01.

Define communication, write the feature & component of communication:

The transmission of data from one computer to another, or from one device to another. A communications device,
therefore, is any machine that assists data transmission. For example, modems, cables, and ports are all communications
devices.
Components of Communication
Context.
Sender/Encoder.
Message.
Medium.
Receiver/Decoder.
Feedback..

feature & component of communication

Communication is the sharing of thoughts, feelings, messages and information.
Language is used to communicate. ...
Grammar is the rules of language.
Voice is the ability to make sounds by vibrating the vocal cords.
Speech is different from language.
Fluency is the smooth, easy production of speech.
What is Networking
Networking is a process of connecting two or more computers for sharing. Through the networking, computers share
information such as email, file, documents and resources such as printer, internet and disk storage. This article presents a
brief overview of what computer networking is and how it works.
What is the topology :
A network topology is the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and connecting lines. There are two ways of
defining network geometry: the physical topology and the logical (or signal) topology.
Five type networking topology given bellow:
Bus ,Ring, Star, Mesh, Tree
Bus Topology : A bus network is a network topology in which nodes are directly connected to a common linear (or branched) half-
duplex link called a bus.

Advantages Bus Topology

1) It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.
2) Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other networks.
3) Bus topology costs very less.
4) Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.

Disadvantages Bus Topology

1) There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be connected.
6) Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected to it increases.
7) It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.
8) Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal from the source

Star Topology : A star topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all nodes are individually connected to
a central connection point, like a hub or a switch. A star takes more cable than e.g. a bus, but the benefit is that if a cable fails,
only one node will be brought down.
Advantages of Star Topology
1) Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology new nodes can be added easily without affecting rest of the
network. Similarly components can also be removed easily.
2) Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
2) Failure of one node or link doesnt affect the rest of network. At the same time its easy to detect the failure and
troubleshoot it.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
More cables are required to be connected because each computer individually connects to the central server
 Single point of failure in case the server get down.
Too much dependency on central device has its own drawbacks. If it fails whole network goes down.
The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the overall cost of the network.
Mention the OSI Layer & Explain two layer:

7. Application layer Application: The application layer provides services for an application
6. presentation layer program to ensure that effective communication with another application
5. Session Layer program in a network is possible. The application layer is not the application
4. transport Layer itself that is doing the communication
3. Network Layer Presentation: In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, the
2. Data link Layer presentation layer is layer 6 and serves as the data translator for the network. It
1. Physic al layer is sometimes called the syntax layer

Why TCP/IP Model is suite:

The Internet protocol suite is the conceptual model and set of communications protocols used on the Internet and similar
computer networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP because the original protocols in the suite are the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP).
How does a TCP work:
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture. TCP/IP protocols map to a four-layer conceptual model known as the DARPA model,
named after the U.S. government agency that initially developed TCP/IP. The four layers of the DARPA model are:
Application, Transport, Internet, and Network Interface
TCP/IP Network Layer :
This is the layer that contains the packet construct that will be transmitted. This takes the form of the Internet Protocol
(IP) which describes a packet that contains a source IP Address, destination IP Address and the actual data to be delivered.
Transport Layer
This layer is concerned with the transmission of the data. The two main protocols that operate at this layer are
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP is regarded as being the reliable
transmission protocol and it guarantees that the proper data transfer will take place.
Difference between OSI and TCP IP Model.
TCP/IP is a communication protocol that allows for 7. Application layer Application
connections of hosts to the internet. OSI, on the 6. presentation layer
other hand, is a communication gateway between the 5. Session Layer
network and the end users. TCP/IP refers to 4. transport Layer Transport
Transmission Control Protocol used in and by the 3. Network Layer Internet
applications on the internet. 2. Data link Layer Network
1. Physic al layer Access

