Analog

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Contents
Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2
Diodes ..................................................................................................... 3
Transistor Biasing .................................................................................. 11
Transistor Amplifier .............................................................................. 19
Feedback Amplifiers .............................................................................. 25
Operational Amplifiers (OP-AMP) ......................................................... 29
2015 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.
1
Manual for K-Notes
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters
from his / her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is
specifically intended for Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive
study material.
What are K-Notes?
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It
is highly useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing
for GATE as it comes handy while traveling long distances.
When do I start using K-Notes?
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
How do I use K-Notes?
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the
respective Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters
to make best use of it.
2015 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.
2
Diodes
Representation:
A: Anode K : Cathode
The voltage at which the charged particles start crossing the junction is called as cut in voltage
or Threshold voltage.
It is represented as VAK V .
When VAK V , depletion region exists and no charge carriers cross the junction, therefore
I 0
D
When VAK V , number of charged particles crossing the junction increases & the current
through the diode increase, non linearly or exponentially.
Diode in the condition is said to be forward biased.
VAK
VT
ID IS e 1

I = reverse saturation current
S
KT
V = Thermal voltage =
T q
K = Boltzmann constant
T = Temp. in k
q = charge of one e
V = 26mv at room temperature
T
= intrinsic factor
When V 0 , diode is said to be in reverse biased condition & no majority carriers cross the
AK
depletion region, hence I 0
D
3
Characteristics of Diode
Equivalent circuit of diode
Forward Bias
Reverse Bias
Diode Resistance
1) State or DC Resistance
V
R AK
DC I
D
4
2) Dynamic or AC Resistance
dV V
R D T
AC dI I
D D
Diode Applications
Clippers
It is a transmission circuit which transmits a part of i/p voltage either above the reference
voltage or below the reference voltage or b/w the two reference voltages.
Series Clippers
i) Positive Clippers
V V sin t : When V V => V V

i m i R O R
V V When V V => V V
m R i R O i
ii) Negative Clipper

V V sin t : When V V => V V
i m i R o R
V V When V V => V V
m R i R o i
5
Shunt Clipper
i) Positive Clipper
When V V , D is ON
i R
V V
o R
When V V , D is OFF
i R
V V
o i
ii) Negative Clipper
When V V , D is ON
i R
V V
o R
When V V , D is OFF
i R
V V
o i
Two level Clipper
When V V , D is OFF & D is ON

i 2 1 2
V V
0 2
When V V & V V , D is OFF & D is OFF
i 2 i 1 2 1
V V
o i
When V V , D is OFF D is ON
i 1 2 l
V V
o 1
6
CLAMPERS
These circuits are used to shift the signal either up words or down words.
Negative Clampers
When V 0
R
+ve peak is shifted to 0
-ve peak is shifted to 2V
m
When V 0
R
+ve peak is shifted to V
R
-ve peak is shifted to -2 V V
m R
Positive Clampers
7
When V 0
R
-ve peak is shifted to 0
+ve peak is shifted to 2V
m
When V 0
R
-Ve peak is shifted to V
R
+ve peak is shifted to 2V V
m R
Rectifier
It converts AC signal into pulsating DC.
1) Half wave rectifier
During positive half wave cycle
R
V V sin t L
0 m R R
f L
R = diode resistance
f
During negative half cycle
V 0
0
V

V
0 avg
m

4 RL
100%
2 R f RL
V

V
0 RMS
m
2
V
Form Factor = RMS 2
V
avg
Ripple factor = FF2 1

PIV V
m
8
Bridge full wave rectifier
When +ve half wave cycle
R
V V t L
o R 2R
L f
When ve half wave cycle
R
V V t L
o R 2R
L f
2V
Vo avg
m

8 1
100%
2 R
f
1 2
R
L
V

V
o RMS
m
2

FF
2 2
PIV V
m
Zener Diode
A heavily doped a si diode which has sharp breakdown characteristics is called Zener Diode.
When Zener Diode is forward biased, it acts as a normal PN junction diode.
For an ideal zener diode, voltage across diode remains constant in breakdown region.
If I is not given, then consider I 0

z(min) z(min)
9
Voltage Regulator
Regulators maintains constant output voltage irrespective of input voltage variation.
Zener must operate in breakdown region so V V

i z
I I I
z L
V
I z
L R
L
I I I
max z max L
I I I
min z min L
I I I
z max max L
I I I
z min min L
10
Transistor Biasing
Bipolar Junction Transistor
Current conduction due to both e- & holes

