Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
media Education
A Kit for Teachers,
Students, Parents
and Professionals
media Education
A Kit for Teachers, Students,
Parents and Professionals
Editor
Divina Frau-Meigs
UNESCO - 2006
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expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory,
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Authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the
opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of the UNESCO and do not commit the organization.
table of contents
table of contents
Acknowledgments 4
Preface 5
Introduction 7
Contributors 188
3
media EDucation
Acknowledgments
The kit is partly a product of the MENTOR project co-funded by UNESCO and European
Commission and supported by CLEMI, CEDEFOP and Mizar Multimedia. Inspired by the late
Lluis Artigas de Quadra (UNESCO), this programme brought together scholars and
practitioners of media education from the Mediterranean Basin and discussed basic training
of teachers, modular curriculum, and national and international strategies for development
of media education (including a website www.mediamentor.org). We thank all participants
and contributors who were part of the "MENTOR Project". Now MENTOR has become a
professional association for the development of media education worldwide.
We also express our thanks to the Council of Europe for giving us permission to reproduce
the full version of Handbook on Information Literacy in the kit.
4
preface
Preface
From the early 1960s onwards, UNESCO had not only identified medias critical role in
social improvement, but also outlined concrete policies, programmes, and strategies in
engaging and utilizing various media toward development goals. UNESCO is also sensitive
to the idea of creating and sustaining spaces of dialogue. In an age where mediated forms
of communication have become the primary means of delivering information and
knowledge, what is, perhaps, needed is to extend dialogic forms of communication and
conversation across cross-cultural boundaries. To this end, for the past several years,
UNESCO has been involved in promoting freedom of expression and universal access to
information and knowledge. It recognizes the important role media education plays in
preparing young people who would facilitate the free exchange of information and
knowledge by participating and appreciating the diverse uses of media. The free and
equitable access to information and knowledge is an essential component for empowering
people and ensuring their participation in knowledge societies. This is possible through a
systematic teaching of media education as part of the curriculum in schools.
Within the context of expanding media worldwide, and the recent outcome of the World
Summit on Information Society, that stressed the importance of education, media and e-
learning, the objectives of UNESCO are to develop an awareness of, and a debate about,
the role of media in society, not only for communication but also for information and
transmission of knowledge. This newly published collection of documents, Media
Education. A Kit for Teachers, Students, Parents and Professionals, includes five manuals
and provides a broad set of guidelines and insights on how to introduce media education
as a subject and topic of the curriculum at the school level. The kit has been developed to
cater to a wide variety of people involved in media education, both directly and indirectly.
Composed of nine sections, with a variety of entries and learning styles, it will be useful
not only to teachers but also to students, parents and professionals alike.
This Training Kit provides a complex and comprehensive view of media education,
encompassing all media, old and new. It seeks new ways in which people can enhance their
participation in the political and cultural life of the general community through the media.
In particular, it promotes young peoples access to the media, while also increasing their
critical appreciation of its activities. It has a sustainable development perspective and
addresses some of the challenges of knowledge societies, especially the digital knowledge
divide. It supports sharing of resources, elaborates on available strategies and tools and
capitalizes on good practices. In its long term perspective, it tries to foster a digital
dynamics: making media education available to all may help reach the critical mass
necessary for constructive dialogue and exchanges across cultural media boundaries.
5
introduction
Introduction
Media play an important part in the social- The kit focuses on young people. Around
ization of young people, a phenomenon them we will first look at their close circle,
which has been gaining in momentum. A teachers and parents. As the circle widens
large part of the cultural capital of the plan- the kit encompasses media professionals.
et is passed on to them by many kinds of The largest circle the kit envisions is that of
vehicles with which they are very familiar. their peers on the networks. Following that
This implies a change of attitude on the logic, the handbook intended for learners is
part of the various persons who accompa- bracketed by those intended for teachers
ny children and teenagers in their develop- and parents. They are followed by the hand-
ment. Such change should make it possible book on ethical relations with professionals
for them to appropriate this phenomenon and the handbook for internet literacy, to
by self-education. This is what is suggested master information on the networks.
by the organization of this kit, whose pur- Throughout, the kit takes into account the
pose is to deal at the same time with the necessary skills to decipher the various
means to educate others to media and to types of messages as well as the various
educate oneself to media, as part of lifelong stakes for citizenship and sustainability,
training. It suggests the possibility of a dual beyond school and the family.
approach for the user, sometimes in a learn-
er position, sometimes in a teacher position. The objectives of this kit
This kit proposes a prototype of media edu- > To provide solid and durable foundations
cation curriculum for the basic qualification for a large and systematic media education
of secondary school teachers. But then it intended for young people, in schools but
extends its modular approach and its key- also in families and in media;
concepts to adults outside the school sys- > To propose master documents, in the
tem, be it parents or media professionals shape of handbooks, that will help those
and decision-makers. Such training is who want to develop media education. They
increasingly required with the introduction aim at providing a vision of the school cur-
of the new digital technologies, as it riculum that integrates media education in
becomes necessary for every citizen to all its dimensions: initiation to audiovisual
search, retrieve and produce information language, content analysis, understanding
as well as to communicate via the net- of the economic production of the media,
works, with full autonomy. Educating others appropriation of the rights of the public and
and educating oneself, getting information of youth protection, awareness of self-regu-
from others and producing information lation and regulation;
about oneself: such are the current needs > To help in teacher instruction by genera-
for a media and information literate society. lizing the use of modules for initial training
and continuous education in curricula for
Indeed, if media education becomes more teachers at all levels. The kit offers possible
and more crucial for teachers training, it extensions outside the school, by multi-dis-
should not stop with them. Other actors ciplinary initiatives to sensitize young people
are implicated and must be made sensitive and parents to media education through
to the needs of young people, such as care- action;
givers or journalists, producers and broad- > To sensitize all the actors, including deci-
casters, and all other media professionals. sion-makers and broadcasters, to the fact
Taken as a whole, the kit offers to each that media education is a fundamental ele-
actor the possibility of getting acquainted ment of a pedagogy for democracy which
with the culture of the others, the media would allow schools to renew their mission
culture, the family culture, the school cul- of training citizens in basic literacy, inclu-
ture in a spirit of dialogue. ding informing and communicating about
themselves; 7
media EDucation
> To develop among the members of the The different sections propose a differenti-
public the basic skills for communication ated means of appropriating these key-con-
and an autonomous critical competence, to cepts, which are distributed with a certain
allow them to differentiate between the amount of organized redundancy in the
authentic and legitimate interests of the handbooks for the various actors involved
media and their own; in the process of socialization of young peo-
> To build a new democratic, active and par- ple to media. These concepts are to be
ticipatory citizenship, based on individual and found across several handbooks. The user
collective responsibility as well as on solida- is invited to adopt a variety of points of
rity and cooperation fostered by communica- views : the teachers, the students, the
tion; parents, the professionals. He/she is
> To support pluralism, cultural diversity, always enticed to satisfy his/her curiosity
and the sharing of knowledge in a perspec- as a learner. These modules are to be
tive of united sustainable development. applied to several vehicles, and not exclu-
sively to the dominant media, as television
The modular use (the preferred one as it feeds the cultural
of this kit environment of young people) or the inter-
net (as it allows the emergence of new
The various handbooks offer a wide rang of practices) but also minor media, that can
perspectives but they are conceived alike. be used at low cost in the schools, like pho-
They all have: tography, radio or video.
> a short outline of the context
> a presentation of the environment The pedagogical process used throughout
(school, family, media), the kit is based on questioning: the main
> a development of the key-concepts and purpose is to bring youngsters and adults
modules(production, language, represen- alike to ask themselves questions. The
tation, public), answers are to be elaborated in common
> a proposal about the way in which these and individually. Those offered here are
concepts could be taught at school or meant to introduce the debate and the dia-
applied in society logue rather than to close them definitively.
> a series of suggested activities. There is no specific pedagogical material
provided, for it is supposed to be adapted
The objectives and the theoretical tenets locally, for all modules. Some examples are
which ground these approaches are also mentioned, but mostly references are given
made as explicit as possible. The key-con- which refer to Internet sites or to publica-
cepts supply a general and systematic tions of UNESCO or other institutions, often
approach of media education, which can be free of rights What matters most is the
applied to a whole series of media and establishing of connections between the
which all the actors can appropriate. They handbooks, the modules and the networks
are not hierarchically organized, and can be they suggest. In a development perspec-
studied at various moments, but they all tive, they can become transferable, modifi-
need to be reactivated, whatever the level able, adaptable, to answer the current
of entry chosen. needs of shared knowledge societies.
8
Proposal for a
modular curriculum
Proposal for a
modular
curriculum
content
Main target audience: Secondary school
teachers.
modules
Levels of the Curriculum:
The proposed curriculum may be dealt with Module 1 - Why? The Cultural environ-
at two levels: ment of media
> An initial and general level which tackles Module 2 - What? Media production
the basic knowledge and educational Module 3 - What? Media languages
methods related to media education; Module 4 - What? Representations
> An advanced level which incorporates in the media 9
media EDucation
Objectives
Module 2 what? > To identify the different languages, their
Media production codes, their functions and purposes.
> To provide teacher trainees with a hands-on
Rationale experience with these different languages.
This module aims at showing that media > To take into account the informal skills
create a culture of their own, due to their acquired by the students in their daily
specific history and evolution in a country dealing with media.
(ex: public service media vs commercial
media models). It also aims at creating Elements
awareness about the different power rela- > Written, Visual and Sound media lan-
tions that have shaped them and affect guages.
content production in a given society. > Interaction of media (audiovisual, multi-
media...)
> Promotion and validation of informal skills.
10
Proposal for a
modular curriculum
Objectives
Module 4 what? > To map various media exposure and
Representations in the media experiences.
> To provide teacher trainees with the
Rationale range of young audience strategies of
This module aims at showing that media appropriation.
are mental and imaginary constructions of > To encourage young audiences aware-
reality and that there are different degrees ness of their rights and responsibilities in
of relation between fictional and non-fiction- media participation and production.
al productions that create expectations in
the viewer, especially via the notion of genre Elements
(news, reality programming, docudrama, > Media and market strategies for audi-
etc.). It also aims at analyzing the more ence studies.
recent evolution of media in terms of > Processes and conditions of receptions,
hybridization of genres, especially as more audiences.
participatory productions and practices are > Interpretative skills, critical and civic
appearing, due to the increasing use of analysis.
Internet and mobile telephony.
Recommended duration of training
Objectives 12 -18 hours (one week)
> To identify different genres and media
contents, their functions and purposes.
> To sensitize teacher trainees to shifts Module 6 how?
and pressures in the genre production. Pedagogical stages and strategies
> To acquire formal skills about distinguish-
ing different media outputs concerning Rationale
various degrees of constructing reality. This module is about teaching to teach and
learning to learn. Media education can fos-
Elements ter new educational practices and pedago-
> Diversity of media, genre and content. gies, especially related to collaborative
> Typology of genres (information, fiction, work, project-oriented productions and new
documentary, entertainment, advertis- forms of evaluation (intermediary and glob-
ing). al as well as individual and collective). This
> Genre hybridization (reality, fiction, virtu- module also aims at empowering teachers
al reality; reality/verisimilitude). and students by helping them design cours-
es and material that are based on local
Recommended duration of training needs and productions.
24 hours (two weeks) instructional time +
personal and collaborative projects. Objectives
> To acquire project management skills.
> to develop competence in guiding and
Module 5 who? assessing young peoples projects.
The publics in reception > To design local content courses and eval-
uate them individually and collectively.
Rationale
This module aims at showing that youth Elements
socialization to media can take different > Elaboration of projects within the frame-
shapes, from passive to active attitudes, work of already existing subjects.
from effects to uses and gratification, from > Description of objectives.
reception to productivity. It also aims at creat- > Design of pedagogical activities using
ing awareness that such strategies of appro- specific media materials, data and media 11
media EDucation
production and outputs (newsletters, are now mostly concerned with the media
audio tapes, video tapes, on-line newspa- as a whole. Over the past twenty years, and
pers). particularly in the last ten, these specialist
> Assessment and evaluation of results. Media Studies courses have experienced a
steady growth in student numbers; and this
Recommended duration of training has been supported by a phenomenal
24 hours (two weeks). expansion of media courses in higher edu-
cation. In principle, these courses offer a
Recommandations sustained experience of media education
These modules may be adapted according that provides both breadth and depth.
to local uses. In order to sensitize the Most courses of this kind combine theory
trainees to the importance of media educa- and practice, and most cover the range of
tion, it is suggested to prepare a prelimi- key concepts identified in the modules.
nary conference with question time. The
objective of this process is to ensure fur- However, the establishment of such cours-
ther coherence within the school system es often involves a considerable struggle.
and to reduce reluctance to change. The argument that the curriculum is
already overcrowded has always been a
These modules can be also used as a basic very familiar one for media educators. Even
training program for teachers who wish to in relatively hospitable conditions, it is often
train on their own and who want to apply difficult for teachers to establish new
these newly acquired skills and compe- optional courses against the competing
tences in the classroom. The contents of demands of other curriculum subjects.
these modules are developed in the hand- New courses inevitably require investment
books for teachers and for students. These in new equipment and resources, and a
can indeed serve as support tools for the longer-term commitment to staffing.
initial training of teachers but the activities Despite their popularity with students,
and pedagogical strategies they suggest Media Studies courses have always
can also be used outside the school, in a remained vulnerable to cuts; and there has
context where other actors can be involved, never been anything resembling a career
especially parents and professionals. structure for specialist media teachers. All
too often, Media Studies courses are intro-
ce programme duced by young and determined enthusi-
the strategic asts, only to fall by the wayside when such
context for people move on.
this modular
es depends very much upon the wider con-
text of educational policy, and particularly
curriculum on the control of the curriculum and of
funding. Centralised control of the curricu-
lumwhich is currently increasing in many
media education countriesfrequently results in a decline in
in the schools: the time available for specialist or optional
an autonomous subject subjects, and in the training and support
that is necessary for their development.
In several countries, particularly in the Where there is a more decentralised free
English-speaking world, media education is market, Media Studies often tends to
now fairly well established as a specialist prosper, because students clearly wish to
subject in secondary schools. Where stu- opt for it. Nevertheless, it would be false to
dents can begin to opt for new specialist pretend that Media Studies at this level
subjectsgenerally in the upper years of remains anything more than a minority sub-
secondary schoolingthere is growing ject: as an optional course, confined to the
demand for such courses. While these upper years of the secondary school, it will
courses originally specialised in film, they only ever occupy a marginal role.
12
Proposal for a
modular curriculum
Furthermore, Media Studies is still regard- Furthermore, it could be argued that many
ed by some schools as an easy option students existing knowledge of school sub-
which is best suited to the academic under- jectstheir commonsense ideas about sci-
achiever; and this definition is reinforced by ence and technology, about other countries
the fact that it is sometimes offered as an or about the pastare at least partly
alternative to more academic subjects. derived from the media in the first place.
These media accounts may not, of course,
Media education necessarily claim to be factual. Students
across the curriculum perceptions of life in the nineteenth century
may derive primarily from costume dra-
Advocates of media education have often mas; while their attitudes towards science
argued that it should be seen as an ele- and technology may owe most to science
ment of all curriculum subjects. There are fiction. Yet however invalid or irrelevant this
several reasons for this argument. Firstly, knowledge may be seen to be, it is clearly
there is the fact that all teachers use something which teachers neglect at their
media of different kinds as teaching aids - peril. A more radical variant of this argu-
not only audio-visual media, but also text- ment would suggest that the curriculum
books and other print materials. For exam- itself is a mediation: it is a constructed rep-
ple, History teachers will routinely use films resentation of the world, not a neutral
or photographs as sources of evidence reflection of it. By questioning the ways in
alongside printed documents; Geography which the world is represented, and hence
teachers will rely on anthropological the processes whereby knowledge is con-
accounts of life in other cultures, whether structed, media education can be seen to
on video or in print; while Science teachers challenge the dominant epistemology of the
will use television as a way of demonstrat- curriculum as a whole.
ing complex processes, or illustrating their
effects, in ways that cannot be attempted For all these reasons, media education
in the classroom. If we are concerned to could be seen to play an important role
encourage students to be critical of the right across the school curriculum.
media, or to use them in more informed However, there is a danger that this might
ways, then surely this should be extended reduce media education to an instrumental
to the media they encounter inside the or servicing role. Teaching about the
classroom. media should not be confused with teaching
through the mediaalthough this confusion
This argument can also be applied to the may be increasing as a result of the dis-
use of media production in schools. Media semination of information and communica-
such as video or photography are some- tion technologies in education. There are
times used to record classroom activities, also logistical objections here. Particularly
or as an alternative way for students to in secondary schools, where subject spe-
present their work; and some have argued cialisms are much more institutionalised,
that media production of this kind offers a the fate of cross-curricular movements has
new method of learning that can be used in not generally been a positive one, particu-
many situations. In some secondary larly where they begin from a relatively
schools, for example, media production weak institutional base. An issue that is
activities are used in this way in a wide every teachers responsibility can quickly
range of curriculum areas, including Art, become nobodys responsibility. It is for this
History and Science: rather than writing up reason that media educators have been
their work in essay form, students present inclined to regard the existence of a special-
it using audio-visual means. In presenting ist Media Studies department as a pre-req-
their work in media formats, and to a wider uisite for the formulationand particularly
audience than simply their teachers, stu- the implementationof cross-curricular poli-
dents can be enabled to reformulate their cies.
existing knowledge, and to learn at a more
profound level.
