (3). In the case of partial closure reducing the flow from Qo to Qy, IL A 2 sin Zr (4a) gedaan The result of this calculation shows that the graph of z plotted against tis a sine curve (figure 4.1). z= (Po — %) Figure 4.1 Oscillations of water level in the surge tank following sudden closure of turbine valve, with tunnel friction neglected The graph of the velocity v plotted against t isalso a sine curve, but with its beginning at —4T. This graph may, therefore, be considered as a cosine curve, (b) Sudden opening of turbine valve or sudden increase in load If the flow Q, is suddenly increased to Qo with corresponding steady tunnel velocities v, and vo, we obtain the equation z= -w)| & As (c) Linear rate of change of load in (4b) where v, < U9. If the friction in the tunnel is neglected, this case also is capable of rigorous analysis, and Calame and Gaden have published their calculations showing10 Part A Mass Oscillations in Surge Systems this.! The following table reveals the influence of the relative time of closure © = 1/T. The table relates to a system with L= 2600 m, A; = 9-6 m2, Ay = 12-6 m?, vp = 2-08 m/s, z, = 29:56 m, and T= 117s. 0.0 1.0 0-18 098 0-50 0.63 0-75 0-43 1-00 032 *Calame and Gaden, Théurie des chambres d'dquillbre, pp. 66 et seq.5 CALCULATION OF WATER-LEVEL OSCILLATIONS INCLUDING TUNNEL FRICTION. DIRECT INTEGRATION (a) Sudden complete closure of turbine valve. If the friction loss in the tunnel is included in the calculation, the only case capable of direct integration is that of total closure or sudden complete rejection of load. From the basic equations (I) and (II) and equation (1) of chapter 4, the following relationship between 2 and v may be derived.? v\? LAr 007 z a . eed pee ~2(2gAsFvo?)(LArv0 He (") 2eds Fn? Fat * eta The constant C may be determined for the commencement of the oscillation when v = vo and z = —Fvo?, Equation (1) then yields v\? z LAreo* . 2 PY 8 Fg SATO oy gRedsFoo% e+ Feo*MLAreo* (2) (7) Fo? * 2gas(Fooe ~ ° 1) For the first rise of water level in the surge tank, equation (2) relates the velocity v in the tunnel, at any instant, to the corresponding water level z in the tank, and vice versa. This is of importance in the design of overflow weirs and in the determination of the highest water level 2 maxfor which v = 0. (b) Linear rate of decrease of load; sudden increase of load These important cases are not capable of solution by direct integration. Later chapters deal with approximations. and with the arithmetical and graphical step-by-step methods of integration commonly used for their solution. (©) Choice of the factor F for friction losses Friction reduces the amplitude of the first upward swing duc to closure, and increases the amplitude of the downward swing due to a load increase. It is, therefore, usual to assume low friction losses in the tunnel when ik und Schaller. cussion areeontuined in chapter Ne), where ratios are mepeation ofequation (I )and further ¢ of sudden complete closure2 Part A Mass Oscillations in Surge Systems analysing the effect of closing, and high friction losses when analysing the effect of opening the turbine valve. As F = Li(k,?.m*’*), where k, (or its equivalent, M) represents the friction coefficient of the Strickler or Manning formulae, the following tentative table is suggested for concrete-lined tunnels: Strickler (metric) | Manning (ft units) Closure k, = 85 to 95 M = 125 to 140 Opening k= 70 to 75 M = 100 to 110 = 80 to 82 M = 115 t0 120 Mcan k, (d) Intake losses Losses occurring at the tunnel intake and caused by screens, gate grooves, and intake shape should be added to the friction losses.6 STEP-BY-STEP INTEGRATION (a) Pressel’s method’ (figure 6.1) From chapter § it is clear that direct integration of surge-tank equations including a tunnel-friction term is only possible in the case of sudden rejection of load. Rigorous integration is not possible for other important cases such as that of opening up. Pressel has suggested that the differential equations(I) and (II) be replaced by difference equations, wherein the infinitesimally small time interval dr is replaced by a small, but finite, interval At, and that the finite-difference equations be integrated step by step. Pressel at first applied this proposal to straight surge shafts and to shafts with expansion chambers, His proposed method was later found to be equally applicable to other and more complicated forms of surge tanks. Pressel’s difference equations are L Av =. + 24 + Foy? = * a ap time Fem 0 (i*) Az » ee = " Um Atm = Om + Asma ae (2) where t,,; = t; + At,and At denotes a small interval of time(1 to 10 oreven 20 seconds, according to the size of the surge tank). Ag, = HAs, + As,,,) the mean horizontal cross-sectional area of the surge tank. mean value of Ar, in cases where the cross-section of the pressure tunnel is variable. + 3Az. v,, = 0; + Av. Om = HQ: + Qi+1). One possible method of solving equations (1*) and (2*) would consist of successive estimates similar to the determination of the back-water curve. Froman estimated value for Az a corresponding value for v,, may be derived