It is a current controlled current source.
NPN Transistor
PNP Transistor
Region of Operation
Junctions Region of operations Applications
i) J RB cut off Switch

E
J RB
C
ii) J FB active amplifier
E
J RB
C
iii) J FB saturation Switch
E
J FB
C
iv) J RB reverse active Attenuation
E
J FB
C
11
Current gain () (common base)
I I I
C nc o
I : injected majority carrier current in collector
nc
I
nc
I
E
I I I 1
I B o ; I B I
C 1 E
1 1 o
Current gain (common emitter)
I I 1 I
c B o

;
1 1
These relations are valid for active region of operations.
Characteristics of BJT
Common Base characteristics
input V , I
BE E
output V , I
CB C
Input characteristics
V vs I when V cons tant
BE E CB
12
Output characteristics
Common emitter characteristics

inputs V , I
BE B

outputs V , I
CE C
Input characteristics
13
Output characteristics
Transistor Biasing
1) Fixed Bias method
V I R V 0
cc B B BE
V V
I cc BE
B R
B
Assuming active region of operation
I I
c B
V V I R
CE CC C C
Verification
If V V V Active Re gion
CE sat CE CC
If not ; then saturation region
For saturation region , V V

CE CE sat
V V
CC CE sat
I
C R
C
I
In saturation region , I C
B
min
14
2) Feedback Resistor Bias Method
By KVL
cc
c B c B B
V I I R I R V I R 0
BE E E

V I I R I R V I I R 0
cc c B c B B BE C B B
Assuming active region
I I
c B
V V
I cc BE ; I I
B

R 1 R R
B C E c B
CE CC C B
V V I I R R
C E
3) Voltage divider bias or self-bias
By thevenins theorem across R

2
R
V V 2
TH CC R R
1 2
R R
R 2 1
TH R R
1 2
Apply KVL
V V I R
TH BE B TH
I I R
B C E
Assuming active region I I
C B
V V
I TH BE
B R 1 R
TH E
V V I R I R
CE CC C C E E
15
FET Biasing
JFET
When V is negative, depletion layer is created between two P region and that pinches the
GS
channel between drain & source.

The voltage at which drain current is reduce to zero is called as pinch off voltage.
Transfer characteristics of JFET is inverted parabola
2

V
I I 1 GS
D DSS
V

GS OFF
When V 0, I I
GS D DSS
When V V , I 0
GS GS OFF D
Pinch of voltage, V V
p GS OFF
For a N channel JFET, pinch off voltage is always positive
V 0 & V 0
p GS
16
JFET Parameters
1) Drain Resistance
V
r DS
d I
DS
It is very high, of the order of M .
2) Trans conductance
I dI
g D D
m V dV
GS GS
2
V
I I 1 GS
D DSS V
GS OFF
dI 2I V
D g DSS 1 GS
dV m V V
GS GS OFF GS OFF
3) Amplification factor
V
DS g r
V md
GS
MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semi-conductor FET)
17
Enhancement Type MOSFET
No physical channel between source & drain

To induce a channel Gate source voltage is applied.
Depletion MOSFET
Physical channel present between source & drain.
Types of MOSFET
Operating characteristics
1. For n channel MOSFET
I 0 for V V
D GS T
cut off region
V2
I C
D
W
n ox L GS
V V V DS
T DS 2
(linear region)

V
GS
V and V
T DS
V V
GS T
2
I C

W VGS VT (saturation region)
D n ox L 2
V
GS
V and V
T DS
V V
GS T
18
2. For p channel MOSFET
I 0 for V V (cut off region)

D GS T
V2
I C
D
W
n ox L GS
V V V DS
T DS 2
(linear region)

V V and V V V
GS T DS GS T
2
I C

W VGS VT (saturation region)
D n ox L 2
V V and V V V
GS T DS GS T
Transistor Amplifier
Small signal analysis for BJT
h parameter model of BJT
V hI h V
1 i1 r 2
I h I h V
2 f1 o 2
I
current gain, A 2
I I
1
h R
A f L
I 1h R
o L
V
Input Impedance, Z 1 h h A R
i I i r I L
I
19
AR
Voltage gain, A I L
V Z
i
1
Output impedance, Z
o hh
h f r
o h R
i s
Common Emitter (CE) Amplifier
Small signal model
V h e
Voltage gain A o f R R
v V he c L
i i
20
High frequency Analysis of BST
r = base spreading resistance.