13
media EDucation
ICTs offer a fundamental challenge to outdat- media were actively used as tools of politi-
ed notions of teaching and learning. cal struggle, and as a means of generating
alternatives to government-controlled
Media educators are bound to respond media. In the USA, by contrast, the provi-
pragmatically to these developments. In sion of community cable access channels
many countries, there is now a massive was for some time required by law,
investment in providing ICTs in schools; and although the actual provision across the
this can present significant opportunities country is extremely variable; and of course
that it would be wrong to ignore. Yet media such resources must be made freely avail-
educators also need to participate in the able to individuals and political groups with a
broader debate that surrounds these devel- whole range of motivations. Nevertheless,
opments; andas in the case of language the provision of community media of this
and literature teachingthey may find them- kind is often seen as an essentially educa-
selves adopting a stance towards official tional process, even if the extent to which
educational ideologies that is necessarily educational aims are made explicit varies
critical. greatly. There is a great potential for young
media professionals to be involved in such
Each of these different locations for media work, particularly those from disadvan-
education presents different challenges taged groups who might not otherwise gain
and opportunities. Yet the prospects for access to the media.
educational change clearly depend on the
broader policy climate, and on the logistical Media education
and economic constraints in which schools with parents
operate. In this context, the future of media
education is bound to depend, not just on In many of the above instances, the major
the philosophical arguments of its advo- focus for media education initiatives has
cateshowever powerful they may bebut on been on parents rather than children.
the pragmatic realities of educational poli- Many churches and activist organisations
tics. The promotion of media education will have produced advice literature aimed at
then require a multi-dimensional strategy. parents, and in some cases educational
materials designed to be used in the home.
ce programme
Beyond schools
Again, the motivations here have been
somewhat diverse. Much of the popular lit-
erature aimed at parents adopts a highly
If the main focus may be on media educa- protectionist approach: for example, par-
tion in schools, yet the boundaries between ents are offered strategies for reducing
schools and other educational institutions their childrens television viewing, or for
are increasingly blurring; and there is now teaching their children to resist commercial
a growing interest in the potential for learn- messages. As critics have argued, such
ing beyond the classroom. In this section, approaches are explicitly normative, and
we will briefly note some opportunities that often seem intended to induce feelings of
exist for informal media education beyond guilt among inadequate parents. If par-
the confines of schooling. ents are to be involved, they need to be
seen as active participants, rather than
Community media simply being told what they should or should
workshops not be doing; and any educational initiatives
aimed at parents need to take account both
The use of media such as portable video of cultural differences and of the sometimes
within community work has a long history in difficult realities of child-rearing.
many countries, and is often linked to
broader arguments for democratisation, The diversity of this work inevitably makes it
not only of the media but also of the politi- difficult to categorise and summarise; but it
cal process in general. In the context of lib- is clear that it cannot necessarily be aligned
eration struggles in countries such as with progressive social goals. While such
South Africa, for example, video and other informal approaches to media education
16
Proposal for a
modular curriculum
tend to employ a rhetoric of liberation or opportunity for flexibility and teacher auton-
empowerment, they are frequently char- omy, while nevertheless ensuring compara-
acterised by protectionism. As with for- bility and agreed standards.
mal media education, the different nation-
al and institutional contexts for such work > Professional training. Well-intended
clearly exercise a determining influence on documents and frameworks are worthless
its aims and methods. without trained staff to implement them.
Elements of training in media education
ce programme
a strategy for
should be included in initial and in-service
training programmes, and be available as
development part of teachers ongoing professional
development. Given the complexity of the
Despite the growing significance of the field, any such training should be extensive
media, and the urgency of the case for and sustained.
media education, progress in this field has
generally been slow or uneven. Educational > Involvement of the media industries.
innovation of this kind is a complex process, The media are, in many respects, the most
and requires a range of strategies and tac- obvious vehicle for media education.
tics. It cannot be mandated, and it will not Collaboration between teachers and media
be brought about simply through the force producers has obvious benefits, for
or logic of the argument. instance in terms of accessing appropriate
teaching resources, informing teachers
Experience in several countries suggests and students of contemporary develop-
that promoting and developing media edu- ments within the media industries, and
cation depends upon the presence of a addressing students vocational ambitions.
series of inter-dependent elements, and on Other bodies that might have a role to play
partnerships between a range of interested in this respect would include industry
parties. Some of these will function on an regulatory bodies and relevant government
international level, some on a national level departments.
and some on a local level. Any intervention
must necessarily take account of the spe- > Involvement of parents. If media educa-
cific factors in play at each level, and the tion is to prove relevant and applicable
shifting relationships between them. These beyond the classroom, parents and care-
elements should include the following: givers clearly have a vital role to play. While
there are examples of good practice in this
> Policy documents. There is an ongoing field that might be productively shared and
need for clear, coherent and authoritative disseminated more widely, this is generally
documents that define media education an area whose potential has been little
and provide a rationale for its implementa- explored.
tion. Such documents obviously need to
command general assent; to be succinct > Involvement of youth groups. The provi-
and strongly argued; and to be widely pub- sion of facilities, training and support for
licised and distributed. more or less independent groups of young
people is a further key dimension of media
> Curriculum frameworks. In addition to education. Such groups may come togeth-
broad statements of purpose, there is a er in formal school settings, but they are
need for more specific documentation out- likely to function more effectively in less for-
lining frameworks for curriculum develop- mal situations; and media educators may
ment and practice. Documents of this kind have a great deal to learn from the kinds of
need to include: a clear model of learning peer education that are developed in such
progression, appropriate to specific cur- contexts.
riculum locations; details of specific learn-
ing outcomes; and criteria and procedures > Teaching materials and resources.
for evaluation and assessment. Ideally, any Despite the changing and sometimes
such document should allow considerable ephemeral nature of the content of media 17
media EDucation
18
handbook
for teachers
handbook for
teachers
What are media? The term media as used here includes the
whole range of modern communications
The dictionary defines a medium as an media: television, the cinema, video, radio,
intervening means, instrument or agency: photography, advertising, newspapers and
it is a substance or a channel through magazines, recorded music, computer
which effects or information can be carried games and the internet. Media texts are
or transmitted. A medium is something we the programmes, films, images, web-sites
use when we want to communicate with (and so on) that are carried by these differ-
people indirectlyrather than in person or ent forms of communication.
by face-to-face contact. The word media is
just the plural of medium. Many of these are often called mass
media, which implies that they reach large
This dictionary definition tells us something audiences. However, some media are only
fundamental about the media. The media intended to reach quite small or specialised
do not offer a transparent window on the audiences, and they can be important to
world. They provide a channel through study too. Some people would also argue
which representations and images of the that more traditional forms such as books
world can be communicated indirectly. The are also media, since they too provide us
media intervene: they provide us with selec- with versions or representations of the
tive versions of the world, rather than world.
direct access to it. 19
media EDucation
Media texts often combine several lan- The place of media education within and
guages or forms of communicationvisual beyond the school (where?) appears in
images (still or moving), audio (sound, the section on strategic context for inte-
music or speech) and written language. gration in the Proposal for a modular cur-
Media education aims to develop a broad- riculum.
based competence, not just in relation to
print, but also in these other symbolic sys-
tems of images and sounds.
section 1
Many people refer to this competence as a
form of literacy. They argue that, in the
media in
modern world, media literacy is just as the cultural
important for young people as the more
traditional literacy of print. Media educa-
environnement
tion, then, is the process of teaching and
learning about media; media literacy is the
outcomethe knowledge and skills learners The media are, without any doubt, a highly
acquire. significant aspect of contemporary chil-
drens lives. In most industrialised coun-
Media literacy necessarily involves read- tries, surveys repeatedly show that children
ing and writing media. Media education spend more time watching television than
therefore aims to develop both critical they do in school, or indeed on any other
understanding and active participation. It activity apart from sleeping. If you add to
enables young people to interpret and make this the time they devote to films, maga-
informed judgments as consumers of zines, computer games and popular music,
media; but it also enables them to become it is clear that the media constitute by far
producers of media in their own right. their most significant leisure-time pursuit.
Media education is about developing young Many have argued that the media have now
peoples critical and creative abilities. taken the place of the family and the school
as the major socialising influence in con-
Media education is concerned with teach- temporary society.
ing and learning about the media. This
should not be confused with teaching More broadly, it is impossible to deny the
through the mediafor example, the use of economic, social and cultural importance of
television or computers as a means of the media in the modern world. The media
teaching science, or history. Of course, are major industries, generating profit and
these educational media also provide ver- employment; they provide us with most of
sions or representations of the world. But our information about the political process;
media education is not about the instru- and they offer us ideas, images and repre-
mental use of media as teaching aids: it sentations (both factual and fictional) that
should not be confused with educational inevitably shape our view of reality. The
technology or educational media. media are undoubtedly the major contem-
20
handbook
for teachers
porary means of cultural expression and the more urgent. Among the most signifi-
communication: to become an active par- cant changes are the following:
ticipant in society necessarily involves mak-
ing use of the modern media. > Technological developments. With the
advent of multi-channel television, home
In this respect, the argument for media video, computers and the internetalong
education would seem to be self-evident. It with a range of other technologiesthere
is essentially an argument for making edu- has been a massive proliferation of elec-
cation more relevant to childrens lives out- tronic media. The screen in the living room
side school, and to the wider society. For is now the delivery point for a wide range of
many children, the gap between the world electronic goods and services, and for a
of school and the world of everyday life is plethora of information and entertainment.
alarmingly wide. Rather than ignoring the According to enthusiasts, these technolog-
mediaas many educators still try to dowe ical developments have resulted in greater
need to begin by recognising that they are choice for the consumeralthough some
an established fact of life. Whether we suggest that they merely offer more oppor-
believe that the media play a negative or a tunities to see the same things, rather than
positive role in childrens lives, we do them greater global diversity. However, these
little service by pretending that they do not changes do not only affect media consump-
exist. tion. The falling cost of technology has also
created new opportunities for people to
The argument for media education is often become media producers in their own
defined by analogy with the argument for right: by using video and the internet, it is
universal literacy. Literacy in the medium of now much more possible for individuals to
print is generally recognised as a funda- create and distribute their own media
mental prerequisite for participation in con- texts.
temporary society. Yet communication now
increasingly involves the audio-visual lan- > Economic developments. The media
guages of the modern media. Children and have been inextricably caught up in the
adults need to be literate in all of these broader commercialisation of contempo-
symbolic systems. They need to be compe- rary culture. In many countries, public serv-
tent, critical readers and writers of media ice media have lost ground to commercial
language as well as print. media: public service television and radio
channels, for example, are now only one
Bringing together the world of education option among many, and their audiences
with the world of media communication in are correspondingly in decline. Meanwhile,
this way will require a collaborative effort on forms of advertising, promotion and spon-
the part of teachers, students, parents, sorship have steadily permeated the public
media producers and policy-makers. It will sphere, as commercial companies seek
also require a clarity and rigour on the part new markets. Fields such as politics, sport,
of educators, in terms of their aims and health careand indeed education itself
methodsand a willingness to re-think many have increasingly been invaded by com-
of the fundamental principles of education. mercial forces. This has been the case
In this respect, media education repre- even in countries where the media were
sents an important challenge, but it is one formerly subject to strong state control and
that we cannot avoid. censorship; and in more pluralist societies,
media regulation by governments seems
increasingly powerless in the face of com-
Module 1 why? mercial forces.
changing times > Social developments. Most social com-
mentators agree that the contemporary
In recent years, there have been several world has been characterised by a growing
developments in the media environment sense of fragmentation and individualisa-
that make the case for media education all tion. Established systems of belief and ways 21
media EDucation
of life are being eroded, and familiar hierar- The formation and development of youth
chies overthrown. Traditional social bonds cultureand, more recently, of a global
such as those of family and communityno childrens cultureare impossible to sepa-
longer hold sway in these more heteroge- rate from the commercial operations of the
neous, mobile societies. In this context, modern media.
identity comes to be seen as a matter of
individual choice, rather than birthright or Both in research and in public debate, chil-
destiny. The media are often seen as a pri- dren are frequently seen to be most vulner-
mary source of these new, more individuat- able to media influence; yet they are also
ed forms of identity and lifestyle; and the seen to possess a confidence and expertise
growing importance of niche markets has in their relations with media that are not
required producers to address an increas- available to the majority of adults. They are
ingly diverse range of social groupings. In defined both as innocents in need of protec-
the process, it is argued, individuals have tion, and as a competent, media-wise
also become more diverseand to some generation. Yet whichever view we adopt,
extent more autonomousin their uses and the fact remains that adults are less and
interpretations of cultural goods. less able to control childrens use of the
media. Children today can and do gain
> Globalisation. The balance between the access to adult media, via cable TV or
global and the local is changing in complex video or the internet, much more readily
and uneven ways, both in cultural and in than their parents ever could. They also
economic terms. Global media corpora- have their own media spheres, which
tionsbased in the wealthiest first world adults may find increasingly difficult to pen-
countriesdominate the marketplace: glob- etrate or understand. Whether we look to
al brands now provide an international lan- technological devices (like the V-chip) or to
guage or common culture, particularly changes in regulatory policy, the means of
among young people. At the same time, control appear increasingly ineffective. The
new technologies also permit more decen- proliferation of media technology, combined
tralised, localised communications, and the with the changing social status of children,
creation of communities that transcend mean that children can no longer be con-
national boundariesparticularly via the fined in the traditional secret garden of
internet. Meanwhile, the gap between rich childhoodif indeed they ever could.
and poorboth within and between nations
appears to be widening; and this is also These patterns of technological and struc-
manifested in terms of access to informa- tural change in the contemporary media
tion and to media technologies. Choices of environment thus present significant new
mediaand hence, perhaps, of lifestyle and dangers and opportunities for young peo-
identityare not freely available to all. ple. Digital mediaand particularly the inter-
netsignificantly increase the potential for
However we interpret them, these develop- active participation; but they also create an
ments are decidedly double-edged. They environment of bewildering choices, not all
create new inequalities even as they abolish of which can be seen as harmless.
older ones. They appear to offer new choic- Meanwhile, for the large majority of chil-
es for individuals even as they appear to dren who do not yet have access to these
foreclose and deny others. Either way, they opportunities, there is a growing danger of
make the nature of contemporary citizenship exclusion and disenfranchisement.
significantly more complex and ambiguous.
In this new situation, the case for media
The modern media are centrally implicated education becomes all the more urgent.
in all of these processes; and this has par- We need to enable children to cope with
ticular implications for children and young the challenges posed by this new mediated
people. For the global media industries, the environment; and we need to build upon
young are the key consumers, whose and extend the new styles of learning and
tastes and preferences are frequently seen the new forms of cultural expression that
to set the trend for consumers in general. the modern media make available to them.
22
handbook
for teachers
Only in this way will it be possible for todays cultural one. They saw the media as a form
children to take their place as active citi- of low culture that would undermine chil-
zens in the complex, commercially-oriented, drens appreciation of the values and
global societies which are now emerging virtues of high culture. In others, the fun-
damental concern appears to be moral.
FROM PROTECTION Here, the media are seen to teach children
TO PREPARATION values and behaviours (for example, to do
with sex and violence) that are deemed to
Like any other field of education, media edu- be inappropriate or harmful. Finallyand
cation has been characterised by an ongo- especially in the forms of media education
ing debate about its fundamental aims and that developed in the 1970sone can
methods. Few teachers are initially trained detect a political concern: a belief that the
in media education; and they therefore tend media are responsible for promoting false
to approach it from diverse disciplinary political beliefs or ideologies. In each case,
backgrounds, and with diverse motivations. media education is seen as a means of
For some, media education represents a counteracting childrens apparent fascina-
solution to a problema way of counteract- tion and pleasure in the mediaand hence
ing developments in society that they per- their belief in the values the media are seen
sonally dislike. For others, it is seen as a to promote. Media education will, it is
form of empowermenta way of enabling assumed, lead children on to an apprecia-
young people to take control of the means tion of high culture, to more morally healthy
of media production, and to make the most forms of behaviour, or to more rational,
of the opportunities they provide. Media politically correct beliefs.
education thus serves as the focus for a
whole range of fears, concerns and aspira- As in media research, these arguments
tions, some of which may prove fundamen- tend to recur as new media enter the
tally incompatible. scene. For instance, the advent of the
internet has seen a resurgence of many of
Nevertheless, it is possible to detect a these protectionist arguments for media
broad historical shift in the underlying phi- education. The internet is seen primarily in
losophy of media education. Historically, terms of its ability to give children access to
media education has often begun as a harmful material, or alternatively to make
defensive enterprise: its aim is to protect them victims of commercial exploitation.
children against what are seen to be the Here, media education is yet again per-
dangers of the media. The emphasis here ceived by some as a kind of inoculationa
is on exposing the false messages and val- means of preventing contamination, if not
ues the media are seen to purvey, and of keeping children away from the media
thereby encouraging students to reject or entirely. In this scenario, the potential ben-
move beyond them. As it has evolved, how- efits and pleasures of the media are neg-
ever, media education has tended to move lected in favour of an exclusiveand in some
towards a more empowering approach. instances, highly exaggeratedemphasis on
The aim here is to prepare children to the harm they are assumed to cause.
understand and to participate actively in
the media culture that surrounds them. While these protectionist views of media
The emphasis is on critical understanding education have been far from superseded,
and analysis, and (increasingly) upon media there has been a gradual evolution in many
production by students themselves. countries towards a less defensive
approach. In general, the countries with
In essence, the protectionist approach the most mature forms of practice in
seeks to arm students against the per- media educationthat is, those which have
ceived dangers of the media. To be sure, the longest history, and the most consis-
these dangers have been defined in differ- tent pattern of evolutionhave moved well
ent ways at different times and in different beyond protectionism. From this perspec-
contexts. In some countries, the fundamen- tive, media education is now no longer so
tal concern of early media educators was a automatically opposed to students experi- 23
media EDucation
ences of the media. Media education is the media are an all-powerful conscious-
seen here not as a form of protection, but ness industrythat they can single-handed-
as a form of preparation. It does not aim to ly impose false values on passive audi-
shield young people from the influence of enceshas also come into question. In the
the media, and thereby to lead them on to case of children, the idea that they can be
better things. On the contrary, it seeks to seen merely as innocent victims of media
enable them to make informed decisions on effects has steadily been challenged and
their own behalf. In broad terms, it aims to surpassed: contemporary research sug-
develop young peoples understanding of, gests that children are a much more
and participation in, the media culture that autonomous and critical audience than they
surrounds them. In the process, it are conventionally assumed to be. Teaching
inevitably raises cultural, moral and political about the media can no longer begin from
concerns; but it does so in a way that the view that young people are simply pas-
encourages an active, critical engagement sive victims of media influence.
on the part of students, rather than com-
manding their assent to a predetermined > Changing views of teaching and learn-
position. ing. Finally, there has been a growing
recognition among educators that the pro-
The reasons for this change of emphasis tectionist approach does not actually work
are manifold, but the following would be in practice. Especially when it comes to the
among them: areas with which media education is so
centrally concernedwith what students
> Changing views of regulation. To some see as their own cultures and their own
extent, this shift is part of a broader devel- pleasuresthey may well be inclined to
opment in thinking about media regulation. resist or reject what teachers tell them.
