PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture Lima, Per 7-9 November

2012

Illumination Condition and Work Efficiency in the Tropics

Study on production spaces of Ready-made garments factories in Dhaka

MD. MOHATAZ HOSSAIN1, PROF. DR. KHANDAKER SHABBIR AHMED1

1
Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT: The Ready-made garment (RMG) sector of Bangladesh employs a large number of people who labour in the
production spaces of garments factory buildings throughout the day. The economic viability of this sector largely depends
on the performance of the workers. Demanding compliance standards of buyers from various countries and a challenging
energy supply and demand scenario in the sector poses questions of sustainability and building design. Appropriate
Illumination conditions of these production spaces, quality as well as quantity of lighting suitable for the production
processes, is a major requirement of a proper working environment. Industrial processes in such indoor environments are
becoming highly complex; workers working under poor lighting conditions are usually exposed to a range of visual
problems with operating machines, textile sewing activities, ironing and other activities. Visual comfort for various
illumination levels has impact on total physical comfort condition and any physical discomfort influences the human
behaviour and their work efficiency. The paper focuses on causality to identify the effects of the illumination condition of
production spaces on the work efficiency and to recommend illumination ranges that would facilitate optimum work
efficiency.
Keywords: Illumination condition, Work efficiency, Production space, Visual comfort, Ready-made garments.

INTRODUCTION condition should be maintained not only for the visual

The readymade garment (RMG) sector is a fully export-
oriented industry [1] and Bangladesh is one of the largest
RMG exporters in the world. It plays a pivotal role in the
economy of Bangladesh by accounting for approximately
76% of the total export earnings and nearly 10% of GDP
[2]. Bangladesh, being a labour-abundant country, started
the process of industrialisation in the sector by
concentrating on labour-intensive products such as
clothing [3]. Hence, the economy of this sector depends
on the production by the workers. However, the
readymade garments have been heavily criticized during
1970 - 2000 for the poor working conditions particularly
in the production spaces. The poor luminous
environment in production spaces was one of the
concerns affecting the workers. Among the
environmental compliance factors Illumination condition
remain an important which must be ensured by the
factory owners. Illumination condition includes the
quality as well as quantity of the lighting. However, in
the production space (Sewing, Cutting, dyeing and
finishing), where illumination condition is very
important, the total luminous environment usually varies
with the type of lighting sources and location of the
sources. Poorly designed and maintained lighting can
result in glare and flicker that may cause vision
problems. When the lighting meets both quantity and
quality needs, it adds better working performance and
productivity [4]. Therefore, appropriate illumination
comfort but also for facilitating production targets..
The luminous environment acts through a chain of
mechanisms on human physiological and psychological
factors, which further influence human performance and
productivity [5]. Many factors, such as skill, education
and previous experience can affect productivity.
However, lighting is one of the least expensive and the
most important influences on human performance in the
work environment [6]. Providing workers with sufficient
light to perform visual tasks improves their accuracy,
thus increasing production speed and reducing waste of
materials and time. Total production process in the
garments factory constitutes several discrete stages of
activities which are linked in a progressive manner
forming a chain of labour intensive production process.
Therefore it is necessary to maintain an excellent work
environment for maximizing productivity [7]. While
considering the typical working environment of a
garments worker, light sources and illumination level at
the horizontal work plane are notable issues for this
research. Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC)
and the local laws do not mention the means of achieving
recommended illumination levels. Since for compliance
needs, RMG factories in Bangladesh are increasingly
aiming to raise the lighting levels for various functional
needs like sewing, this is likely to increase energy
consumption substantially. Whereas, the general
PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture Lima, Per 7-9 November 2012

requirement of these workers may, in reality, be much built factories from the shortlist have been earmarked
lower. randomly on the basis of some selection criteria guided
60
by BGMEA in Dhaka region for the pilot survey as a
Incidence of eye troubles