bb'
r = input resistance.
b'e
r = feedback resistance.
b'c
r = output resistance.
ce
C = diffraction capacitance.
b' e
C = Transition capacitance.
b'c
g = Transconductance.
m
Hybrid - parameters
Ic Q KT
1) g ; V ,
m V T q
T
I = dc bias point collector current.

CQ
h
2) r fe
b'e g
m
21
High Frequency Model
r = open circuited.
b'c
Low Frequency Model
22
Voltage gain as frequency
Low Frequency Range
External capacitor C and C are short circuited.

E C
Internal capacitor C and C are open circuited.
b'c b'e
Circuit becomes like.
= acts as high pass filter.
23
High frequency range
External capacitors C ,C and C are short circuited.

b c E
C is open circuited.
b'c
Equivalent circuit behaves as a low pass filter with cut-off frequency fL.
Mid band range
All internal and external capacitance are neglected, so gain is independent of frequency.
FET Small Signal parameters
I
Trans conductance, g D
m V
GS
In non saturation region
I W
g D C .V
m V n ox L DS
GS
In saturation region
g
ms
C
W
V V
n ox L GS
T
Small Signal equivalent circuit
24
For low frequency
For high frequency
Feedback Amplifiers
Ideal Amplifier
Z
in
Z 0
o
Positive feedback : V V V
i s f
Negative Feedback : V V V
i s f
V A
For negative feedback, o
V 1 A
s
V A
For positive feedback, o
V 1 A
s
Positive feedback is used for unstable system like oscillators.
25
Effects of Negative Feedback
i) Sensitivity
A
Without feedback =
A
A
With feedback = f
A
f
A 1 A
f
A
f
1 A A
ii) Input Impedance
Without feedback = Z
i
With feedback = Z
if
Z Z 1 A
if i
iii) Output impedance
Without feedback = Z
o
With feedback = Z
of
Z
of
Z
o
1 A
Negative feedback also leads to increase in band width
.
Topologies of Negative feedback
Output Input
Voltage Series
Voltage Shunt
Current Series
Current Shunt
26
1) Voltage Series Topologies
V V
f o
It is called as series shunt feedback or voltage - voltage feedback.

In this case, input impedance increases & output impedance decreases.
2) Voltage shunt topologies
I V
f o
= Trans conductance
It is called as shunt-shunt or voltage current feedback.
3) Current series Topologies
V I
f o
= resistance
It is called as shunt shunt or voltage current feedback.
4) Current shunt Topologies
I I
f o
It is also called as shunt series or current current feedback.
27
Circuit Topologies
1) Voltage series
2) Voltage shunt
3) Current series
28
4) Current shunt
Operational Amplifiers (OP-AMP)

+ Non inverting terminal
- inverting terminal
Parameters of OPAMP
1) Input offset voltage
Voltage applied between input terminals of OP AMP to null or zero the output.
2) Input offset current
Difference between current into inverting and non inverting terminals of OP AMP.
3) Input Bias Current
Average of current entering the input terminals of OP AMP.
4) Common mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
Defined as ratio of differential voltage gain A to common mode gain A

d
cm
.
A
CMRR d
A
cm
29
5) Slew Rate
Maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit time under large signal conditions.
dV
SR o V s
dt max
Concept of Virtual ground
In an OP AMP with negative feedback, the potential at non inserting terminals is same as the
potential at inverting terminal.
Applications of OP AMP
1) Inverting Amplifier
R
V f V
o R in
1
2) Inverting Summer
V V V
V R a b c
o f R R R
a b c
3) Non inverting Amplifier
R
V 1 f V
o R in
1
30
4) Non inverting summer
If R R R R
a b c
V R2
V a