While protectionism is often driven by well- The recognition of these difficulties has led
meaning, positive motivations, it can result to the emergence of a more student-cen-
in a situation where childrens active partic- tred perspective, which begins from young
ipation in the media is restricted. As such, peoples existing knowledge and experience
it can be seen to conflict with childrens of media, rather than from the instruction-
rights to information and participation (for al imperatives of the teacher.
example, in the UN Convention on the
Rights of the Child). Among media regula- From this perspective, media production by
tors themselves, the emphasis is now mov- students also assumes a much greater sig-
ing away from censorship, and towards nificance. Of course, the primary aim of
consumer adviceof which media educa- media education is not to train the televi-
tion is often seen as one dimension. sion producers and journalists of the
future: this is a task for higher education,
> Changing views of the media. The and for the media industries themselves.
notion of the media as bearers of a singu- Nevertheless, the participatory potential of
lar set of values and beliefsor indeed as new technologiesand particularly of the
uniformly harmful or lacking in cultural internethas made it much more possible
valueis no longer so widely held. Of course, for young people to undertake creative
there are still significant limits in the diver- media production, or for teachers to do so
sity of views represented in the media; but with their students. By emphasising the
the development of modern forms of com- development of young peoples creativity,
munication has resulted in a more hetero- and their participation in media production,
geneous, even fragmented, environment. In media educators are enabling their voices
general, there is now a greater recognition to be heard; and in the longer term, they
of the benefits and opportunities afforded are also providing the basis for more dem-
by the media, rather than simply of the ocratic and inclusive forms of media pro-
harm they are alleged to cause. duction in the future.
and coherent definition of its aims and and Audiences (Audience is synonym for
methods. In reality, of course, we recognise Publics elsewhere in this kit). These con-
that individuals come to media education cepts provide a theoretical framework which
with a wide range of motivations and aims. can be applied to the whole range of con-
Yet ultimately, whatever approach one temporary media, and indeed to older
adopts, it is important to be clear about media as well. In this section, we introduce
ones underlying assumptions, and the evi- these concepts in turn, drawing on the sum-
dence on which they are based. All media maries provided in the students handbook.
education programmes embody implicit
assumptions and values of the kind we have
been addressing. They are all based on Module 2 what?
views about the media themselves, about Production
young people, and about the nature of
teaching and learning; and it is essential At its most basic, production involves the
that these views should be clearly identified recognition that media texts are conscious-
and open to debate. ly manufactured. Media texts take time
and sometimes a great deal of moneyto
produce. Although some are made by indi-
viduals working alone, just for themselves
or their family and friends, most of the
section 2 media texts we consume are produced and
laws about this, and how effective are they? make choices about their working methods
> Circulation and distribution. How do and the technologies they will use, and
texts reach their audiences? How much about how they will identify and target their
choice and control do audiences have? audience; and they will also have to con-
> Access and participation. Whose voices front all sorts of limitations in terms of the
are heard in the media? Whose are exclud- production and distribution of their finished
ed, and why? product. Reflecting systematically on these
experiences can help them to develop a
In analysing production, students might more first-hand understanding of how
focus on case studies of specific media media industries work.
institutions or companies. These should
obviously include companies that operate
on a global scale, with interests in a range Module 3 what?
of media, like Rupert Murdochs News Languages
Corporation or the BBC. Here the focus
would be on discovering how the different
aspects of the business inter-connect and Every medium has its own languageor
reinforce each other. An alternative combination of languagesthat it uses to
approach here would be to investigate the communicate meaning. Television, for
international sale and distribution of televi- example, uses verbal and written language
sion formats, such as Big Brother and as well as the languages of moving
Who Wants to be a Millionaire? Here, the images and sound. These things can be
focus would be on the global trade in seen as languages in the sense that they
media, and the ways in which formats are use familiar codes and conventions that are
used and reinterpreted in specific national generally understood. For example, particu-
contexts. However, it is important that stu- lar kinds of music or camera angles may be
dents are also aware of other models of used to signal particular emotions; and a
media production. Thus, they might focus page of a newspaper or a sequence of
on public service broadcasters, or on small- shots in a film will be put together using a
er organisations such as non-profit alter- certain kind of grammar. As in the case of
native media groups or minority publica- verbal language, making meaningful state-
tions, and compare their working practices ments in media languages involves para-
and ideologies with those of major corpora- digmatic choicesthat is, selecting from a
tions. They should also be aware of the range of equivalent elementsand syntag-
work of regulatory bodies. matic combinationsthat is, putting the ele-
ments together in sequences or combina-
Studying production is often best achieved tions. There are linguistic rules here,
through research-based tasks. Thus, stu- which can be broken; and there are famil-
dents might identify the companies that iar idioms or genres that use particular
own their favourite magazines, and the combinations of linguistic tropes and
other titles or companies they own; or devices. By analysing these languages, we
investigate the patterns of cross-ownership can come to a better understanding of how
in their national television industry. Another media make meaning.
possibility here would be to analyse how dif-
ferent audiences are targeted by a particu- Looking at media languages means looking at:
lar medium: for example, the ways in which > Meanings. How do media use different
different TV channels create brand identity forms of language to convey ideas or
or the ways in which womens magazines meanings?
address different sections of the audience, > Conventions. How do these uses of language
as defined in terms of age or social class. become familiar and generally accepted?
Finally, it is important to emphasise that > Codes. How are the grammatical rules
these kinds of questions can also be applied of media established? What happens when
to the students own experiences of media they are broken?
production. In making their own magazines > Genres. How do these conventions and
or videos, for example, students will have to codes operate in different types of media
26
handbook
for teachers
textssuch as news or horror? However, this is not to say that the under-
> Choices. What are the effects of choos- standing of media language should be con-
ing certain forms of languagesuch as a fined to analysis. Here again, the experi-
particular type of camera shot? ence of producing ones own media texts
> Combinations. How is meaning conveyed and systematically experimenting with the
through the combination or sequencing of rules of media languagecan offer new
images, sounds or words? insights, and in a more direct way. Taking a
> Technologies. How do technologies affect photograph, for example, involves a whole
the meanings that can be created? series of linguistic choices, to do with the
composition of the objects in the shot, the
Studying media language should involve framing and camera angle, the lighting, the
close observation and analysis. For focus and so on. Combining ones photo-
instance, many media teachers use a graph with written text or with other
broadly semiotic approach to analysing still images (for example in a layout or pho-
images, such as those in advertising. tomontage) involves further choices to do
Students might be encouraged to look sys- with how the meaning of the photograph is
tematically at elements such as framing to be defined. These choices may be made
and composition, the use of colour, type- unthinkingly; and one of the aims of media
faces and graphics, special effects, and so education is to encourage students to
on, in order to assess how a particular reflect on the choices they have made, and
product image is created. Similarly, stu- to consider their consequences.
dents might look at the rules and conven-
tions of news broadcasts, noting the mise-
en-scne of the studio, the use of lighting, Module 4 what?
the newsreaders dress and body language, Representations
and the sequencing of items within a bul-
letin. The syntagmatic aspects of media
language are often difficult to identify, pre- The notion of representation is one of the
cisely because they have become so natu- founding principles of media education. The
ralised and widely accepted. Drawing atten- media do not offer us a transparent win-
tion to this may require students to look at dow on the world, but a mediated version
texts that consciously set out to break the of the world. They dont just present reality,
rules: for example, students might com- they re-present it. Even when it is con-
pare the use of continuity editing in a main- cerned with real life events (as in news and
stream Hollywood movie with the editing in documentary), media production involves
an art movie or some alternative pop selecting and combining incidents, making
videos. events into stories, and creating charac-
ters. Media representations therefore
As this implies, studying media language inevitably invite us to see the world in some
often involves close analysis of particular particular ways and not others. They are
texts. It involves making the familiar bound to be biased rather than objec-
strange by looking in detail at how texts tive. However, this is not to imply that they
are composed and put together. For exam- are therefore deceiving audiences into mis-
ple, this might involve producing a story- taking representation for reality: audiences
board from a television advertisement, or also compare media with their own experi-
physically deconstructing an image by ences, and make judgments about how
breaking it down into its component parts. realistic they are, and hence how far they
Another useful way of analysing media can be trusted. Furthermore, media repre-
language is by means of comparison. sentations can be seen as real in some
Comparing several instances of a particular ways but not in others: we may know that
genrefor instance, advertisements for a something is fantasy, yet recognise that it
particular type of product, or fashion photo- can still tell us about reality.
graphscan provide a good basis for identi-
fying shared conventions, as well as pat- Looking at media representations means
terns of variation across the genre. looking at: 27
media EDucation
> Realism. Is this text intended to be real- fantasy and reality, as well as documentary-
istic? Why do some texts seem more real- style texts. More confident students willbe
istic than others? able to debate the implications of these dif-
> Telling the truth. How do media claim to ferent kinds and levels of realism in terms
tell the truth about the world? How do they of the potential influence of the media.
try to seem authentic?
> Presence and absence. What is includ- Here again, important insights into these
ed and excluded from the media world? issues can be gained from the experience
Who speaks, and who is silenced? of media production. Students can explore
> Bias and objectivity. Do media texts sup- questions about accuracy and bias by being
port particular views about the world? Do asked to produce contrasting representa-
they put across moral or political values? tions of an institution or an area that they
> Stereotyping. How do media represent are familiar with, perhaps aiming at differ-
particular social groups? Are those repre- ent audiences. The complexity of debates
sentations accurate? about stereotypingand about positive
> Interpretations. Why do audiences images and negative imagescan often
accept some media representations as be explored more productively by encourag-
true, or reject others as false? ing students to produce their own represen-
> Influences. Do media representations tations of social issues, and to reflect on the
affect our views of particular social groups ways in which audiences respond to them.
or issues?
> Targeting. How are media aimed at par- research. For instance, students might be
ticular audiences? How do they try to encouraged to keep media diaries, and
appeal to them? collate and compare their findings with
> Address. How do the media speak to peers; or to observe the uses of media
audiences? What assumptions do media within their household. In the process, stu-
producers make about audiences? dents should be encouraged to consider
> Circulation. How do media reach audi- the merits and disadvantages of different
ences? How do audiences know what is research methods, and the validity and reli-
available? ability of the information they generate.
> Uses. How do audiences use media in Such investigations often raise questions
their daily lives? What are their habits and about the social differences in media use,
patterns of use? and the extent to which it is possible to gen-
> Making sense. How do audiences inter- eralise about them. Here again, the experi-
pret media? What meanings do they make? ence of productionfor example, attempting
> Pleasures. What pleasures do audi- to target a particular audience, and then
ences gain from the media? What do they taking account of their responsescan also
like or dislike? offer important insights.
> Social differences. What is the role of
gender, social class, age and ethnic back- KEY CONCEPTS
ground in audience behaviour? IN PRACTICE
Like studying production, studying media The key concepts seem to offer a compre-
audiences is therefore partly a matter of hensive and systematic approach to media
finding out about how the media industries education, that can be applied to a range of
operate. For example, students might look media. However, they are not intended as a
at how television audiences or newspaper blueprint for a media education curriculum,
readerships are measured, and how this or a list of contents that should be deliv-
information is then used, for example to set ered to students. They are not hierarchi-
advertising rates. They might also consider cally organised, nor are they intended to be
how particular social groups or niche addressed in isolation from each otheras
audiences are targeted, for example by though one would spend one semester on
comparing the layout and cover design of language, followed by another on represen-
different magazines; or the assumptions tation, and so on. On the contrary, they are
about audiences which are made by media seen as interdependent: each concept is a
regulators. There may also be an element possible point of entry to a given area of
of first-hand research here, for example media education, which necessarily invokes
looking at how fans are cultivated by the all the others. As such, they provide a way
media industries and how they organise of organising ones thinking about any activ-
and communicate among themselves (for ity or unit of work which might be undertak-
example, on the internet). enand it should be emphasised that they
can be applied as much to creative activi-
As with representation, there is also likely ties (such as taking photographs) as they
to be a strong element of debate here. For can to analytical ones (such as studying
example, students will be aware of public advertising or the news).
debates about issues such as media vio-
lence and censorship, and should be alert- In order to illustrate how the key concepts
ed to the different motivations of the partic- work in practice, we will now look at three
ipants in such debates. Students need to examples of curriculum planning in media
analyse the kinds of assumptions that are education. They are all aimed at children
typically made about different sections of between 11 and 14. Each unit of work is
the media audience, and the evidence on designed to run across several lessons,
which these assumptions are based. and includes a range of classroom activi-
ties. These activities include small-group
Studying audiences should also involve an and whole class discussion, direct instruc-
element of self-reflection and first-hand tion by the teacher, role-plays and simula- 29
media EDucation
tions, close textual analysis, discursive writ- consider how the programme usesand
ing and media production activities. also departs fromthe conventions of its
genre. For instance, they are asked about
EXAMPLE 1 Teaching The Simpsons how its uses the conventions of situation
comedy; how it uses animation to break
This unit provides a good example of how the rules of verisimilitude; and the extent
one text (in this case, a television pro- to which is can be seen as realistic. They
gramme) can be used as a case study, rais- are then asked to write a detailed critical
ing all the four key concepts identified analysis of one episode.
above. The unit includes the following activ-
ities: > Industry. Here students are provided
with some information about the production
> The title sequence. Students are asked process (scripting, animation, overseas
to watch the title sequence closely several sales, scheduling, merchandising, and so
times, noting key elements. Group discus- on). They are then asked to study the cover
sion then focuses on issues such as the of a Simpsons videotape, and find out the
visual style, the use of sound, the image of roles played by different companies in pro-
The Simpsons home town, and the ele- duction and marketing. Finally, they are
ments of the sequence that change in each asked to carry out some research on
programme. Students are then asked to Simpsons merchandise, considering how it
write a summary of what we learn about is targeted at different audiences and how
The Simpsons from this sequence, and how it is bound by the copyright requirements of
its sets up expectations for the programme the production company.
as a whole.
> Debates. Students are presented with a
> Background and context. Here stu- range of statements about The Simpsons,
dents are given a brief introduction to the ranging from positive newspaper reviews to
history of TV situation comedies featuring the criticisms voiced by President Bush.
families, from I Love Lucy through to They are then asked to evaluate and debate
Married with Children. They are then asked these statements in the light of their own
to identify the differences and similarities, responses, focusing particularly on the idea
for example in terms of social class, in that the programme presents negative
terms of the types of families, and in terms role models.
of the settings. They are then given an
introduction to The Simpsons, and asked to > Simulation. Finally, students are asked
consider how it differs from earlier pro- (in groups) to undertake a simulation, in
grammes in this genre. which they produce an outline of an animat-
ed family show that is specific to their
> Character. Students are asked to pro- national context. They are asked to devise
duce a character study of one Simpsons characters, settings and sample storylines,
character, and compare their own analysis and think about ways of promoting their
with that contained in publicity materials. show through merchandising. In addition to
reporting back to the whole class, they also
> Comedy. Following a screening of a sin- have to produce a written rationale for their
gle episode, students are asked to break proposals.
down the plot and identify the nature of the
humour in each incident. Students are This unit addresses all four key concepts
encouraged to think about the different through an integrated study of one text. The
types of humour (satire, slapstick, absurdi- aspects covered would include the following:
ty, black comedy and so on), and then > Production: production processes, mer-
carry out a further analysis of an episode of chandising, international distribution.
their choice. > Language: genre (the sitcom), form (ani-
mation), codes and conventions.
> Conventions. Building on their analysis > Representation: realism, stereotyping,
of the two episodes, students are asked to moral values, images of the family.
30
handbook
for teachers
> Audience: targeting audiences, interpre- > Catching the audience. On the basis of
tations, influences, pleasures (comedy). their viewing at home, students are asked
to identify which ads are most effective at
EXEMPLE 2 Selling Youth catching their attention, and how they
achieve this. They identify the ads they per-
This unit is organised more thematically, in sonally liked the most, and what they liked
that it focuses on a genre (advertising) and about them; and then share the results
a theme (youth) that cut across several with the whole class. In the process, they
media. It focuses on advertising that specif- consider the assumptions that are made
ically targets young people, and the broad- about themselves as a target audience,
er issues to do with consumer culture that and the extent to which they are accurate.
it raises. It includes the following activities:
> The advertisers perspective. Students
> Reading ads. The unit begins with a read a series of statements made by an
description produced by a drinks manufac- advertising agency executive about the
turer of a particular drink, Product X. youth audience. Students are asked to
Students are asked to identify product X debate these statements, and then assess
from the range of drinks produced by this them against their viewing of a series of
company. In doing so, they are asked to ads produced by the agency in question.
think about how advertisements define the Following group discussion, students are
image and qualities of products, how partic- then asked to produce a written essay
ular audiences are targeted, and how these analysing a particular campaign of their
are reflected in the design of product logos. choice, and discussing how it attempts to
target the youth audience. They are asked
> Creating the image. The students go on to consider the kinds of images and identi-
to brainstorm ideas for selling Product X ties such campaigns are selling to their
(now identified as a drink called Juice Up), own age group.
and then compare this with real ads for the
product. They then undertake a detailed > Making ads. The final activity in this unit
analysis of three ads from the Juice Up consists of a simulation, in which students
campaign, focusing on the visual tech- are asked to assume the role of an adver-
niques, editing and soundtrack. They are tising agency responsible for marketing a
asked to think particularly about how the new cereal product aimed at their own age
product is targeted at a youth audience, group. They are given a description of the
how this is reflected in its marketing and product, and asked to identify its potential
branding, and how young people are repre- appeal, both to the target audience and to
sented in the ads. their parents, who will actually be buying it.