from the equation of continuity (2*), whence Av = 2(v,, — v,); this yields a Ar, * Prewel, “Beitrag sur Remesxung den Inhultes von Waxserschlowsern”, Schweiz. Bauztg., $3, $7 and 210, 1909/1 ao4 Part A Masy Oscillutions in Surge Systems value for Fv, which may be substituted in equation (1*) to yield 2,'. If Zp’ z, + $Az, then the first estimate of Az was correct. If Zp’ # 2m, the calculation must be repeated with a new value of Az. Table 6.1 shows a suitable tabular layout of Pressel’s method of solving equations (1*) and (2*). Table 6.1 Step-by-step calculation of surge-tank oscillations (after Pressel) ola a Qn Asp | Om Ar eee s | | 0 Qo} to Yo z, From For 0 it zo tt ¥ 2 a Bot ieee As, equation |2(tq—0)| — | Fe,? | check 2 2 i “ | ) 4 a 2 | Ys The two equations (1*) and (2*) may be solved by working in the opposite direction, assuming a value for Av,, and deriving from equation (1*) a value for z,,. By substituting the value of Az obtained from 2(z,, — z) in equation (2*), the originally assumed value of Av may be checked. According to Moons,' the calculation should start with an assumed value for Av in order that better convergence and speedier results may be obtained than by the alternative method starting with Az. If the area of cross-section of the surge tank As varies with height z, it is preferable to start with an estimate of Az. (b) Direct determination of Az from equations (1*) and (2*) Occasionally—particularly when dealing with complicated types of surge tanks— it is preferable to determine Av by direct solution of equations (1*) and (2*). If Ay, = Ar, equation (2*) yields Ar Ar Qn =», x Av At — =" Ai Ag. tA FAs, v At As,, t Substitution of Az in equation (1*) leads to ET Ae em Agee, g At it 44s, 24s, + Fle? + v) Av + (Av?) =0 Moons, P. Contribution @ étude dey oscitlaniony en masse, Thea, Univ Liege, 1954 (unpublished)Step -By-Step Integration. 15 which may be rearranged to give L Ari +4F(Av)? + (a + va + ro Av+% Ir Qn A + att agar Fat = 0G) This is a second-degree dquation of the type a(Av)? + b(Av) + ¢ = 0. Frequently the first term a(Av)? is small compared with the other two, and i i 2 sufficiently accurate results may be obtained from Av = — — is) . or even Av —c/b). ' This method of calculation is rapid, and may even be applied with success to complicated types of surge tanks. In recent years extensive surge-tank investigations have been carried out on calculating machines (digital computers) which have yielded reliable results very speedily. | (©) Escande’s finite-difference method’ If the equation of continuity (II) is differentiated dv _ du | dds ao 8 ge aoe ge eegenca and substituted in equation (I), it yields . tee | att, dAs , 40 sae ae ae) du_ if dds dQ, gar : ae -i{-4- at bce + Fem Replacement of the differentials dt, du, etc., by finite, though small, differences At, Au, etc., and step-by-step application of the resultingequation or str Au = ~ jf as + AQ + Te4 Fog) Atl (4) yield successive increases Av in the velocity v. For greater accuracy z,, may be substituted in equation (4), in the place of z: Im = 2+ $Az where Az = u,At and Up =u +$Au. ‘Bycunde, L., Méthodes nouvelles pour le calcul des dewctibed by Leu, F.C, in Hydraulics, Londor c jambres d¥qullihre, Puris, 1980. A similar method is 0, ee.16 Part A Mass Oscillations in Surge Systems Escande has developed his method in several subsequent papers, bringing it toa great degree of precision. When compared to in situ measurements and field tests, correlation of the calculated curves is usually very good." (d) Further remarks on the analysis of surge shafts () Calculation of the mean area of tunnel cross-section Ar, If the cross-section of the tunnel is variable and the tunnel consists of n different profiles of areas Ags Arysee+s Ary t+ Arys each applicable to dengthsties estat bata L,, mean values of area of cross-section Ay, and length L,, must & calculated. \ The dynamic equation (I) indicates that the momentum of the mass of water in the imagined mean tunnel must be the saine as the momentum of the waterin the real tunnel; but the two quantities of water need not be the same. The velocities vary inversely as the areas of cross-section, so that ea Ar, Ar, or Ary = Em/E(Li/ Ari) 6) It is usual to choose a value Ly = EL;. (ii) High surge tank? One of the main assumptions of the theory of surge tanks concerns the surge tank height H,, which is usually negligible when compared with the length L of the pressure tunnel. When the surge tank is very high, however, the compound length Ar A=L+H,— As should be used. The energy to be dissipated is that of the tunnel alone. This is partly transmitted to the mass of water in the surge tank, so that 7 w ean 0. Pas Thay 2 fe “H, Agua, 2¢ v4 and u, being the values of v and u = dz/dt with which the calculation begins and which are to be damped. The previous equation gives =n, 7 1s = 09 7 * Martin, C,S.."Statusof Fluid Transientsin Western Europe and the United Kingdom’, A.9.M.E. Journal of Fiuids Engineering, June 197%, p. X05. *Rampo ‘Sul euleoto dell oxillatont an un posse prezonretri knerg eletir, Vol 28, No 9, 194K,