Internet Protocol: Internet Protocol (IP), which uses a set of rules to send and receive messages at the
Network.
Client/Server Network. A computer network in which one centralized, powerful computer (called the server)
is a hub to which many less powerful personal computers or workstations (called clients) are connected.
How to work Clint/server network:
The client uses the network as a way to
connect with and speak to the server. Just as
the customer speaks to his server, the client
uses the network to send and receive
communications about its order, or request.
The server will take the request and make sure
that the request is valid. If everything checks
out okay, then the server will fetch the request
and serve the client.
Different between IPv4 & IPv6:
The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is a protocol for use on packet-switched Link Layer networks (e.g.
Ethernet). IPv4 provides an addressing capability of approximately 4.3 billion addresses. The Internet Protocol
version 6 (IPv6) is more advanced and has better features compared to IPv4.

Define subnet mask:

It is called a subnet mask because it is used to identify network address of an IP address by performing a bitwise
AND operation on the net mask. A Subnet mask is a 32-bit number that masks an IP address, and divides the IP
address into network address and host address.
Classified Addressing:
Class Address Range
Class A 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254
Class B 128.1.0.1 to 191.255.255.254
Class C 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254
Class D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Class E 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254

Network address translation (NAT): Network address translation is a method of remapping one IP address
space into another by modifying network address information in Internet Protocol (IP) datagram packet headers
while they are in transit across a traffic routing device.

The NAT Concept

NOTE: NAT is not only used for networks that connect to the Internet. You can use NAT even between private
networks as we will see in the pages to follow, but because most networks use it for their Internet connection,
we are focusing on that.
The NAT concept is simple: it allows a single device to act as an Internet gateway for internal LAN clients by
translating the clients' internal network IP Addresses into the IP Address on the NAT-enabled gateway device.
In other words, NAT runs on the device that's connected to the Internet and hides the rest of your network from
the public, thus making your whole network appear as one device (or computer, if you like) to the rest of the
world.
NAT is transparent to your network, meaning all internal network devices are not required to be reconfigured in
order to access the Internet. All that's required is to let your network devices know that the NAT device is the
default gateway to the Internet.
NAT is secure since it hides your network from the Internet. All communications from your private network are
handled by the NAT device, which will ensure all the appropriate translations are performed and provide a
flawless connection between your devices and the Internet.
What is public IP address?
A public IP address is the address that is assigned to a computing device to allow direct access over the Internet.
A web server, email server and any server device directly accessible from the Internet are candidate for a public
IP address. A public IP address is globally unique, and can only be assigned to a unique device.

Public: What world see me is Public. This is assigned by your ISP.

(Public)My-Home-IP: 100.45.57.31
(Public)My-Office-IP: 150.45.77.36

What is private IP address?

A private IP address is the address space allocated by InterNIC to allow organizations to create their own
private network. There are three IP blocks (1 class A, 1 class B and 1 class C) reserved for a private use. The
computers, tablets and smartphones sitting behind your home, and the personal computers within an
organizations are usually assigned private IP addresses. A network printer residing in your home is assigned a
private address so that only your family can print to your local printer.
Private: This is assigned by your Router or can be configured manually.
(Private)My-Computer-IP: 192.168.1.3
(Private)My-Dad-IP: 192.168.1.4

Example: 192.168.1.4/27
Total Host = 2n
Usage able host =2n -2
Subnet musk =256-total host
Network address=

Routing : Routing is the path that network data or a packet takes to reach its destination on a network. The network router
is what decides the best route for each network packet.

Routing table: A routing table is a set of rules, often viewed in table format, that is used to determine where data packets
traveling over an Internet Protocol (IP) network will be directed. All IP-enabled devices, including routers and switches,
use routing tables

Static routing : Static routing is a form of routing that occurs when a router uses a manually-configured routing entry,
rather than information from a dynamic routing traffic.

Dynamic routing : Dynamic routing is a networking technique that provides optimal data routing. Unlike static routing,
dynamic routing enables routers to select paths according to real-time logical network layout changes. ... The most
popular are Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).