Through brainstorming, they identify the
> Marketing. Finally, the students are image or personality of the product, and
given an article from an advertising trade consider likely marketing strategies. They
newspaper concerned with the Juice Up then go on to devise a logo and packaging
campaign, and asked to consider how the design, a script or storyboard for a televi-
marketing campaign was conceived by the sion ad, and to suggest where and when it
advertising agency and the company. should be scheduled. In presenting their
Discussion here focuses on issues such as ideas, they are asked to explain how their
the scheduling and placement of the ads, campaign is targeted, and how their strat-
and what the producers assume about egy is designed to appeal to the audience.
their audience.
Like the previous unit, this unit addresses
> Scheduling. Students are asked to all four key concepts through an integrated
watch as many TV advertising breaks as study of one media theme. The aspects
possible at home. They are then asked to covered would include the following:
consider the range of ads that target their > Production: the work of advertising
age group, and where these are most like- agencies, TV schedulers and commercial
ly to be scheduled. companies. 31
media EDucation
> Language: the codes and conventions of examples of how Photo-You and other
advertising, the creation of a product documentaries achieve these purposes.
image.
> Representation: images of young people > Documentary conventions. Students
and the values they are seen to represent. are then introduced to a range of tech-
> Audience: targeting audiences, influ- niques used in documentaries (such as
ences, pleasures and preferences. interviews, archive compilations, recon-
structions, voice-over narration, etc.) and
EXEMPLE 3 Photography and Identity asked to identify which of them are used in
Photo-You, and the effects they produce.
This unit looks at photography and docu-
mentary film, and raises questions about > Editing. Students are asked to under-
how they are used to represent and con- take a close analysis of Photo-You, one
struct identities. The focus here is there- sequence at a time. Questions are asked at
fore much less to do with popular mass each stage about the choices made by the
media than the two previous units. The unit film-makers, the different techniques used,
includes the following activities: the placement of the camera, the selection
of images and sounds, and so on. They are
> Portraits. Students are shown a series then asked to re-edit the film using a
of pictures from the personal album of a series of still images provided on a CD-
14-year-old girl. They are asked to discuss Rom. In groups, they are asked to produce
the differences between the images, for a version of the film that will instruct people
example in terms of where and why they on how to get good pictures in a photo-
were taken, the different poses and expres- booth, persuade people of the benefits of
sions, and the different types of images (for installing photo-booths, or train people look
example, snapshots, formal portraits, fam- after and clean photo-booths. Having con-
ily groups, etc.). They are also asked to sidered these alternatives, they are then
match the girls own captions to the photo- asked to write to the films director with a
graphs. personal response to the film.
> Making a photo-documentary. They are > Commentaries. Here the students are
then asked to sequence the photographs to asked to write a commentary for another
make a short photo-documentary about short piece of film, about a graduation cer-
the girl, and to debate the different ways emony at Oxford University. Again, groups
this might be done. They are asked to cre- are asked to write commentaries reflecting
ate a script for a soundtrack, and to sug- different views, and then compare them,
gest music that might be used. They are thinking about how the commentary can
then invited to compare their productions, change the meaning of the images.
debating how the girl herself might have
wanted the images to be arranged for dif- > Writing a proposal. Here the students
ferent audiences. This activity introduces work towards a proposal for a short docu-
the key question about how accurate or mentary film, written for the commissioning
truthful photography can be. editor of a TV station. They are invited to
assess the directors proposal for Photo-
> Exploring a documentary. The students You, and consider which aspects were
then watch a short BBC documentary omitted form the final film.
called Photo-You, which is about photo-
booths of the kind that are often found in
railway stations or airports (other local or > Simulating a documentary. Finally, the
national documentaries can be substitut- students are asked to put together their
ed). Before viewing they are asked to con- proposal, which is for a five-minute film
sider the different functions of documen- about a day in the life of our school. They
taries as a genre (such as teaching, offer- are given a mock memorandum from the
ing a personal view, persuading, entertain- commissioning editor, and asked to think
ing, etc.). They are then asked to identify through the criteria they will use in select-
32
handbook
for teachers
ing which film will be made. Finally, they plan None of the units really sets out to rescue
and make the film itself. students from what are perceived as the
negative effects of the media.
Here again, this unit addresses all four key
concepts through an integrated study of In general, therefore, much of the work is
one media issue. The aspects covered deductive rather than inductive: it is about
would include the following: students reaching their own conclusions
> Production: the work of documentary from the evidence provided, rather than
film-makers and commissioning editors. seeking to command their assent to a posi-
> Language: the codes and conventions of tion that has already been defined. In The
photography and documentary, the use of Simpsons unit, for example, students are
commentary, sound and images. presented with a range of arguments about
> Representation: images of individual the moral and political issues raised by the
identities and social institutions (the programme, and encouraged to reflect sys-
school). tematically upon them. Clearly, this
> Audience: how documentaries attempt approach is not one that seeks to avoid or
to teach, persuade, convince audiences of ignore complex issues; but its aim is not to
their truthfulness, and so on. provide a form of counter-propaganda.
CURRICULUM PLANNING
some
emerge more strongly than others at differ-
ent times, it is implicitly assumed that stu-
general dents need to understand how these differ-
principles ent elements of the media are related.
Thus, the first unit on The Simpsons clear-
ly addresses each of the key concepts,
This description indicates several general focusing in turn on representations, lan-
principles which characterise good practice guages, production and audiences; and (as
in media education. These can be cate- in the other units) the final activity effective-
gorised under three headings: overall aims, ly integrates these into a single, practical
curriculum planning and pedagogy. exploration of how they are related.
determined codes or categories. For exam- change in shot and looking carefully at how
ple, students might count the proportions shot transitions are created, and consider-
of image and text, or the amount of space ing the pace and rhythm of the editing.
devoted to advertising, in a range of news- Finally, students will be asked to consider
papers; or they might conduct a head how these various elements are combined
count of the numbers of males and in the text as a whole.
females in advertisements, or the kinds of
roles they occupy. This can prove time-con- Only when this process of detailed descrip-
suming in the classroom, but it does offer tion is complete should students move on
a rigorous way of testing hypotheses and to the second stage of textual analysis,
identifying tendencies in a large sample. where they are invited to consider the
meaning of the text. Again, this should
By contrast, textual analysis offers depth begin in a systematic way, looking at the
rather than breadth. It tends to focus in connotations and associations invoked by
great detail on single texts; and the texts the various elements of the text. For exam-
selected are often quite short or limited in ple, students might consider particular
scope, such as single photographs, adver- images or elements of the setting, or par-
tisements, opening sequences, trailers or ticular musical sequences, and identify
music videos. Textual analysis involves close what they remind them of. They might look
attention to detail, and rigorous question- at the way lighting or sound or colour is
ing. Students need to be steered away used to establish a particular mood or
from making instant judgments, and atmosphere, or how particular camera
encouraged to provide evidence for their angles or movements place us as viewers
views. Analysis of this kind means making in relation to the scene. One useful
the familiar strangetaking something that approach here is called the commutation
students may know very well and asking test, where students are asked to imagine
them to look very closely at how it has been how the meaning would change if a partic-
put together, and to think about why it has ular element of the text were to change
been made in that way. In the process, stu- for example, if the producers had used a
dents will come to understand that visual different character or piece of music, or a
and audio-visual texts have to be read like different style of graphic design.
other texts. Intertextuality is also important here: stu-
dents should be asked to think of other
Let us consider how students might under- texts (or genres) to which this text seems
take a textual analysis of a TV advertise- to relate or refer.
ment, for example. Textual analysis general-
ly begins with description: students are Finally, students can move on to a third
asked to identify and list everything they stage, where they are encouraged to make
can see and hear in the text. At this stage, judgments about the text as a whole. These
the teacher may cover the video screen judgments may relate to the values or ide-
and ask students to listen carefully to the ologies they identify in the text. In the case
soundtrack: the students should then of our TV advertisement, for example, we
describe the type of music, the sound are likely to discover that the product is
effects, the language, the speakers tone of associated with qualities that are seen as
voice, the use of silence, and so on. The positive in some way: the ad may claim that
teacher may then turn off the sound and a product is natural or homely or sexy
ask students to concentrate just on the or scientific, or that it will make the user
images, for example by using freeze- into a better personmore powerful or
frame on the video. Here, the focus should sophisticated or attractive, for example.
be partly on identifying what is shownthe The analysis should enable students to
use of settings, body language, colour and understand how this claim has been made,
so onand partly on how it is shownfor and to make an informed judgment about
instance, the use of camera angles, com- the values that it invokes. These judgments
position and lighting. Teachers may ask stu- may also relate to the quality of the text
dents to spot the shots, marking each in other words, how effective it has been in 35
media EDucation
In addition, students should seek out infor- audiences. At the same time, it is impor-
mation about how the text was received, tant that students do not fall into the view
using the trade press or the media pages that such activities are merely a form of
in national newspapersfor example, data conspiracy to manipulate the public. In this
on TV ratings, box office receipts and respect, it is important to consider exam-
reviews. This will encourage students to ples of media products that fail to reach
consider the effectiveness of the text in audiences, or to generate profit (which con-
reaching its target audience. However, stu- stitute by far the majority); and to consider
dents should also be encouraged to think how audiences can appropriate and change
about how this kind of information is gath- meaningssometimes in ways that the
ered, and how reliable it is; and about the media industries might not favour.
ways in which it is fed back into future plan-
ning. In some instances, students will be CASE STUDy
alerted to the ways in which media compa-
nies deliberately court controversy in order This broadly contextual approach features
to sell their products. Taken together, these more strongly in the third technique, case
kinds of activities should help students study. Here, students are encouraged to
develop an awareness of the economic conduct in-depth research into a media
motivations behind the media industries, topic of their choice. Of course, it is impor-
and the often competitive, risky nature of tant that media educators should respond
the enterprise. to their students enthusiasms, and to con-
temporary controversies; but this can be
These activities are often easiest to under- very demanding and time-consuming. In
take in relation to visual media, although some instances, teachers may be able to
contextual information of this kind is avail- gather the necessary information; but in
able for a range of other media. The popu- many cases, students will need to do this
lar music industry is particularly fruitful themselves. Independent research and
here: students can begin by studying CD investigation of this kind should therefore
covers, posters and advertising, and move play an important role in media education.
on to look at the range of merchandising
(both official and unofficial) that surrounds The simplest kind of case study focuses on
successful acts. This material often pro- the production, marketing and consump-
vides a very clear indication of how particu- tion of a particular text. To some extent,
lar audiences are targeted, and how prod- this is an extension of the kind of contextu-
ucts are differentiated from each other in al analysis discussed above. The launch of
the marketplace. The music industry trade new media products provides a particularly
press, record companies press packs, fan useful opportunity for this kind of case
websites and fanzines can also be used to study: students might focus on the launch
explore the connections between the vari- of a new TV show or youth magazine, the
ous companies involved, and the struggles release of a new feature film, or a current
that sometimes occur between music fans advertising campaign, for example.
and the industry. It may also be interesting Students may gather information of the
for students to consider how particular kind identified above and (if possible)
acts may have attempted to change (or arrange to speak to producers.
widen) their audience over time, and how
this is reflected in the ways they are pack- A second kind of case study involves a
aged and marketed. cross-media investigation of a particular
issue. For example, students might choose
Pedagogically, this kind of contextual analy- to explore the use of animals in advertising,
sis draws students away from a narrow selecting particular examples for close
focus on textual explication. It encourages study, using the trade press, looking at
them to recognise that media texts do not audience responses, and consulting with
simply appear from nowhere, but that pro- relevant pressure groups and regulatory
motion and marketing are crucially impor- bodies. Alternatively, students might
tant aspects of the ways in which texts find choose to focus on the media coverage of 37
media EDucation
Work on a case study of this kind thus This approach focuses primarily on ques-
involves a range of sources of data. In addi- tions of media language and representa-
tion to watching and analysing extracts tion, but it can also involve the more contex-
from the show, students would be looking tual issues addressed above. Translation is
38
handbook
for teachers
essentially concerned with the differences might translate a print text into a script or
that arise when a given source text is illustrated storyboard. This kind of work
employed in different media or in different enables students to realise the possibilities
genres. The approach can be both analyti- and limitations of different media, and the
cal and practical. ways in which meanings can change when
they are presented in different forms or
The more analytical approach involves stu- transposed from one medium to another.
dents investigating the treatment of a given This provides a very practical way of
issue in two different media, or for two dif- addressing questions about the codes and
ferent audiences. This might mean examin- conventions of different forms of media
ing how a key moment in a fictional print language. In the case of translating fiction
text has been dealt with in two different film from print into film or video, for example,
adaptations; or comparing how a given students may have to address the difficul-
theme has been dealt with in fictional and ties posed by first-person narration, or
factual forms. Students can systematically changes in the narrative point-of-view.
examine which elements remain the same Conversely, translating from film to print
between the two versions, and which are can pose challenges in finding verbal equiv-
changedand, most importantly, why this alents for the use of sound and visuals to
might have occurred. In the process, stu- create atmosphere and suspense.
dents will be considering how ideas and
issues are represented in different ways in In both cases, it is important to address
different genres or media forms, or for dif- the contextual issues identified above. The
ferent audiences; and how a given text can constraints and possibilities of different
be presented in a variety of ways. media are not solely determined by the
characteristics of the media themselves:
Thus, in the case of fiction, they should they also depend upon the production con-
develop a clearer understanding of how dif- text, and on the intended audience. One of
ferent media deal with features such as the problems with the use of the film of the
character construction, setting, time and book in literature teaching is that these
narration. They may come to recognise issues are frequently ignored. A classic lit-
that what can be communicated in one erary text is compared with a mass-market
medium may be impossible to show in film adaptation; and the latter is, almost
another. In the case of factual material, inevitably, found to be lacking. Yet millions
they should consider how different treat- more people have seen Baz Luhrmanns
ments in different media inevitably lead to a Romeo and Juliet than have ever seen
partial or biased view of the world. For Shakespeares original text performed on
example, students might choose a group of stage; and the particular qualities and
people who tend to be presented in the achievements of each of them need to be
media in distinctive ways, such as refugees. assessed in terms of the different audi-
They could gather and analyse a range of ences they are seeking to reach, and their
material in different media (such as news overall aims. As this implies, media analysis
coverage, material from refugee charities should be both textual and contextual.
and pressure groups, even fictional materi-
al), comparing the kinds of information that SIMULATION
can be conveyed in each. This kind of activ-
ity also shows how the intended audience of Simulation is a very popular technique in
a text can affect its ideological or moral media teaching. Simulation is a form of
message. role-play: it involves putting students into
the position of media producers, albeit in
The more practical approach involves stu- an essentially fictional way. Simulation is
dents themselves translating a text from particularly useful for addressing questions
one medium to anotherfrom a newspaper about productionfor example, about pro-
story to a TV news item, or a short story duction roles and processes within the
to a film sequence, or vice-versa. If produc- media industries, and about how media
tion facilities are not available, students producers balance financial, technological 39
media EDucation
and institutional constraints in their work. of the idea itself, but also on the package
Students are generally presented with a that is presented, and its potential for mer-
series of choices to make or problems to chandising and global sales.
solve, and then encouraged to reflect upon
the consequences of their decisions, in Students can also simulate the activities of
comparison with those of other groups other aspects of the media industries. For
within the class. The teacher may also act example, they might be given a TV schedul-
in role as a Commissioning Editor or ing exercise, in which they are asked to
Executive Producer. timetable a given selection of programmes
into an evenings viewing, perhaps in com-
Simulations do not necessarily need to pro- petition with another channel whose sched-
ceed to the stage of production itself. Thus, ule has already been fixed. This encourages
students might be asked to act as TV pro- students to think about the ways in which
gramme makers tendering proposals to a different audiences are targeted at differ-
broadcaster for a new series in a given ent times of day, and about how channels
genrea childrens series, for example. establish a distinctive identity. Regulation is
Here, they will be required to produce a another aspect of the industry that can be
description of the series, outlining its explored in this way. For example, students
appeal for its target audience, as well as might be presented with examples of films
character sketches, plot summaries and that have to be classified or certificated
costings. Alternatively, they might be asked according to certain age bands, and asked
to introduce a range of hypothetical new to provide justifications for their decisions.
characters to an existing programme (such
as a soap opera), or to develop a new loca- In some instances, simulations will be car-
tion; or to take an existing text and re- ried through to the production stage. For
package it for a different audience. These example, questions about the selection and
approaches can obviously be applied to construction of news can be addressed
other media: students might become very effectively through a practical simula-
authors seeking to sell proposals for a new tion. Here, students act as a production
blockbuster novel to a major publisher, or team (editors, producers, newsreaders)
journalists seeking to launch a new maga- and are presented with a steady flood of
zine title. incoming stories of various kinds over a
period of several hours (or lessons).