50
reconnaissance survey in order to explore the space-
40

30
geometry and typologies of the production spaces of
20
garments factories in this region. Three typical example
10
production units of three different factories were then
0 selected for detailed investigation of the respective
luminous environment and worker performance
evaluation, representing three different shapes of the
production space which were found including different
ceiling heights and types, depth of production unit,
Figure 1: Eye trouble by occupation Category of workers window height, lighting layout and other relevant
(Source: Zohir and Paul-Majumder 2008) features identified in the pilot survey. The RMG Factory
buildings of the production unit one, two and three are
nine, two and six storied respectively. Among them
The main health issues of the garments workers detailed structured surveys were conducted at different
include incidence of illness, reasons for taking leave, levels of the factory building (Table 1) to investigate the
occupational safety and health etc. [8] which are the existing illumination conditions of the production spaces.
indicators of inappropriate illumination and related
conditions. Across job categories, sewing operators,
finishing helpers and quality controllers were found to Table 1: Details of three selected RMG factories
suffer most from the eye troubles (Figure 1). As the Name of the
RMG
Total
levels in
Location of
the
Locatio
n of the
Average
Depth of
Floor Area
(sqm)
Ceiling
Height
workers under these categories do more critical jobs Production
Space
the
Factory
Initially
Surveyed
Effecti
ve
Active
Area (m)
(m)

which need adequate lighting environment, inappropriate Building Production

Space
window
s*
lighting condition may cause such vision problems and Production 9
(level)
5 S-E, 45.1 2600 3.66
eye pain [8]. Some factories use needle point lighting Unit 1 S-W
Production 2 1 E, W 41.5 4650 6.1~10
(with small LED) for achieving the illumination level at Unit 2 .7
the work plane. But considering the brightness ratio at Production 6 3 N, S 35.4 2250 3.81
Unit 3
the work environment, this solution conflicts with the *Effective windows include the windows that are not fully blocked by any
quality lighting environment and may cause visual obstructions (i.e. AC, Cooling pad, dark curtains etc.)
problems of the operator. It is therefore important to
derive optimum values needed for performance and
energy efficient. The sample size of this research was 60. According to
this research, sample of 60 workers was chosen from
each of three production spaces for detail questionnaire
OBJECTIVE study as well as statistical analysis. Comparison between
The objective of this research is: a) To document the the outcomes of the each production spaces was done in
illumination condition and identify its effect on the work order to crosscheck the outcome. The initial number of
efficiency in production spaces of RMG sector and b) To variables of this total research was 19 of which 13 were
investigate standard illumination levels and conditions independent variables and 6 were dependent variables
for maximum work efficiency of the RMG workers in the (worker feedbacks and production defects in percentage).
production spaces of RMG buildings in context of But this paper only seeks the causal connection between
Dhaka, Bangladesh. the dependent variable (production defects per hour, %)
and some other significant independent variable related
to illumination condition. However, the other
METHODOLOGY: independent variables were observed in the total
Physical surveys are conducted with detailed population of the production spaces to assign them in a
experimental study of the selected RMG production constant group. Final selection of 60 sample workers was
spaces on illumination conditions and the actual done from these evaluation sheets or indexes. But all
performance of the workers from factories in Dhaka personal data are input variable or constant. The rest of
region. Work efficiency is recorded through observing the data were collected directly from the workers
the number of defects in production. According to working area through consultation, observation and
Bangladesh Garments Manufacturers and Exporters measured by Lux meter. Criteria of the samples were
Association (BGMEA) directory about 2000 member determined by making same age group and work type
factories are in Dhaka and its adjacent regions. About constant to limit the scope of work. Thus, the results on
100 factories were shortlisted randomly. After structuring workers evaluation gained through intensive field survey
the initial questionnaire, a limited number of purpose applies to the sewing workers, both male and female,
PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture Lima, Per 7-9 November 2012

whose age group is around 18-25 years in common and
who have experiences from 1 month to over 2 years with
an average 9-10 working hours per day.
main reason behind it can be the overall artificial lighting
layout (figure 2), higher window lintel height which was
observed only in this production space, location of the
windows, outdoor illumination level, depth of the
production space and any other features impacting the
luminous environment. But variation (uniformity ratio)
of the lighting levels also can be observed in this
production space.

Table 2: Illumination level measured at horizontal work plane

Production Location or zone Average Average
space Illumination Illumination
level level
(Daylight), (Daylight +
Lux Artificial
Light ), Lux
Production Near the window (Party Daylight) 166 873
Unit 1 Centre of the half depth of space 3 588
(Mostly Artificial Lighting)
Furthest from the Window 0 532
(Completely artificial Lighting)
Production Near the window (Party Daylight) 258 953
Unit 2 Centre of the half depth of space 9 672
(Mostly Artificial Lighting)
Figure 2: False coloured 3D visualization showing the lighting Furthest from the Window 1 581
layout of the production space 3 (Software: DIALux) (Completely artificial Lighting)
Production Near the window (Party Daylight) 287 1088
Unit 3 Centre of the half depth of space 6 792
(Mostly Artificial Lighting)
Furthest from the Window 0 696
(Completely artificial Lighting)