V R2
b

V R2
c

1 R R R R2 R R2
2
V
Va Vb Vc
1 3
R V V V
V 1 f a b c
o R 3
1
5) Differential Amplifier
By Super position
R R
V 1 f 3 V
ob R R R b
1 2 3
R
V f V
oa R a
1
V V V
o oa ob
6) Integrator
1 t
o RC o in
V V dc
31
7) Differentiator
dV
V RC in
o dt
8) Voltage to current converter
V
I in
L R
9) Current to voltage Converter
V R I
out p IN
32
10) Butter worth Low Pass Filter
R V
V 1 f in
o R 1 j2fRC
1
V A
o f
V f
in 1 j
f
H
R 1
A 1 f R ; f
f 1 H 2RC
11) Butter worth High Pass Filter
V R j2fRc
o 1 f
V R 1 j2fRC
in 1

j f f
L
A
f f
1 j
f
L
R
A 1 f
f R
1
1
f
L 2RC
33
12) Active Half wave rectifier
In this circuit, diode voltage drop between

V
input & output is not V but rather D ,
D A
where A = open loop gain of OP AMP.
V V
in o
13) Active Full wave Rectifier

This circuit provides full wave rectification with a gain of R R
1
R
V V
m R m
1
34
14) Active Clipper
V V , Diode conducts and V V

IN R o
And when V V Diode is OFF

IN R
V V
o IN
15) Active Clamper
V V V
o IN p
V = peak value of V
p IN
35
16) Comparators
36
17) Schmitt Trigger
Inverting Schmitt Trigger
When output is V , then V V

sat ref sat
When output is V , then V V
sat ref sat
R
When 2
R R
1 2
Upper triggering point utp V

sat
Lower triggering point Ltp V
sat
Hystersis voltage = UTP LTP 2V

sat
R1
UTP V V
sat R1 R 2 R
R1
LTP V V
sat R1 R 2 R
37
Non Inverting Schmitt Trigger
R R R
Upper trigger Point UTP 2 V , Lower triggering point LTP 2 V , 2
R sat R sat R
1 1 1
Hysteric voltage = UTP LTP 2V
sat
18) Relaxation Oscillator
38
R
2
R R
1 2
1
T 2RCln
1
1 1
f
T 1
2RCln
1
555 Timer
Pin Diagram
39
Bistable multi vibrator acts as a FF.

Monostable Multi vibrator produces pulse output.
Bistable Multi vibrator acts as free running oscillator.
A stable Multi vibrator
c
T 0.69 R R c
1 2
T 0.69R c
d 2
c d 1
T T T 0.69 R 2R C
2
1 1
f

T 0.69 R 2R C
1 2
40

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2015 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

Manual for K-Notes

What are K-Notes?

When do I start using K-Notes?

How do I use K-Notes?

2015 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

Equivalent circuit of diode

V V sin t : When V V => V V

ii) Negative Clipper

Two level Clipper

When V V , D is OFF & D is ON

It converts AC signal into pulsating DC.

1) Half wave rectifier

During positive half wave cycle

During negative half cycle

Ripple factor = FF2 1

Bridge full wave rectifier

When +ve half wave cycle

When ve half wave cycle

If I is not given, then consider I 0

Regulators maintains constant output voltage irrespective of input voltage variation.

Zener must operate in breakdown region so V V

Current conduction due to both e- & holes

Junctions Region of operations Applications

i) J RB cut off Switch

Current gain () (common base)

Common Base characteristics

Common emitter characteristics

1) Fixed Bias method

For saturation region , V V

2) Feedback Resistor Bias Method

3) Voltage divider bias or self-bias

By thevenins theorem across R

channel between drain & source.

Transfer characteristics of JFET is inverted parabola

For a N channel JFET, pinch off voltage is always positive

It is very high, of the order of M .

MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semi-conductor FET)

Enhancement Type MOSFET

No physical channel between source & drain

Physical channel present between source & drain.

1. For n channel MOSFET

2. For p channel MOSFET

I 0 for V V (cut off region)

h parameter model of BJT

Common Emitter (CE) Amplifier

Small signal model

High frequency Analysis of BST

r = base spreading resistance.

I = dc bias point collector current.

High Frequency Model

Low Frequency Model

Voltage gain as frequency

Low Frequency Range

External capacitor C and C are short circuited.

= acts as high pass filter.

High frequency range

External capacitors C ,C and C are short circuited.

Mid band range

FET Small Signal parameters

Small Signal equivalent circuit

For low frequency

For high frequency