In some cases, this approach can become Production constraintsfor instance, in the
quite elaborate. For instance, there are form of last-minute items and instructions
several published simulations about the from station executivesare also thrown in.
popular music industry, in which students The students are required to select, edit
are asked to form an imaginary band, get and sequence the stories into a short news
them signed with a record company, seek bulletin (for radio or TV) aimed at a partic-
relevant publicity and media exposure, and ular target audience, which is then record-
so on. In this kind of simulation, different ed live at a pre-determined time.
groups in the class may take roles repre-
senting different groups of personnel: man- Another approach that is frequently used is
agers, agents, record companies, radio the photoplay. Here, students are given a
stations, and so on. The same approach series of still images and invited to select
has been used in relation to the film indus- and sequence them to form a storyboard
try. Here, groups of students act as com- for a moving image sequence. Such activi-
peting production companies: they have to ties can be used to explore how editing is
develop script ideas, identify marketable used to construct mood and atmosphere;
stars and directors, and draw up budgets. or to construct different types of narratives
These ideas must then be pitched or from the same material. Different groups
sold to another group of students acting of students in the class can also be briefed
as potential financial backers. Here, stu- to create different end products, and the
dents will come to recognise that success results compared. Such materials are now
depends not just on the originality or appeal available using CD-Rom technology (rather
40
handbook
for teachers
sible for them to distribute their produc- However, there are certain general caveats
tions to wider audiences. that should be raised here.
Self-evaluation is particularly crucial here. In conclude from this that media education is
evaluating their own and each others prac- therefore little more than a celebration of
tical production work, and audience students existing knowledge. All these
responses to it, students are encouraged strategies implicitly assume that there are
to consider the relationship between inten- things students do not know, and that they
tions and results, and hence to recognise need to learn. They all entail the acquisition
some of the complexity of meaning making. of new skills and knowledge, either through
Far from reducing production to a mere instruction from the teacher or through
illustration of theory, this can enable stu- investigation and research by students
dents to generate new theoretical insights. themselves. Students are required to make
Thus, as with simulations, it is vital that stu- explicit what they already know, to reflect
dents should debrief at the end of the systematically upon it, and thence to move
process, and formally evaluate their work. beyond it. Media education is therefore
This can be difficult to achieve immediately, very far from being an easy option, as it is
so it is often wise to leave time for stu- sometimes described: while it should be
dents emotional involvement in the work to pleasurable, it should also be rigorous and
cool. Undertaking this kind of evaluation in intellectually challenging.
the context of a whole-class discussion, and
taking account of the responses of other The relationship between theory and
audiences (if these can be found) is also a practice is crucial in this respect. Of
very valuable way of helping students to course, the balance and relationship
achieve this. between critical analysis and practical pro-
duction is likely to vary from one unit of
Perhaps the key point here is thatin the work to another. Nevertheless, the interac-
context of media educationproduction is tion between them is increasingly seen as
not an end in itself. As we have noted, the typical of good practice. To return to the
aim of media education is not to train young analogy with literacy, it is in the movement
people for employment in the media indus- back and forth between different language
tries: this is a task that is best left to high- modesbetween reading and writing
er education, or to the media industries that much of the most significant learning
themselves. Of course, media education may occur. Thus, production may enable
should enable young people to express students to turn passive knowledge
themselves creatively or artistically, and to (which is developed through analysis) into
use media to communicate; but it is not pri- active knowledge (which is necessary in
marily a matter of training them in techni- order to communicate new meanings). It
cal skills. In the context of media education, should encourage students to make explic-
production must be accompanied by sys- it and to formalise their existing knowledge;
tematic reflection and self-evaluation; and although it may well require subsequent
students must be encouraged to make critical reflection in order for this to be fully
informed decisions and choices about what achieved.
they are doing. Media education aims to
produce critical participation in media, not Nevertheless, there is a need for more
participation for its own sake. research and debate about the nature of
learning in media education. As we have
WATCHING MEDIA LEARNING noted, the view of media education as a
form of ideological inoculation or demys-
The accounts of pedagogic approaches in tification which was prevalent in the
this module have implicitly reflected a cer- 1970s and 1980s has increasingly come
tain set of assumptions about the nature of to be challenged, both in the light of new
teaching and learning in media education. developments in academic research, and in
Broadly speaking, they all begin from a the light of classroom experience. To some
recognition of the validity of what students extent, these developments could be seen
already know about the media; and they all to represent a coming of age: it was per-
involve active learning on the part of stu- haps inevitable that as media education
dents. Nevertheless, it would be false to moved beyond its pioneering stage, some 43
media EDucation
hard questions about its effectiveness and to move from one level of understanding to
its motivations would have to be raised. the next. There are particular problems in
Much of this questioning has developed this respect with evaluating students cre-
from classroom-based research conducted ative production work, and in establishing
by teachers themselves. how theory might relate to practice. The
evident danger with the conceptual model
Perhaps the most fundamental question is that it can prove to be unduly rationalis-
here is to do with the nature of conceptual tic. We need to find ways of taking account
understanding. Media education is general- of students affective relationships with
ly based on a set of key concepts. Yet we media, and engaging more directly with
know relatively little about how students questions about cultural or aesthetic value.
develop their understanding of these con- Above all, we need to know more about
cepts, or how they relate to their existing whether media education actually makes
knowledge and understanding. This in turn any difference to students relationships
poses significant problems in terms of eval- with the media, and how it might do so.
uation. Media educators need a firmer
basis on which to evaluate or assess stu- These are relatively basic questions, of the
dents understanding, and hence to identify kind that are faced by any new curriculum
evidence of progression in students learn- area. The continuing development of media
ing. Despite several attempts to devise a education will depend upon how effectively
model of progression, there is considerable and coherently they can be addressedand
uncertainty about what we might expect in this respect, practising teachers should
students to know about the media at differ- have the most important role in the debate.
ent ages, and how we might expect them
44
handbook for students
handbook for
students
A medium is something we use when we audiences. However, some media are only
want to communicate indirectly with other intended to reach quite small or specialised
peoplerather than in person or by face- audiences, and they can be important too.
to-face contact. Media is the plural of
medium. Media texts are the programmes, films,
images, web-sites (and so on) that are carried
The term media includes the whole range by these different forms of communication.
of modern communications media: televi-
sion, the cinema, video, radio, photogra- Media texts often use several types of com-
phy, advertising, newspapers and maga- munication at oncevisual images (still or
zines, recorded music, computer games moving), audio (sound, music or speech)
and the internet. and written language.
Media education is education about the Media texts dont just appear from
media. This is not the same as education nowhere. They take timeand sometimes a
through the mediafor example, using TV lot of moneyto produce. Some are made
or the internet to learn about other school by individuals working alone, just for them-
subjects. selves or their family and friends. However,
most of the media texts we consume are
Media education focuses on the media we produced and distributed by groups of peo-
all encounter in our everyday lives outside ple, often working for large corporations.
schoolthe TV programmes we watch and Media are big business: the most popular
enjoy, the magazines we read, the movies movies and TV shows make large profits.
we see, the music we listen to. Media are also global in scale: the same
movies, records and TV formats are avail-
These media are all around us, and they able in countries around the world.
play a significant part in our lives. Media
help us to understand the world and our KEY QUESTIONS
place in it. This is why it is so important for
us to understand and study them. Looking at media production means looking
at:
Media education involves making media as Technologies. What technologies are used
well as analysing media. In this handbook, to produce and distribute media texts?
though, our main emphasis is on analysing. What difference do they make to the prod-
uct?
Professional practices. Who makes media
module 1 why? texts? Who does what, and how do they
questioning work together?
The industry. Who owns the companies
the media that buy and sell media? How do they make
a profit?
Connections between media. How do com-
Our aim isnt to stop you from watching panies sell the same products across
your favourite TV programmes, or to save different media?
you from what some people see as harmful Regulation. Who controls the production
influences. Nor is it about getting you to and distribution of media? Are there laws
agree with a particular point of view about about this, and how effective are they?
the media. Circulation and distribution. How do texts
reach their audiences? How much choice
Our aim is simply to encourage you to ques- and control do audiences have?
tion the media you use every day, and to try Access and participation. Whose voices
to find out more about how they work. are heard in the media? Whose are exclud-
ed, and why?
In this handbook, well be looking in more
detail at four key questions connected to EXaMPLES
four key-concepts:
Production: who makes media? 1. News Corporation
Languages: how do media communicate
meaning? News Corporation is an example of a large,
Reprsentations: how do media portray multi-national media company. Owned by
the world? Rupert Murdoch, News Corporation began
Audiences: how do people make sense of as a newspaper publisher and now has
media? interests in television, movies and the inter-
net. It owns the Fox TV networks, Times
46
handbook for students
Newspapers, Twentieth Century Fox and grammes. What kind of identity or feeling
Star TV. See if you can find out which other do they try to create? Who do they seem
companies and brand names are owned by to be aiming at?
News Corporation. How do these compa-
nies connect with each other? What are > Merchandise. Take a popular media phe-
the advantages and disadvantages of the nomenona new movie or computer game.
media being run by such large corpora- Look at the range of other media that sur-
tions? round it: press coverage, free offers,
advertising, merchandise. How are they
2. Big Brother trying to maximise the audience?
GAP is a small organisation that works with > Control. If the media are controlled by
young people to make videotapes and tele- large corporations, does that make it hard-
vision programmes. It is based in New York er for minority voices to be heard? Do
City, but has worked with young people in some media offer more opportunities for
many countries, including Guatemala, participation than others?
Ireland and Israel. It does not run for prof-
it, and it is funded by charities and founda-
tions. See if you can find out about the pro- module 3 what?
ductions it has made, and where they have languages
been shown. Are there production compa-
nies like this in your own country? What Every medium has its own languageor
are the difficulties faced by organisations combination of languagesthat it uses to
like this? Why arent they featured more on communicate meaning. Television, for
mainstream TV? example, uses verbal and written language
as well as the languages of moving images
TAKING IT FURTHER and sound. We call these languages
because they use familiar codes and con-
> Ownership. Take a copy of your favourite ventions that are generally understood.
magazine, or the newspaper your family Particular kinds of music or camera angles
reads. See if you can find out the company may be used to signal particular emotions,
that owns it. What other companies do for example; a page of a newspaper or a
they ownfor example, other media compa- sequence of shots in a film will be put
nies? together using a certain kind of grammar.
By analysing these languages, we can
> Branding. Take two TV channels in your come to a better understanding of how
country. Compare the logos and graphics media make meaning.
they use, and the links between the pro- 47
media EDucation
views: this might be in the form of a phone- images. Do positive images always have
in or a studio talk show, or a separate pro- positive effects, for example on peoples
gramme. Many minority groups also pub- attitudes?
lish newspapers or make videotapes to
communicate ideas on issues that concern
them. Try to get hold of an example of a module 5 who?
minority newspaper or magazine, or watch audiences
an access show on TV. How is it different
from mainstream mediaboth in what it is
saying, and in how it is saying it? Media would not exist without audiences.
Yet the media have to compete for peoples
TAKING IT FURTHER attention and interest; and finding and
keeping an audience is not easy. Producers
> People in drama. Take a couple of popu- might imagine they know what different
lar TV drama serials or soap operas. What groups of people will want, but it is often
roles do women or ethnic minority charac- hard to explain why some things become
ters play in them? Are any of them obvious- popular and others do not. People also use,
ly stereotyped? Why do stereotypes seem interpret and respond to media in very dif-
to be so necessary? ferent ways. A given media text will not
mean the same thing to everybody.
> Documentary. Watch a documentary Understanding and reflecting on our own
that deals with an issue you already know and others uses of media is therefore an
about: it could be about school or young important part of media education.
people, or about a hobby or interest you
have. Does the documentary give an accu- KEY QUESTIONS
rate picture? How does it claim to tell the
truth? Looking at media audiences means looking
at:
> Fantasy. Look at a fantasy text, such as > Targeting. How are media aimed at par-
a film or a novel or a computer game. ticular audiences? How do they try to
Study the setting, the storyline and the appeal to them?
characters actions, and look at how they > Address. How do the media speak to
are portrayed. What is realistic and unreal- audiences? What assumptions do media
istic about this text? Can it be both at the producers make about audiences?
same time? > Diffusion. How do media reach audi-
ences? How do audiences know what is
QUESTIONS TO DEBATE available?
> Uses. How do audiences interpret
> Objectivity. Some people see the media media? What meanings do they make?
as the primary source of prejudices such > Signification. Comment les publics inter-
as racism and sexism. But how important prtent-ils les mdias ? Quelles significa-
are the media, when compared with other tions en tirent-ils ?
influences, such as the family or school? > Pleasures. What pleasures do audi-
ences gain from the media? What do they
> Influences and effects. Some people like or dislike?
see the media as the primary source of > Social differences. What is the role of
prejudices such as racism and sexism. But gender, social class, age and ethnic back-
how important are the media, when com- ground in audience behaviour?
pared with other influences, such as the
family or school? EXaMPLES
a fairly small sample of viewers have language, the use of photographs, the
meters attached to their TV sets to show range of content and the coverage of par-
when it is turned on; and some have peo- ticular stories. What do the editors of
ple meters that show who is in the room at these papers assume about their readers?
the time. This information is multiplied to
give an estimate of the overall audience. > Media diaries. Keep a diary of your own
This information is vital for advertisers, who uses of media across the course of a week
want to know how many people are watch- or two. If possible, compare it with a
ing and what kind of people they are. TV friends. Are there predictable patterns in
companies also use it to know how much to your media consumption? Do you think you
charge advertisers for screening their ads. are typical of people of your age or social
What do you think are the limitations of this group?
system?
> Watching audiences. Spend an evening
2. Fan culture or a weekend observing your familys use of
media. What discussion or interaction goes
Many TV programmes, film stars and pop on when people watch TV, read the news-
groups have a very dedicated fan following. paper or surf the internet? Do people com-
In many cases, the media encourage this bine different media? Who controls the use
by forming fan clubs and publishing fan of media, and how?
magazines and websites. However, fans
often exchange information between them- QUESTIONS TO DEBATE
selves via magazines or the internet, or at
meetings or conventions; and in some > Negative influences? Many people
cases they even write stories or make argue that children and young people are
videotapes about their favourite stars. See particularly vulnerable to the influence of
if you can find some examples of this mate- media. Others see them as much more
rial. What does it tell you about the pleas- knowledgeable and sophisticated than
ures people derive from the media? Do you adults. What is your view? What evidence
think fans are typical of media audiences in do you have to support it?
general?
> Global audiences. Some media texts are
3. Media Violence popular with audiences throughout the
worldparticularly those that are produced
One of the most important areas of in the United States. According to some
research on media audiences has been critics, this means that audiences are all
concerned with the effects on media vio- being led to accept American values and
lence. Some research has involved experi- ideologies. Do you agree?
ments, in which peoples responses to
media are observed and measured. Some > Interactive media. The internet and
has involved surveys, in which people are computer games are often described as
questioned about their television viewing interactive media. To what extent, and in
and their attitudes towards violence. There what ways, do they allow audiences to be
is a great deal of disagreement between active? How much power and control do
researchers about the nature and extent of audiences really possess?
such effects. Why do you think there has
been so much research on this issue? Will
we ever find convincing proof? MAKING MEDIA
53
handbook for parents
handbook for
parents
there that they learn to listen and to speak > Political and economic factors (profes-
and, in this way, to say what they think and sionnalization, implementation of family poli-
how they feel. It is based on such affection, cies);
relationships and initiatives that each one of > Medico-scientific factors (mother-child
us comes into contact with the surrounding health programmes, widespread availability
world and becomes aware that we are both of the contraceptive pill);
a product and an active part of it. Several > Technological factors (transport, house-
surveys have found that among the values hold electrical appliances, etc).
endorsed by the respondents, the family
emerges as the most important or one of Some consequences are reflected in phe-
the most important and that the majority nomena such as:
feel that a child needs both a father and a > A sharp decrease in the birth rate;
mother in the home in order to have a > A steep reduction in the infant mortality
happy childhood. rate;
> A clear drop in the number of offspring
Exactly because it is such a basic and fun- and of large families;
damental experiencealthough its founda- > A significant growth in the number of
tions have been shaken up over recent divorces and of children born out of wed-
decades by profound changesit is no won- lock.
der that the family has been the subject of
diverse and even contradictory discourses. To these trends other factors must be
Some aim to defend the family, making it added, namely:
out to be uniform and immutable, thus con- > The growing school education of the pop-
verting it into a mythicized reality. Others ulation;
have dreamed or still dream about its dilu- > The gradual reduction of illiteracy and a
tion in favour of so-called more advanced marked growth in attendance at higher
forms of social life. Both as expression and education institutions by people in the rele-
agent of social change, the family institution vant age bracket, women in particular;
has come to assert itself as a plural reality > The gradual but consistent movement
in the concrete forms of its existence and away from the countryside and rural life
development. and all the panoply of networks and rela-
tionships associated with it;
To provide an insight into the transforma- > The growing concentration in urban envi-
tions that have occurred or are ongoing ronments with likely access to new kinds of
within the family institution, several factors opportunities (e.g. where employment is
are usually drawn upon, like: concerned) but not necessarily better living
> Urbanization and the spread of urban conditions.
lifestyles;
> The shift from authoritarian to demo- All these elements are certainly not enough
cratic regimes; to encompass the full range of transforma-
> The growing entrance of women into the tions occurred over recent decades, the
labour market; more so because the cultures, traditions
> The spread of the egalitarian ideal rela- and resources of each different country or
tive to the rights and duties of men and region are quite distinct from each other.
women; Such elements enable us, however, to
> The dissociation of sexual relations and understand the plurality of situations and
procreation coupled with the widespread contexts in which family life now exists.
availability of contraceptive methods.