Table 3: Average Uniformity and Diversity of Luminance

Production Production Production
Space 1 Space 2 Space 3
Uniformity of Luminance: (435/664)=0.66 (420/735)=0.57 (390/805)=0.48
Diversity of Illuminance: (1150/435)= 2.5 : (1050/420)=2.5 (1490/390)=3.5
1 :1 :1

Table 4: Measured illumination levels and standards

Average illumination in survey Internatio Internatio Local
Produc Productio Productio nal nal Standa
tion n space 2 n space 3 Standards Standards rds
space ( IESNA) (IES (BNBC
1 Code) 2006)
Minimum
Illuminatio
n level at 435 420 390 300 600 300
work plane
(lux)
Figure 3: Illumination condition of selected production spaces Maximum
Illuminatio
n level at 1150 1050 1490 1000 900 1500
work plane
(lux)
EXISTING ILLUMINATION CONDITION
Illumination levels were measured at different positions
within the selected production spaces. One set of While considering only the daylight in the production
measurement was taken with the artificial lights switched spaces and uniformity ratio, it can be easily observed that
on (Figure 3), before the lunch break, and another with the uniformity ratio of daylight is very low in all the
lights switched off during the lunch break to test the production spaces. Hence, supportive artificial lights are
daylight penetration and its contribution to the installed in the indoor spaces. These three production
illumination condition of the production spaces during spaces used florescent tube lights. Uniformity of
day. All data were measured at the height of horizontal luminance, Diversity of Illuminance and Spacing Height
work plane at 2.5 feet (0.76 m) above floor level. The Ratio were calculated based on recorded illuminances
surveyed production spaces were divided into grids with and other records during the surveys in the production
reference to column or structural grid. Then the points spaces. The mounted lights were at 7 feet (2.13 m) from
gained in the 2D plan of the production spaces were floor level at all the selected spaces. The Table 3 reveals
selected for recording of the overall lighting levels as a uniformity of luminance of 0.48 in production space-3,
well as lighting levels where only source is daylight. It is which is considered low. The diversity of Illuminance at
observed that the illumination level in production space the work planes was also found high in production space-
type-3 is a bit higher than the other spaces (Table 2). The 3. The workers of the production space-3 may face more
PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture Lima, Per 7-9 November 2012

glare or contrast problem than other production spaces.
The value of SHR is low in the production space-1 which
indicates good and glare-free artificial lighting
environment.
Table 4 gives comparison between International
illumination standards' and local recommendations' for
sewing or equivalent works which was then compared
with the illumination measured in the surveyed
production spaces. The illumination level comparison
shows that in the surveyed cases the highest levels are
reached in the work planes, though international
standards require less lighting in the work plane areas.
The usually recommended uniformity of luminance
should not be less than 0.8. But none of the production
spaces met this standard. On the other hand, while
considering the diversity of Illuminance, all the results
were within the standard of 5:1.
variable (illumination level) and dependent variable
(Percentage of production defects per hour) within two
Axis X and Y respectively. From the comparison
between these individual scatter pot charts of three
production spaces, it can be observed that the mode of
the line, the slope of the equations have the similarities
and the illumination levels have moderate effect on the
efficient production. The Regression analysis statistics
can be shown by Table 6 where the values of R Square
were identified. In production space-1, R square value
reveals that illumination level had about 36% (0.362 out
of 1) causal effect on the production defects (output
variable). Rest of the cause could be other environmental
variables and personal factors. In production space-2 and
3, R square values shows that illumination level had
about 25% (0.251 out of 1) and 20% (0.201 out of 1)
causal effect on the production defects (output variable).

Table 5 Correlation coefficients among illumination levels,

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS AND RESULTS lighting environment and production errors per hour
The two main variables were taken from same samples at Distance
Product Number

Surveyed unit
between Illumination Lighting
Colour of
the same time and correlation analysis with other Variables Luminaire
at work Errors
level (at work Environm
and work plane) ent
available evidence was done by Microsoft Excel Data plane
plane per hr

Analysis. Here, the independent variable is the Distance between

Luminaire and
illumination level and dependent variable is the number work plane
Product Colour
1.000
Production unit 1

of defects per hour (%). While doing statistical data at work plane
Number of
0.618 1.000

analysis to observe correlation among the variables Errors per hr

Illumination
0.314 0.270 1.000

(Distance between luminaire and work plane (ft), Product level (at work
plane) -0.025 -0.098 -0.611 1.000
Colour at work plane, Number of Errors per hr (%), Lighting
0.265 0.074 -0.323 0.450 1.000
Environment
Illumination (at work plane), and Lighting Environment), Distance between
Luminaire and
limited degree negative correlation were found between work plane 1.000
Production unit 2