Internal and
One may state, therefore, that the external factors
changes that have been affecting the fam-
ily have occurred at the intersection of: Family life is conditioned by both internal
> Cultural factors (feminist movements, and external factors.
greater acceptance of separation and > Employment (or lack of it) is certainly one
divorce); of them, and is characterised by greater or
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handbook for parents
57
media EDucation
Despite the huge problems that still affect The pace of day-to-day life of quite a num-
childhood worldwide, one ought to recog- ber of children is such that they seem
nise the enormous progress that has been rather like executives of a large firm. Many
made, and continues to be made, in of them get up very early, have a long way
respect of the first two types of rights. This to go to school, attend class, and in addi-
does not prevent, however, children them- tion to having their lunch and their after-
selves being the social group most affected noon snack, they study foreign languages,
by situations of poverty and war nor the practise some sport, all of which within a
emergence of new forms of exploitation and tightly-timed schedule, which may extend
violence against them (cases in point are until 5 or 8 oclock in the evening, when
child prostitution rings linked to sex they are eventually collected and brought
tourism; the incidence of HIV/AIDS-infect- home to do their homework. Surely this
ed children; the growing number of street portrayal reveals, in any case, an effort by
kids in some large metropolises, particular- the parents at best solving a problem which
ly in developing countries). Nor can it pre- to many families is quite a problematic one:
vent us from recognising the huge short- the huge lack of fit between school timeta-
comings prevailing in the field of participa- bles and work schedules. In this scenario,
tion rights (see articles 12, 13, and 17 of the children are never unaccompanied,
the Convention). and, they attend activities that are comple-
mentary to their school education, which
This third family of rights, which is new, and might well prove very important in the
which entails a whole plan of action, direct- future. But they dont know how to manage
ed first and foremost to the family and the their time, the fun of invented games and of
school, is already a concern shared by the un-programmed contact with nature.
many educators, but is far from being a
widespread sensibility. By placing emphasis A quite distinct picture is that of children
on the rights of children, we run the risk of who stay at home, often on their own, or in
a politically correct discourse. It is true the charge of an elder sibling or under the
that recognition of the worlds and of the distant supervision of a neighbour, who take
rights of the younger generations may have responsibility for their own meals and the
led us to mistake proximity and effort at times to go to school, and to whom house-
communication for a certain type of dema- hold chores are entrusted, inside and/or
gogic companionship, which makes the outside the house, which at times are quite
adult an equal, someone who does not heavy and demanding. There is, in these
behave as a grown-up, that is, who is just contexts, the disadvantage of learning
another child. being confined to a rather narrow life hori-
zon, albeit counterbalanced by a greater
The dominant conceptions of education share of responsibility being undertaken by
from the 1960s to the present day require the child, as well as by timesincluding play
an in-depth analysis. But it is necessary to timeswhich are to a greater extent decid-
state that adulthood is not incompatible ed upon and organized by the child itself.
with the recognition of young childrens dig-
nity, as well as of their own place and voice. Surely several of these aspects take on a
Besides, experience shows that the per- differing importance depending on the
sons who marked us the most were not childs age and the density of its relation-
those who made themselves our equals ships with other significant adults (grand-
when we were little, but rather those who parents, close neighbours, etc). But it is a
opened up our horizons, helped us unveil fact that a large number of children end up
new worlds and discover ourselves, within being mainly the victims of the impossibili-
our limits and capabilities. Childrens most ties, the inequalities and the irresponsibility
serious problem, nowadays, seems to lie in of the adult world.
the fact that they have neither the time nor
the conditions to be children.
59
media EDucation
new directions
has quite resisted change. Just consider
how the time-measuring logic underlying
the organization of teaching times and
Much as we criticise school and however spaces has lasted and endured. Many edu-
poor the state of education is, children in cationalists, like Piaget and others, consid-
general like school. But they like it not nec- er that the main goal of school education is
essarily for the same reasons as adults not to repeat what previous generations
would like them to: not because of what is have done or the knowledge they have for-
taught and learnt there, or because of the mulated, but rather to develop creative and
masters who teach there. They like school discovery skills through active methods
because it brings together their friends and based on research and information analy-
colleagues; because it affords them time sis. The truth is that the transmission
for recreation and play, before, after, and in modelor banking model, as Paulo Freire
between classes. And because it provides, dubbed itcentred on the figure of the
in spite of all, an opportunity for them to teacher, continues to demonstrate an unfal-
free themselves from their parents tute- tering vigour.
lage. One might almost say, surely with
some exaggeration, that the school the kids Despite the efforts propounded by different
like is the school of break times. This is a educational currents aimed at both motivat-
point that features strongly in the studies ing students to learn and making their
conducted by researchers, and which school experience (and, in a wider sense,
deserves greater consideration and atten- their life experience) more appealing, it
tion than is the case, from both parents must be said that school education is quite
and teachers. hard. It demands organization and disci-
pline, gradualness and progress, dedica-
At the same time, however, it is fair to tion and evaluation. From this point of view,
acknowledge that a growing number of edu- it rests on a differentsome would even say
cation professionals has been working antagonisticlogic to that of the media,
towards making the school into a quality and, in particular, that of television, with
time and space where children like to be, which young children have a close daily rap-
schools in which they learn how to live, over port from birth.
and above what is required by the school
syllabus. Taken for a long time to be a time A big misconception in this field concerned
of preparation for life, the school has for a the project that the political and cultural
century now been enhancing not only its elites, particularly in Europe, intended to
function as scaffolding, but also enhanc- bring to fruition by designing for radio, first,
ing the life that is built and expressed with- and television, next, a format which would
in it. That is, it has been discovering and turn such media into major popular schools
enhancing the person inside the student. which would carry the lights of civilization to
This is not just the man and woman of the four corners of the land. Particularly in
tomorrow, but the active subject of the the case of TV, which evolved as a medium
here and now. geared primarily to entertainment, the disap-
pointment engendered alienation and refusal,
Understood by some as a social leveller, which strengthened the idea that television is
and by others as a factor in the reproduc- a competitor or an opponent of school.
tion of social inequalities, the school has
shown a remarkable vigour and has assert- Equally problematic was the trend, which
ed itself as one of the fundamental institu- gradually set into the school field, to intro-
tions of society. The utopias that predicted duce audiovisuals into teaching, not so
its doom and the pronouncements of those much in order to study them in the forms
who believed in global and centralizing and expressions that made them mass
reforms of this institution have all fallen by phenomena both socially and culturally, but
60
handbook for parents
rather to adapt them to school logics. A problem to take into account, in this con-
Despite all the innovative ideas and experi- text, is that children and the young have
ments originated in many quarters, the available to them means of access to infor-
audiovisual media came to be regarded mation which are at times far more inter-
above all as a technology to be appropriat- esting and motivating than those they find
ed and not as a dimension of a cultural uni- in class, a situation which threatens, and
verse to be understood. And yet, the audio- will increasingly threaten in the future, the
visual media incorporate fundamental ques- essentially transmission school model.
tions as to how to accommodate the uni- Many education scholars and many teach-
verse of young people, their symbols and ers have already realised that and have
their language. been battling for radical change. It so hap-
pens that such a situation entails many
Something analogous might be going on other factors, such as teacher training, the
with the computer networks and the conditions regarding space, equipment and
Internet. Indeed, the insistence placed on resources, class sizes, how to organize and
the widespread availability of terminals in manage the life of educational institutions,
school and on its use by teachers and stu- the role assigned to students, inter alia.
dents runs the risk of, in the words of
Seymour Papert, hperpetuating the It is becoming increasingly noticeable that,
teaching and learning methods invented in sooner or later, school is bound to be
the nineteenth century, embellished with forced by circumstances to change the way
technology . We believe, at times, that the it is designed and organized, as no other
fact of introducing technologies into school institution is envisaged to take its place as
will change almost automatically all teach- yet. There are in fact tasks which, within
ing practices. Clifford Stoll, an Internet pio- the framework of current societies, the
neer, issues a word of warning in this school alone can successfully perform.
respect: Im fully convinced that it is a Pierre Bourdieu referred to them in a
nonsense to clutter our classrooms up with report for the French government he sub-
computers and Internet connections. () mitted in 1985:
Well-asked questions can never come from
a computer. () The Internet only teaches > On the one hand, to develop and work on
us to click on. () You dont have to think, the acquisition of skills/intellectual tools
you only have to click on. () Hence surfing necessary for an understanding of all the
the Internet is an excellent recipe for stop- messages and for the rational integration
ping to think . of all the knowledge;
The exaggeration is obvious, but the cau- > On the other hand, to develop the capac-
tion deserves to be retained. ity to critically analyse and synthesize the
information and the knowledge acquired
The schoolit has been saidis growing ever through other means, as well as the condi-
more distant from its former situation, tions of such acquisition.
when it constituted the principal source of
diffusion of knowledge and learning. The UNESCOs important report, EducationA
multiplication and diversification of channels Treasure is Hidden Within It, published in
of access to information and knowledge 1996, summarises these new skills into
has but made this situation even more four major programmatic axes:
noticeable. The Internet, with all the devel- > Learning to know, by acquiring the tools
opments it has known, and will know in the for understanding;
near future, is far more than a new means > Learning to do, in order to be able to act
of communication: it is an interactive com- upon the environment;
munication and information environment > Learning how to live with others, in order
through which one can access diverse to cooperate and participate in social life;
modes of exchange, including an endless > Learning to be, which is an essential
number of traditional media, both printed pathway that follows from the three afore-
and audiovisual. mentioned. 61
media EDucation
These skills require time and presuppose see them when they came on the screen.
high quality human climates, in which team- Compare that with what happens today:
work and the teachers new way of being several over-the-air channels, scores of
and intervening become indispensable channels broadcasting via satellite and
requirements. It all leads us to believe that accessible by satellite dish or by cable, dig-
the school institution remains irreplace- ital television in the process of being
able. But it is likely that within the next few launched, opening the way to a growing
decades it will be driven to blaze a new trail, interactivity with the viewers. Between the
by an endogenous capacity for transforma- early years of television and todays reality,
tion and in response to the cultural and a number of innovations have come to the
social challenges and/or as a result of very fore which have enabled a significant
strong outside pressure. It would be no change, not only in the way we watch tele-
wonder if students performed a prominent vision but also in the television experience
role in such change, for it is they, more itself. Here are a few examples:
than any other actor in the educational
scene, who most feel or might eventually > Colour TV, which already existed in the
feel the discomfort and the unease of the USA in the 1950s but only expanded
present situation. across Europe and North Africa from the
late 1960s, and mainly in the 1970s;
be lured: they are citizens who become association and other local institutions
conscious of their place in the world and became favoured venues in which to follow
are called upon to participate in collective programmes. Thus, one could say that
life. They deserve, therefore, that the TV watching TV was a collective, and to a large
fare on offer recognizes and embraces extent, public act, which with time increas-
such a plurality of social situations and posi- ingly became an ever more individual activi-
tions, not only as a business opportunity, ty. One the one hand, this sea change has
but also as a service to the community. allowed a number of conflicts and tensions
to be solved which would inevitably ariseat
It is also true that many of those who advo- the time when there was only the one
cate a less commercial television nurture a setover matters such as turning the tele-
basic misconception about TV, for they for- vision set on or off, choosing the channel or
get that, while television may contribute to programme to watch, setting the sound vol-
peoples information and education, it is ume, or controlling the use of the remote
above all an entertainment medium, a sto- control (zapping). On the other hand, the
ryteller. It is necessary to review the rules interaction and the dialogue that was bound
that have prevailed in this sphere. The ini- to happen whenever the family or part of it
tiative of those responsible for television gathered to watch television have been
channels, which gives shapeunsatisfactori- lost.
ly, according to manyto the programmes
on offer, would gain from a greater interac- Oddly enough, we may now consider watch-
tion with various initiatives from entities and ing television together as a reason for
organizations of the so-called civil society. mutual enrichment, when precisely one of
the criticisms that was often levelled
The awakening of civil society to the prob- against television was that it undermines
lem of television, including consumer and dialogue within the family. It is true that
viewer associations, as well as schools, reli- watching some programmes, especially
gious communities, research centres, and during meals, could be used as a screen to
cultural animation and production institu- keep out conversation. But it is equally true
tions, can perform a more relevant role in that there were, and still are, frequent sit-
either applauding or criticizing the action of uations in which it is precisely the themes
media operators. covered in the programmes, including news
on current affairs, that originate and foster
Television
interactions which might otherwise not
even occur.
in the Family
One of the questions that may be asked in
this connection is with regard to factors
All things considered, one could say that which influence TV consumption. These
among all the large media of collective factors vary widely in both kind and number.
broadcasting, television is the one that In a broad sense, we may say that such fac-
could rightly be said to be a family matter. tors are related to two major types of ques-
For a start, that is where a large share of tions:
consumption occurs, both by adults and
children. But television is a matter in the > Factors relating to (and lying with) the
family and of the family for it has come to supply side of television;
be converted into a factor for structuring > Context-specific factors relating to (and
family time and space. lying with) the receiving end.
It has not always been so, however. In the In the factors relating to the supply side,
earliest times of television broadcasting, what carries weight is, for example:
the consumption context was a rather dif-
ferent one, partly due to the fact that few > The number and variety of channels
people had television in the home. In that available;
period, the caf, the sports or cultural > The image and knowledge one has of one
64
handbook for parents
particular channel or another: the type of scope widens significantly and television
programmes they usually broadcast; the tends to lose the prominent place it occu-
degree of satisfaction or interest they pro- pied up till then. But when young adults
duce; a special broadcast on a certain start new families and centre themselves
specified day, etc. back on the home, television receives once
again some attention which, according to
As for the contextual factors, they may currently prevailing patterns, will go on
have to do with aspects such as: growing as they get older (see table).
> The values, ideologies and tastes of each The notion of life styles then requires
one of us or of each respective household, more developments. Life styles may be
which lead us to look for and favour certain understood, in the wake of sociologists
genres and contents over others; such as Frances Pierre Bourdieu and
> The life styles that underlie our everyday Englands Anthony Giddens, as the stan-
lives, and which are closely related to the dards that guide and structure our prefer-
material and symbolic resources available ences and our choices and which are
as well as to the paces of life; owed, in large measure (but not exclusive-
> The existence of alternatives to televi- ly) to the environment in which we grow up.
sion, whether within the domestic environ- One interesting question that may be posed
ment, or in the context of local communi- is this: are there different ways of conceiv-
ties, including the conditions of access by ing and putting into practice the education
potential users; of our children? That is, are there distinct
> The existing time availability, depending values, means, projects, and investments?
on the moment of day, the days of the Has that diversity of styles and education-
week, the seasons of the year, the weather al practices, also been reflected in the use
conditions, etc. of television when we consider the case of
children in particular? In other words, is
There are moreover other less context-spe- there a relation between educational val-
cific factors that come into play and which ues, life styles, and the use of television?
concern each persons position in the life
cycle. To be more concrete: if we view Several researchers have endeavoured to
human life as a cycle, younger children and solve these questions, and have identified
the elderly are at each respective extreme at least three styles. They are just anoth-
those who, in principle, have the most er way of speaking of the type of dominant
spare time free from compulsory activities relationship between parents and children:
and commitments. No wonder, therefore,
that it is precisely within such age groups > An authoritarian or protective style
that we find the highest rates of television marked by a strong control of childrens tel-
consumption. As children grow up and evision practices by their genitors, which
become less reliant on their parents, their may be due to a fear of the possible influ-
Social relations
Status and and activities View,
social class of the child social percepts
of parents Family rules and school
Rules, motifs performance
and habits and images the of the child
child has of
Demographic his/her own
self Activities and
status of child relations of
the child with
the media
Source : Rosenguen and Windahl (1989), Media Matter : TV use in Chidhood and Adolescence, Norwood, NJ: Ablex, p.9. 65
media EDucation
We know very well, though, that actual liv- It is often said that there are courses on
ing conditions and family rhythms far too everything, except on how to learn to be a
often prevent putting into practice the val- father or a mother. The school of life con-
ues and attitudes that we would think tinues to feature at the top of the table of
preferable. One of the greatest difficulties possible schools, but that does not pre-
consists in dovetailing the schedules of the clude people from being able to think about
different family members so as to make it finding times and spaces for exchanging
possible to devote more care and attention experiences and disquiets, as well as find-
to both family life and the children. ing more clear-headed paths to meet the
Distance, transport difficulties, conditions challenges that the education of their chil-
laid down in the workplace, the overrating dren throw up nowadays.
of work, turn daily life for many families into
a roller coaster which not all are able to The problems that so often are associated
survive. The changes in the models and with television may provide an excellent
types of family and the inequality between chance for people to meet, be it in already
the sexes in the assumption of the different existing structures, such as parents asso-
kinds of domestic tasks might be factors ciations, family movements or training
which compound still further a picture groups of diverse nature, or through ad
which already looks quite gloomy as it is. hoc initiatives among people who share
identical problems.
The result of these diverse types of factors
is that many children spend part of their If part of the difficulties of everyday life arise
day increasingly alone at home or with their out of not quite knowing how to act in
siblings (whether older or younger), where- regard to: how to watch television and for
as a number of other children find them- how long; whether this medium is frequent-
selves overly occupied in their daily lives as ly a source of, or brings out, the problems
a strategy which may be both an invest- and difficulties within the family; whether
ment in a higher qualification by their par- these difficulties are shared by the general-
ents and a recourse to cope with the mis- ity of the familieswhy not make this issue a
match between, and voids in, the schedules starting point for meeting and for training?
of the various household members. Television is, besides, not only a source of
66
handbook for parents
problems and anguishes, but of enjoyment, could be used for organizing meetings with
learning and discovery as well. It becomes parents:
important to take the television experience > Do certain family stereotypes predomi-
in its multiple dimensions. nate?
> What are those stereotypes and how to
Gathering information on characterize them?
programmes > Are they proper to a specific type of pro-
gramme?
A more attentive and demanding attitude > How is the family of the protagonists and
vis--vis television presupposes information heroes portrayed?
about television programmes. It is impor- > What family models predominate in tele-
tant that such information be as complete vision series and soap operas?