Illumination at work plane, Lighting Environment, Product Colour

at work plane 0.116 1.000
Number of Errors per hr (%). Limited degree positive Number of
Errors per hr 0.145 -0.091 1.000
correlations were also found between Lighting Illumination
level (at work
-0.070 0.038 -0.514 1.000
Environment and Illumination level (at work plane). plane)
Lighting
Table 5 revealed that the number of defects per hours Environment
Distance between
-0.149 -0.162 -0.441 0.680 1.000

(%) has limited degree negative correlation with Luminaire and

work plane 1.000
illumination level in all surveyed production spaces. The
Production unit 3

Product Colour
at work plane 0.035 1.000
correlation coefficients (r value) in production space 1, 2 Number of
Errors per hr -0.264 -0.049 1.000
and 3 are -0.6,-0.5 and -0.5 respectively. On the other Illumination
level (at work
hand, the correlation coefficients number of defects per plane) 0.219 0.040 -0.463 1.000
Lighting
hours (%) and Lighting environment or zone in Environment 0.047 0.223 -0.476 0.591 1.000
production space 1, 2 and 3 are -0.3,-0.4 and -0.5
respectively. When considering the correlation between
lighting environment and lighting level, the value of the From Regression of these two variable (independent
coefficients (0.5, 0.7 and 0.6 in the production space 1, 2 variable: Illumination level and dependent variable:
and 3 respectively) show that they have limited degree
positive correlation which reveals that inclusion of Production errors), coefficients (B value) were found as
daylight can cause increasing of total illumination. well. It can be observed that increasing 1 unit of
To understand the causal relationship between these illumination level, causes 0.009 units less defects in
two variables (dependent: number of defects per hours production space-1, 0.007 units less defects in production
(%) and independent: illumination level) the Scatter pot
chart with regression line and Detail regression analysis space-2 and 0.005 units less defects in production space -
were used. Relationship between the two variables can 3(
also be exhibited graphically by scatter diagram. Figure 4
illustrates the linear relationship between the independent
PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture Lima, Per 7-9 November 2012

Table ). In terms of percentage, it can also be said that Production

unit 1
Intercept 10.979 1.154 9.518
X Variable 1 -0.009 0.002 -5.876
increasing 10 unit of illumination level causes 9% less Production Intercept 8.157 1.054 7.740
defects in production space-1, 7% less defects in unit 2 X Variable 1 -0.007 0.002 -4.563
production space-2 and 5% less defects in production Production
unit 3
Intercept 7.608 0.992 7.669
X Variable 1 -0.005 0.001 -3.975
space -3. Frequency analysis of independent variable * Independent variable: illumination level and dependent variable: production
(illumination level) of the samples with bin ranges from defects per hours (%)
200 lux to 1200 lux and more reveals that high frequency On the other hand, while considering location of the
samples had 401-1000 lux at their work-plane in sample workers in terms of lighting environment or zone,
production space-1, 2 and 3. Frequency analysis in bar highest numbers of the samples had low production
charts explain that for production unit 1 and 2, the defects within partly natural light in the production
desired lighting for effective production is 601~800 lux, space-1. In production space-2, low production defects
while for production unit 3, it is 801~1000 lux. were observed in mostly artificial lighting environment,
while in production space-3, low production defects were
Production defects vs Illumination level (Production unit 1)
notices in partly natural environment. The production
Percentage of Production defects

13
12
11 space configuration in terms of window location,
10
9 available daylight inside the production space can be one
per hour (%)

8 y = -0.0091x + 10.979
7
6 of the reasons behind this result.
5
4
3
2
1
0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 Table 8: Descriptive Statistics of effective lighting levels
Illumination Level at work plane (Lux) Illumination level (at work plane) with low production defects, Lux
Production defects vs Illumination Level (Production unit 2) Production unit 01 Production unit 02 Production unit 03
11
Percentage of Production

10 Mean 835.9 724.8 898.8

defects per hour (%)

9
8 Standard 159.6 145.6 265.9
7 y = -0.0071x + 8.1569 Deviation
6
5 Minimum 520.0 425.0 390.0
4
3 Maximum 1150.0 1028.0 1490.0
2 Count 20.0 35.0 33.0
1
0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Illumination Level at work plane (Lux)