(comprising the various channels to which > What is the role of each parental figure?
one has access) and as timely (some time > What is the place and role of the chil-
beforehand, in order to enable the user to dren?
work out his own programming) as possi- > In which circumstances are the older
ble. As seems evident, no training activity members of the family portrayed?
can do without this information. > How often are situations of breakdown in
family life, such as separations, divorces, etc,
TV magazines can play an important role portrayed?
here, although nowadays both general > How are domestic tasks represented?
interest newspapers and several sites on
the Internet make available enough materi- Analysing images of
al of interest on this matter. It would be in children on TV
everybodys interest to have one or more
services which offer to collate, systematize, In this activity, the theme being spotlighted
treat and diffuse relevant information on is, in particular, the representation of chil-
the programmes, including complementary dren on television programming (note that
sources and exploration routes. Such a it is not just about programming for the
service, of interest for families and for younger ones). Again, a few topics to aid in
schools and other educational institutions, examining the matter:
might rest on a partnership involving family
associations, television operators, the pub- > What place and what visibility do children
lic service ones in particular, and the edu- hold in the programming of the various
cational authorities (ministries, regional channels?
governments, etc). > To what extent and in what contexts and
circumstances do children have a voice in
The Internet might constitute a fine and these programmes?
speedy environment for imparting informa- > In what roles and situations are they
tion and, within a more ambitious scope, placed when they come into the studio?
promoting debate on it by means of forms, > To what degree are the rights of children
chats, weblogs, etc. to privacy, to the non-disclosure of their
identity and the non-exploitation of their vul-
Identifying family nerability safeguarded, especially when
portraits on obtaining information from children that
the small screen might hit the front page?
psychological violence; believable from non- and often find them more engaging than
believable violence; violence as a resort for many programmes;
the triumph of evil or for the triumph of
good, etc. Based on different kinds of pro- > How advertising works: the consumption
grammes, this theme might be the subject fads; the creation of necessities; the exag-
for conversation in the home (or in another gerated claims made about the products;
context). the idea that they bring happiness. A sug-
gested activity consists in having children
Here are a few possible topics: make a list of the good and important
> To what extent is there an over-represen- things in their lives (the things they value).
tation of violent acts on the screen rela- Then they have to make a list of the things
tive to the environment in which we live? they wish they could buy. A comparison
> To what extent is television violence a fair between the two will enable them to see
reflection of social violence and/or the what will or will not bring them happiness
agent producing such violence? and why.
> What modes of problem solving and con-
flict resolution are shown in the series, > Tricks of the trade: point out the meth-
the films or the soaps? ods used to get us to buy their products,
> What violence shocks the most: that of like making us feel good; using misleading
news bulletins or that of movies? words; backing it up with the findings of
> To what extent is it possible to create an studies carried out; mounting campaigns
extremely violent climate without explicit and offering product tie-ins; using stars and
scenes of physical assault actually occur- heroes.
ring?
> What is the appeal of violence? > De-construct food advertising: the type
> To what extent does insensitivity to vio- of products advertised (cereals, fast-food,
lence exist? Can it be generated? candy, ice-cream, beverages) and the lan-
guage used to describe themnutritious,
Talking to children natural tasting, natural fruit.
about advertising
> Talk about the value of money : faced
The advertising phenomenon is present with a commercial environment which pro-
whenever there is television and media. motes spending over saving, and which
Todays children have become the most stimulates unbridled consumption in any
marketed-to generation in history, not only way it can, it is important to learn how to
because of their purchasing power (which be smart about money in order to become
should not be underestimated), but also a responsible consumer.
and mainly because of their prescriptive
power of consumption, that is, their influ- Evaluating
ence on their parents and other caregivers. TV educational styles
Besides, they are prospective adult con-
sumers and, for the advertisers, investing This activity can be a rather interesting rea-
now is also investing in the future. Talking son for parents and educators to meet, in
to children about advertising is a way of order to discuss their shared worries about
making them wiser as consumers and more the place television occupies in the life of
resistant to the pressures to be cool. young children (and at times in that of
adults as well). There are those who are far
Here are a few tips adapted from Talking too strict, ostensibly in order to control chil-
about television with children, available on drens consumption down to the last detail.
the Canadian website of the Media There are those who use TV as a punish-
Awareness Network: ment or a reward. There are others who
take a dim view of television, but nonethe-
> Start young: until the age of six or seven, less find it preferable to street dangers.
children have difficulty understanding the There are also those who do not bother all
intent with which commercials are shown, that much. And finally, there are those who
68
handbook for parents
education should be viewed not only as a and motivations for interaction between
pathway to a more critical understanding of children and adolescents are created.
the media environment but also as a Therefore, media education would be lop-
means to learn and communicate better, sided if it were circumscribed to a single
with oneself and with the others as well. In media.
other words, such a an education should
stress less the media than the communica- The media are not experienced in a manner
tion process. isolated from other modes and occupations
of everyday life as a whole. With a bigger or
Media educationdespite the connotations lesser importance, they always combine
that this expression carriesis neither a with other facets and other occupations
subject pertaining only to the school nor and must be understood on the basis of
something that has to do with pupils and that single fabric which makes our every-
children and teenagers alone. Of course day life. Therefore, media education has a
the school institution, as guarantor of an lot to gain if it is approached from, say, an
overall, consistent and sequential education environmental perspective, covering all
of the individual human being and the citi- aspects which can comprehensively con-
zen, must play a decisive, or even irreplace- tribute to a better quality of life.
able, role. However, the media phenome-
non is so ample and its effects on individual From the family point of view, there are two
and community life are so significant that aspects that seem relevant as regards
no social institution can remain indifferent media education. The first is to be acquaint-
in the face of it. ed with what the school can do, or actually
does, in this field. The second lies in the
The family, no matter how deep the forms of cooperation between the family
changes it has undergone over the last and the school to foster media education.
decades, remains that basis of support and
affection, of opening of the mind, that no What the school
other institution will ever be able to truly does or can do
replace. For that very reason, it is in the
family that the awakening to the world and A growing number of school headmasters
to life occurs. And the media have an and teachers are becoming aware that
unavoidable role to play in such an awaken- media education must be part of the teach-
ing, both as a resource and an agent. ing provided, and the activities carried out,
Hence the growing opinion that the family in the school. It is very important to keep
can and should assume the education for parents informed about this type of initia-
the media as a concern of its own. tives, which they should encourage and
closely follow. This will prevent them from
We have already looked at the specific case reacting adversely if their children tell
of television and how parents and educa- them, for example, that they read the
tors can, by themselves or in association newspaper during classes or that they
with others, take that means as an excuse have, as homework, to watch a given TV
for, and a focus of, assembly and reflection. programme or study the lyrics of some
However, as daily life shows us, while it cer- fashionable song.
tainly plays an unquestionably important
role, television is far from being the only Depending on the level of preparation of the
focus of attention and concern. teachers, the route followed by each school
and the resources available, initiatives in
Magazines, CDs, the Internet, games, they this regard may range from the organiza-
all represent and reflect the lives of the tion of special events to the setting up of
young generations of today. Through all continuous programmes in direct relation
these means and supports, agendas are with the curricula.
theme-oriented, tastes and fashions are
expressed and produced, values and Often, when we think of television and the
lifestyles are exhibited, and the references media in general, we tend to consider in
70
handbook for parents
particular the contents they convey and the professionals who produce the messages
broadcasting technologies. Sometimes, we not only the reporters but also the produc-
also consider the professionalsbe they ers, the directors, the scriptwriters, the
reporters, anchors or artists. But one eas- programmers, all set in the context of spe-
ily forgets that, in the field of production cific hierarchies and different work sys-
and broadcasting, a highly constraining fac- tems; the environment of technologies,
tor of everything that is produced and where the emerging digital and multimedia
broadcast are the communication busi- systems have been radically changing not
nesses and corporations, which operate in only the forms of creating, producing and
a market with strictly defined laws and sub- editing, but also the ways of accessing and
ject to various legal constraints, both at using multimedia contents.
national and international level. And one for-
gets, even more easily, everything that hap- Between the media and society there is a
pens at the other end of the broadcasting close relationship of reciprocal influence. A
process, that is, within the field of recep- large number of research studies show
tion. Therefore, it might be good to be that the media have a growingly marked
aware that the work and the role of media influence on social life as a whole, as
in society can hardly be approached and regards core values, attitudes towards
understood without considering the follow- problems, and individual and group behav-
ing key-concepts and environments: iour. But these studies also show that
those same media are, to some extent, a
> Production and the business environ- reflection of the societies from which they
mentconsidering a companys projects emerge and in which they intervene. To say
and aims, its position in relation to competi- it in a simpler way, they mould the lives of
tor businesses or groups, its way of organ- individuals and society, but they are mould-
izing and managing itself, who owns it and ed by them as well: they are, at once,
controls it, and its connections, if any, with social products and producers.
national and/or foreign economic groups;
It should be noted, however, that when one
> Languages and the semiotic resources says that society is revealed or reflected in
environmentin the multiplicity of languages the media, that doesnt happen as if it were
and codes, genres and discourses (i.e. a photograph or a mirror. In fact, it is
information, fiction, advertising, and also impossible for the media to retrieve the
images, texts, graphics, etc.); worlds reality: what they do is to represent
and reconstruct, through different lan-
> Representations and the political and guages, that same reality. In this expres-
cultural environment of messagesthat sion of reality, as indeed in any other formu-
defines the framework and the context of lation, we are always, of necessity, in the
all values, rules and standards which, face of interpretations, perspectives, forms
explicitly or not, the media must follow in of understanding and apprehending, and
their activity, nationwide or internationally never in the face of the actual events, the
(as is the case with a number of legal pro- actual things. And if this is particularly true
visions and rules arising, for example, from in the case of creation and production as a
membership of organizations such as the whole, it is not less so in the world of infor-
UN, the European Union, etc.); mation and journalism.
> Audiences and the reception environ- The assumption that the media do not
mentthat is, the more or less numerous reflect reality but rather reconstruct it and
and diversified group of persons who, from reinterpret it, and, in so doing, broaden it
within specific contexts, access to the and enrich it, is so to speak a founding prin-
media and the contents they convey and, in ciple of media education. To give one exam-
socially differentiated ways, incorporate ple of the importance of this notion: it is
such contents in their daily lives. common to relate television to the idea of
Within production it is important to consid- lifelikeness and authenticity, given the rela-
er two sub-dimensions: the environment of tionship of analogy and similarity between 71
media EDucation
the representation (the images shown con- to establish closer relations with the local
cerning an event or situation) and the thing community media, especially if some of the
represented (what actually happened or is pupils parents are linked with them.
happening). The association of truth with
what the eyes can see easily falls apart Producing a school newspaper (or radio).
when, using the grammar of the image, Many schools produce their own media
one discovers how, with the same raw with great commitment and investment,
material, one may construe several, some- assigning to them the role of bringing out
times conflicting, versions. talents and of promoting communication in
the school and between the latter and the
Media education is bound to make signifi- community. Some projects, namely the Fax
cant progress if parents and family organi- newspaper, for some years now coordinat-
zations include it in their agendas as a con- ed by the CLEMI in France, go as far as
cern of their own. The first scope of action being circulated internationally. It would be
by parents concerning media involves incor- possible to further develop some experi-
porating media as a subject matter of their ments of parental involvement in the school
meetings and gatherings, at school, com- media, even at this international level.
munity, regional and national level. They can
do so with the help of media professionals, Recalling the history of the media. The
decision-makers, media sociologists, and rapid pace of change, namely in the techno-
pedagogues with specific experience in this logical field as well as in family and social
field. The aim is to respond to the concerns life, puts at risk the survival of collective
and hopes felt by the parents, on the basis memory. The contribution of parents and
of their daily experience. grandparents in describing how one com-
municated before, how the various media
We can also imagine scenarios where the were introduced, what habits and tastes
cooperation between parents organiza- existed in earlier times, compared to pres-
tions and schools may give rise to impor- ent-day realityall these may be interesting
tant and far-reaching initiatives. It is likely reasons to listen to what older generations
that, in some specific situations, the par- have witnessed. Taking television as an
ents organizations themselves will call the example, this sort of initiatives shows that
schools attention to, and insist on, the what seems to have come from the dawn
importance of taking the media as both of time (for children have always seen the
subject matter and reason for the teaching TV set in their homes) is, in fact, quite a
activity. In other cases, they will associate recent thing.
themselves as partners of that action,
cooperating in specific times and tasks. Participating in initiatives such as A
week without TV. In some countries, fast-
The following action lines and activities may ing and abstinence with regard to televi-
rely, one way or the other, on parental or sion has become common practice for
family support, depending on the contexts some years. Very different directions are
and the available conditions. adopted concerning this type of initiative.
Some embark on a clearly moralistic
Suggested Activities approach, which one could call anti-TV nar-
for Cooperation between row-mindedness. Others adopt a more
Families and Schools ecological approach, sustaining the need
for periods of silence and keeping away
Organizing one week dedicated to the from sources of environmental pollution,
media. This type of week-long activity is such as television. Finally, others adopt this
already a tradition in several countries. The type of initiative, not so much because they
initiative is focused on media-related prob- are against television, but because they
lems and provides an opportunity for invit- believe it is necessary to discover the large
ing to the school professionals who will talk variety of activities that one may carry out
about their experience. Sometimes, such a when television doesnt absorb ones daily
protracted event offers an excellent chance life.
72
handbook for parents
Contacting and meeting media profession- riences that prove that it is possible to rec-
als. Nothing better than planning one or oncile strongly education-oriented contents
more visits to different media facilities or to with the interests of the younger (and even
a cinema and video production house. the older) viewers. At a time when public
Parents may play an active role in the broadcasting services is in a state of crisis,
preparation and organization of such visits. increasing the responsibility of citizens and
The world of TV and other media profes- of educational and cultural institutions in
sionals is an interesting field of inquiry and the planning policies of radio and television
discovery, starting with the most visible operators could certainly be an avenue to
functions and activities (news anchor, be explored. Public service operators are
reporter, correspondent, assistant, cam- guided, at least formally, by principles that
eraman, editor, scriptwriter, producer, are not subject to market mechanisms;
director, executive, manager, etc.). Both in they are paid for by the taxpayers. So it
the actual visit and during its preparation, seems all the more legitimate that citizens
one may become better acquainted with should be involved in careful public scrutiny
the procedures for collecting, processing, of their activity.
editing, producing and broadcasting as they
unfold with each media. The new digital Training of teachers, educators, parents
technologies may act as a further source of and practitioners. This is a strategic line of
interest, owing to the changes they have action, on which the effectiveness and
introduced in some media-related jobs and depth of media education rests. While not
tasks. totally unexplored, this is an area where
enormous shortages still exist. Training
Creating and animating a club. This could institutions have tended to direct their con-
be focused on cinemathe older generation cerns mostly to the technological aspects.
will certainly remember the joys of attend- Closer attention must be paid to the social
ing repertoire cinema clubsas well as on and cultural impact of the media, the social
television, video, DVD, etc. As was the behaviours and attitudes in relation there-
case with the old repertoire cinema move- to, and the skills required to make the best
ment, which in some countries played an use of the media from the educational view-
important cultural and even political role, point. Continuous training initiatives in
this is a form of membership drive, more or teachers training centres, as well as in-
less structured, founded on the interest depth learning, specialization and masters
shared by a group of persons for a given degree courses are vitally necessary in this
media or a given type of programmes. It context. Higher education institutions, con-
can also relate to their interest for more tinuous training institutions and parents
cross-sectional aspects common to such representative bodies can play a decisive
media or programmes, like violence or the role. It is also the duty of educational
treatment of news. The list of activities is authorities to play a decisive role of facilita-
very long: watching together, articulating tion, encouragement and support such ini-
well-founded criticism, finding additional tiatives.
documentation, organizing activities intend-
ed not only for the club itself but also for Creating a portal for media education.
the outside, producing audiovisual and mul- The need for media education is felt by the
timedia products The list is limited only by different education partners, but often in a
the inventive capacity of the club members, vague way. It would be important if teach-
who will not be cast in the roles of teachers ers, parents and children could have
and students. In this context, making use of access to documentation on various experi-
community facilities such as video, film and ences, multimedia documents, activity
media libraries may prove extremely useful plans, training course models, data on dif-
and desirable. ferent media, results of research studies,
and other support materials as a basis for
Interacting with radio and television their work. The most suitable supporting
public operators. Public TV channels have, environment for this type of servicewhich
throughout their history, accumulated expe- can be easily updatedis certainly the 73
media EDucation
Internet. Hence the suggestion to set up, This doesnt mean to say were not entitled
at national or international level, portals to voice our outrage whenever there is
similar to the one existing in Canada (Media cause to do so. We have a right to indigna-
Awareness Network). tion. The relation between the media and
society is not unidirectional: there are per-
Conclusion spectives, interests, roles and responsibili-
ties on both sides. If, on a more careful and
What can and should be done to turn the critical look at television, we only consider
relation with television and the media into what is on the other side and behind the
an enriching experience is rather vast and screen, we will be looking at only half the
depends on the active participation of all of problem. The other half is on this side, that
us. It doesnt only depend on the media is, on our side: our behaviours, attitudes,
themselves or on other entities. That is routines, constraints, lifestyles. The same
precisely what some of the ideas and sug- is true with regard to other broadcasting
gestions contained in this handbook try to and communication means, old and new.
demonstrate.