Production defects vs Illumination Level (Production unit 3) On the other hand, while considering location of the
11
10 sample workers in terms of lighting environment or zone,
Percentage of Production defects

9
8
7
highest numbers of the samples had low production
y = -0.0049x + 7.6085
defects within partly natural light in the production
per hour (%)

6
5
4
3 space-1. In production space-2, low production defects
2
1 were observed in mostly artificial lighting environment,
0
300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 while in production space-3, low production defects were
Illumination Level at work plane (Lux) notices in partly natural environment. The production
Figure 4: Scatter pot chart showing correlation between the space configuration in terms of window location,
two variables with linear regression lines and linear equations available daylight inside the production space can be one
of the reasons behind this result.
Table 6: Regression Statistics of two variables
Surveyed Units Regression Statistics
Table 9: Frequency of only those lighting environment with low
Production unit 1 Multiple R 0.611
R Square 0.373
numbers (0%~3%) of defects using bin function
Lighting environment Bin* Production Production Production
Adjusted R Square 0.362 unit 01 unit 02 unit 03
Standard Error 2.296 Completely Artificial -2 2 13 3
Observations (N) 60 lighting environment
Production unit 2 Multiple R 0.514 Mostly Artificial lighting -1 0 18 5
environment
R Square 0.264
Partly Natural lighting 0 21 4 22
Adjusted R Square 0.251 environment
Standard Error 1.982 *Here,-2,-1 and 0 are the dummy variables (bin ranges within -2 ~0) for the
Observations (N) 60 convenience of statistical analysis.
Production unit 3 Multiple R 0.463
R Square 0.214
Adjusted R Square 0.201
Standard Error 2.747 The correlation coefficients revealed that there were
Observations (N) 60 causal relationships between the illumination condition
and the work efficiency. Through the regression analysis
the relationship established a linear equation y=mx+c,
Table 7: Coefficients from Regression analysis where x and y are the two variables, m is the slope
Surveyed Independent and Coefficients Standard
Units Dependent Variables* (B Value) Error
t Stat and c is the intercept of y. Slopes are from -0.0091 to
PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture Lima, Per 7-9 November 2012

-0.0049 (Table 10). The minus (-) sign of the slope also considered during evaluation of the workers
indicates that increasing the illumination level decreases performance with effective production in future research.
the production errors. The value reveals that increasing 1 The luminaires layout and their spacing should be
unit of illumination level causes 0.91%~0.49% less designed by architects or designers in such a way that
defects. Within this scope of research, it was found that uniform lighting and required lighting level with daylight
probable efficient illumination ranges was commonly inclusion should be ensured at any point of the horizontal
601-800 lux. As the overall lighting levels in lighting work plane in the production space for flexible
ranges were bit high in production space-3, the finding of production flow design.
the ranges became high. Considering the mean values Architects should design the production flow layout
and standard deviation from the mean values, it can be within a production space in such a way that the critical
said more specifically that the desired illumination level works, which require high lighting level to do the work
at the work plane of the worker in production spaces to comfortably, can be placed near openings of the
achieve effective and quality production should be production spaces to ensure better luminous environment
around 700 lux (within range of 601~800 lux). However, for the workers with better productivity.
there must be no glare, veiling reflection or high contrast
at the work plane. Otherwise it could generate eye related This research was also conducted only in purpose
health hazards and reduce production. built RMG factories where the production spaces
maintain some certain environmental compliance.
Guidelines suggested in this paper can be considered by
Table 10: Comparative observation of the worker evaluation the architects or designers while designing a standard
Terms Production Production Production
space-1 space-2 space-3 production space with accommodating compliances
Sample
criteria
Number of Sample
workers
60 60 60 possibly for LEED certification process or can be applied
Sex M: 36%, F: M: 60%, F: M: 59%, F: during construction or renovation of the production
62% 40% 41%
Age group (Years) 18-25 18-25 22-29
spaces.
Major Activity Name Operator Operator Operator
(Sewing) (75%) (45%) (43%)
Experience of sample More than 2 0.1-0.5 years 0.6-0.9 years
workers years ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
Total work hour 9-10 9-10 9-10
(hours/day) hours/day hours/day hours/day The authors acknowledge Bangladesh University of
Linear
relationsh
Causal relationship
between Illumination
Engineering & Technology and GIZ for their support.
ip level (x) and percentage y = -0.0091x y = -0.0071x y = -0.0049x
of production defects + 10.98 + 8.16 + 7.61
per hour (y) , equation:
y=mx+c, REFERENCES
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