74
handbook for ethical relations
with professionals
Handbook for
Ethical Relations With
Professionals
75
media EDucation
In 1983, UNESCO had already drawn atten- > To remind the media professionals of
tion to the importance of universal ethical their ethical responsibility and the need to
principles for journalism in its Declaration respect the standards set by their profes-
of international principles on the ethics of sion;
journalism. Among these principles, the
major ones mentioned were related to the > To encourage citizens to be more con-
social responsibility of journalists, the scious and critical of their rights in relation
respect for the public interest, as well as to media as well as of the social responsi-
the access and the participation of citizens. bility of professionals and help them solve
Many international press organizations and problems they can encounter;
media institutions have also promoted such
ethical principles among the ranks of their > To foster the possibilities for communica-
professionals. tion and cooperation between the media
and the general public, in order to explain
To understand these principles as well as the implementation of the principles of free-
freedom of expression and the responsibili- dom and independence of the press while
ties of the media and communications pro- taking into account the ethical components
fessionals allows us to understand the con- and social responsibilities they entail for
ditions of everybodys freedom and respon- media;
sibility.
> To promote the options for self-regula-
Media education, as a discipline which aims tion and co-regulation, as well as regulation
at enlightening the relation between the when needed, i.e. the formal and informal
media and the general public, needs to modalities of the ethical and civic commit-
underline such notions. In the same man- ment of the various actors implied in the
ner as it tries to foster the critical reading communication process.
of media by citizens and to prepare them
for democratic participation, it can pro- Specific objectives of
mote an awareness and an understanding this handbook
of the ethical principles that govern the
responsibility of media and of communica- > To provide pedagogical tools to introduce
tion professionals. In this way, it will not only media ethics in media education, with a
contribute to create a favourable environ- special focus on the systematic study of
ment for the professional practice, but it ethical principles and on their confrontation
will also enable the general public to con- to their cultural anchorage and the institu-
front the media with their rights and their tions within which they are practiced;
ethical requirements..
> To create distinctions between the vari-
ous ethical levels: the level of ethics for all
that applies to any person involved in the
communication process on the one hand,
76
handbook for ethical relations
with professionals
the more specific level of ethics that applies tors to take into account the weight of
to media professionals; media in their pedagogical practice. There
is no longer place for reciprocal ignorance
> To offer reasoned information on the nor for mutual blame-casting. Rather, there
documents, codes and institutions that is an emergency to foster a civic conscious-
encapsulate and frame the major ethical ness both critical and active, to access a
principles at stake in the media; constructive and creative use of media.
> To supply tools for a better understand- The worlds of education, family and commu-
ing of the uses media and professionals nication no longer can stare at each other
make of their responsibilities; like pet enemies, principally where childrens
socialization is a stake. The practitioners of
> To make students and the general public these different worlds need to conclude
more aware of the existing means of some kind of truce or alliance and interact in
access to and participation in media as well a spirit of dialogue. In spite of a variety of pro-
as of the acceptable requirements for fessions, their activities are complementary.
media to keep their ethical commitments; Among educators, there are not only par-
ents and teachers but also librarians, infor-
> To foster a better understanding of the mation-providers, school masters in the
role of ombudsmen and their potential in same way as among the communicators
the promotion of self-regulation of media; there are not only journalists but also produc-
ers, directors, broadcasters, etc.
> To present the role of the public institu-
tions in charge of media regulation and This alliance should start with a deep and
their functions in relation to the ethics of reciprocal understanding of the specific val-
professionals; ues of each field and with activities of mutu-
al recognition of participants. Schools are
> To encourage the development of solidar- social bodies that communicate, broadcast
ity in communication, in order to enable civil and provide orientations, codes, and lan-
society actors to participate in the co-regu- guages. So do families, so do media. A
lation of media; press company or a communication corpo-
ration are, in a way, systems that broad-
> To stimulate the knowledge of ethics of cast knowledge to a specific public. Mutual
communication in technological contexts in understanding is therefore necessary in
constant evolution. order to establish a compact of coordina-
tion between communicators and educa-
The controversial
tors, beyond media education in formal sit-
uations, in informal settings outside the
relationships classroom walls.
aims at teaching children and young people Active commitments tend to produce pro-
to control the flux of their expression, and, grammes dedicated to children, with con-
as a consequence, to chose appropriate tent they can identify with, adapted to their
programs and evaluate their risks. Their needs and their age. They can also consist
mandate consists in evaluating the risks in reserving some broadcasting time for
and the right to privacy and dignity of the educational programmes designed to stim-
person, including minors of age. They ulate the intellectual and moral growth of
believe that media must be carefully moni- children. Passive commitments tend to be
tored. According to them, parents and edu- restrictive and to propose damage-control
cators must have a say in the media con- solutions, rather than adapting or improv-
sumption of children and young people, ing content.
partly because media obey a commercial
and industrial drive that is not always objec- In general, the media with broadcasting
tive in what concerns the protection of the missions, benefiting from state licenses
person. Advertising and sponsoring tend to (namely public service radio and television)
be over-invasive and to promote a media are those who have the most obligations to
culture that separates the child and the respect the rights of children. As for com-
teenager from his or her family or school mercial media, without editorial control,
culture. Freedom of expression, crucial as with free access and use (newspapers,
it may be, cannot be an absolute right, that books, cable, etc.), they have the least
intrudes on intimacy and privacy. commitments as concerns children (except
if it is mentioned in their license specifica-
These perceived differences in value tions). Consequently, public service media
between educators and communicators are those that are most implicated in the
dont necessarily need to be experienced as wellbeing of young publics, especially televi-
in tension or in contradiction. A conciliatory sion. Programmes dedicated to them are
attitude implies a certain commitment of more frequent on their screens.
medias professionals to the respect of the
values of education, so as to take into However the commitments of media to
account the distress of the young when education dont end at the attention devot-
they are exposed to these tensions and ed to young publics. In so far as communi-
contradictions. Conversely, it implies that cation can be considered as a public serv-
teachers and educators initiate the young ice or as serving the public interest, it must
to appreciate the price of freedom of or shouldmeet some obligations related to
expression as well as the rights and duties education. The way of interpreting these
attached to it. The balance between these obligations varies a lot from one country to
two poles, difficult as it may be to maintain, another and from one society to another.
is part of everybodys social responsibility.
Maintaining a clear distinction between In most cases, the media, and more specif-
general questions of communications ically television (public rather than commer-
ethics, applicable to all whatever the com- cial), consider that, besides news and
munication process, and the professionals entertainment, education is part of their
ethics, applicable to communicators in the main functions. They tend to interpret this
exercise of their functions, may help recon- duty of education as their contribution to
cile the positions of both parties. the public and moral consciousness of the
country, as well as a help to the dissemina-
These commitments can be of two kinds: tion of a common knowledge and culture. In
active and positive commitments, that tend their everyday practice, they translate this
to favour and disseminate messages or duty into the obligation of providing educa-
contents stimulating for the intellectual, tional programmes for various kinds of
moral, cognitive and physical growth of publics, and children and young people
young people; passive commitments that more specifically.
satisfy themselves with limiting access to
potentially harmful content that can make But, in the current context of lifelong learn-
the child vulnerable, at times. ing in the information society, many media
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handbook for ethical relations
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institutions, and especially private and media can be said to have a curriculum
public televisions, tend to agree that one of (explicit or hidden), more particularly in
their tasks consists in the broadcasting of matters of audiovisual programming. In
knowledge and the promotion of compe- order to clarify this curriculum and to have
tences, for people of any age and on any it known, the media professionals have
topic. This educational function has induced been increasingly compelled to elaborate
many broadcasters, and particularly in the documents for internal use (charters,
audiovisual sector, to elaborate specific guidelines, style sheets) to spell out the
services for their publics, services tradition- system of values on which their content
ally qualified as educational or scholastic. and programmes should rest and provide
their structure.
Educational television can be developed
under different shapes: In general, these documents deal with the
> It can be a substitute for schools in coun- obligations of networks in terms of objectiv-
tries or regions where it is difficult to com- ity and truth in information. They tend to
plete a full curriculum. In such a case, tele- remain within the sphere of information and
vision can broadcast scholastic content news. And yet other questions and issues,
that can reach students directly, even while related to education and values, can be
they are at school; raised about other programmes, be it fic-
> It can be dedicated to remedial or com- tion, games, or others. In many countries,
plementary activities, without substituting it is more and more current for the media
for the transmission of the school curricu- industry to have specific obligations, espe-
lum. It broadcasts then programmes either cially concerning equality between the
to complement or to deepen the school sexes, the promotion of women, the fight
work or programmes that encourage val- against racism and any form of discrimina-
ues and behaviours connected with study tion (cultural, religious, political, etc.), the
and teaching; right of minorities and the respect for cul-
> It can interpret its teaching mission in a tural diversity, the respect for handicapped
larger sense, and take on tasks or values persons, or elderly people. Some of them
transversally, within the whole spectrum of also are related to the relay of local and
its programmes. Its purpose then is to cre- regional cultural events, the support and
ate opportunities that help in the teaching sustainability of schools, etc.
and training of its publics via diversified pro-
grammes and spaces, that are not strictly All these obligations, in the large meaning
or formally educational; of the word, have to do with education and
> Finally, as is most frequent, it con- communication. And media education, in
tributes to education through various pro- many ways, is the slowest but surest (in the
grammes that strategically combine the long term) means for cooperation between
three dimensions mentioned above. the two environments and understanding of
their shared stakes.
The commitment of medias however doesnt
The modalities
stop at educational television. For some time
now, in different countries, it is admitted
that the contribution of television, and media for cooperation
in general, is a question of fine tuning, so
that the values they disseminate be on the between
same wave length as those disseminated by
communicators
the schools. This implies that the emphasis
needs to lay on the congruenceor incongru- and educators
encebetween the attitudes and values dis-
seminated by media and those encouraged
in the school environment. The tasks of communicators and educators
are, in many ways, similar and complemen-
In the same way as schools have a curricu- tary, and it is difficult to imagine a social
lum or a programme (explicit or hidden), system that could rest on a permanent 79
media EDucation
disagreement between these two profes- sible to learn anywhere at any time. The
sional environments. need to acquire new knowledge or to update
acquired information has accelerated enor-
This understanding implies that communi- mously. From now on, lifelong learning is a
cators must respect the work of educa- reality, with learning to learn as an essen-
tors, and even bring their contribution to it. tial tenet. This justifies even more the
Conversely, this implies that educators necessity for a systematic cooperation
must incorporate in their work issues between educators and communicators.
raised by the media, their messages and
their social role. This mutual understanding Formal and Informal
opens a large spectrum of new possibili- Modalities
ties. The media professionals can extend
their ethical commitment to an educational The cooperation between communicators
commitment, which is to say the moral obli- and educators can be established either in
gation to keep in mind the educational con- a formal or an informal way. Lately, the
sequences of their work. The school profes- establishment of formal relations is a
sionals can deal with media issues in their strong tendency, which aims at underlining
teaching, which is to say make a media the explicit or even institutional relation-
commitment, that pays attention to daily ships between the two spheres. Informal
news but also that take into account the relationships tend to emerge implicitly, as a
new modalities for communication and edu- matter of fact. Communicators need to
cation offered by the media, as they can be deal with education issues in their work
most useful in their classes. (regarding the content but also the effect of
that content on education); educators, at
Media professionals dont simply need to times, use media to develop their own
enlarge the scope of their work to include teaching programme.
educational communication, but also to
impart their own work with a pedagogical The formal modalities of cooperation are
philosophy. Educators mustnt just use thus expanding. On the media side, digitali-
media in education as simple tools but also zation of information and the expansion of
integrate media education as an opera- means of transmission particularly via
tional discipline. Two new centres of inter- internet and television have opened many
est emerge clearly from this cooperation, opportunities to create media specifically
that dont pretend to cover the whole range dedicated to education. This has allowed
of the relations between communication the emergence of a great many thematic
and education, one directly located in the television and radio channels with an educa-
media domain, the other in the education tional mission, as well as internet portal
domain: educational media on the one offering pedagogical materials, etc. This
hand, media education on the other hand. has entailed systematic collaborations
between educators and communicators.
These centres of interest present the Television programmes for young people,
added advantage of fitting within the recent for example, have been a very fruitful test
debates on the Information Society, which ground for cooperation.
UNESCO considers as leading towards soci-
eties of shared knowledge: knowledge On the education side, new technologies
acquisition, information and communica- have appeared too, that can add up with
tional experiences are to be placed at the other pedagogical tools, like computers,
heart of the organization of individual and high definition television, internet or the
community life. Such is the appropriate portable media. They have given rise to a
framework for the dual development of edu- very recent discipline that, depending on
cational media and media education. the country, may be called educational
Education and knowledge acquisition are no technology or educational communica-
longer reserved exclusively to some age tion. An infinite variety of platforms and
groups and confined to some limited spaces. activities have emerged from that disci-
This framework implies that it must be pos- pline. They have been compelled to inte-
80
handbook for ethical relations
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grate the knowledge, up to now partitioned, 5. The last step is not always present
of communication and education. Conse- everywhere. In some countries only, these
quently, the relationships between the pro- proposals have been institutionalized in a
fessionals of media and of education have variety of ways: the creation of associations
increased in both environments. to foster the cooperation between commu-
nicators and educators, or the establish-
But it is the civic dimension that, recently, ment of formal entities or councils with a
in many countries, has pushed for a further mission, either to develop the educational
extension of the cooperation between com- dimension of media, or to develop the com-
municators and educators, beyond the municative activities in the education
strictly professional ground. New forms of domain.
relationships are emerging, at the intersec-
tion between the missions of communica- In this context, several countries show visi-
tion and the missions of education. This ble signs and concrete achievements of the
increased awareness has gone through a increased cooperation between communi-
series of steps, similar whichever country cators and educators. These can be flexible
is considered: and informal, between the industry and the
educators, the media ensuring that they
1. The first step corresponds to an have a dynamic and nurtured contact with
increased social and civic unease and the world of education while enriching their
unrest, caused by some perverse side programming offer and schedules. They
effect of media: the excess of violence, the can also be more formal and institutional,
lack of educational content, the feeling of the authorities in charge of regulating or
loss in quality programming, the oversight co-regulating media incorporating in their
of public service obligations, etc.; activities the presence of experts or of con-
sultative committees for education or
2. This unrest expresses itself in different forums where educators and trainers can
ways until it reaches the public sphere express themselves and show their work
through protests, complaints and calls to and experiences. Relations are thus not
the authorities, etc.; only developing between communicators
and educators but also with the decision-
3. In order to solve the conflict, the author- makers and the media regulators.
ities and civil society tend to send a call for
the cooperation between educators and In the education environment, several coun-
communicators, and insist on the need for tries have created entities which are inte-
dialogue between the two parties and a grated within the school institutions and
reciprocal awareness of their duties; whose mission consists in stimulating the
relations with media. Within the ministries
4. As a consequence, two complementary of education, there generally are curricu-
proposals have emerged: lum councils or committees whose task is
to foster activities connected with the
> The need for a renewed commitment of press, audiovisual communication and new
communicators to education, which has media. Such entities ensure that schools
often led to the adoption of passive political incorporate media, either as an object of
solutions in favour of children and minors, study or as a tool for learning and develop-
like family hours, to avoid the broadcasting ing pedagogical innovation. Accordingly,
of some harmful content, or even the exclu- they develop proposals for media education
sion from the airwaves of some pro- curricula and, above all, they try to stir and
grammes deemed noxious, etc. deepen the interest of the teaching body for
this theme as well as provide adequate
> The acceptance, by educators, of the training. They establish activities connected
need to incorporate in their curriculum a to communication technologies, the audiovi-
new discipline, called in most cases media sual language, multimedia communication,
education (also known as education for etc.
communication, media literacy, etc.); 81
media EDucation
The relationships
communication ring around education,
which consequently enlarges the education-
al mission of schools and develops at the with professionals:
same time new communication qualifica-
tions among all the actors of the learning a large spectrum
process. It results in the emergence of a
of interactions
new form of production, an edu-communi-
cation whose main players are educators
and students. In this context, the media industry cant
keep ignoring the needs of and for media
The school practices concerning communi- education and the calls for dialogue with
cation, which, until now, used to be con- educators (be it parents or teachers).
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handbook for ethical relations
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The implication of the media industry and in the shape of a code of ethics for each
its professionals has evolved through time. individuals behaviour. They underline the
It has gone from a protectionist era, when awareness of the social responsibility of
media claimed a total independence from communicators, which is why they are
the public and power, to a more open era, often referred to as Media Accountability
when dialogue can take place in different Systems (MAS).
manners: self-regulation among profession-
als, regulation of the sector by government These solutions and instruments would
multi-stakeholder agencies, and even co- benefit educators, students and families if
regulation, that has extended the partner- they were better known but they are on the
ship to other actors, like civil society. These whole under-used. Providing the public with
diverse modalities vary from country to internal procedures, organization charts,
country. They correspond to the need felt standards of practice, editorial choices and
by all the stakeholders in media education the general stance of each media company
for partnership and for empowerment of all on ethics is still very haphazard and unpre-
players in the field, considering the social dictable, from media to media and from
evolutions at stake. They are a historical country to country. The internet websites of
response to media critics and have evolved these media often post them but they
towards more flexible forms of exchange, remain unpublicized. If they were better
with the possibility of sharing experiences, informed of the media guidelines and prac-
collaborating on common projects and gen- tices, various portions of the public,
erally fostering a better knowledge of the according to their concerns, could react in
media industry culture. a constructive and efficient manner. Part of
media education and of the pedagogical
Self-regulation solutions to the communication-education
by the media industry dialogue should be devoted to a larger
professionals awareness of such initiatives and of the
spectrum for negotiated interactions.
Media professionals have strained to make
their own curriculum (explicit and hidden) These types of interactions are varied and
more transparent, especially concerning exist at different hierarchical levels, each
their work ethics. They have elaborated a with its advantages and its limitations:
variety of tools aimed at the public and for
internal use. Through these tools they elu- > Elaborating style sheets. They tend to
cidate the value system upon which content present recommendations and commit-
is elaborated. ments on the way to deal with news and
information. They help professionals to deal
The solutions adopted correspond to self- with thorny social issues, like the represen-
regulation, characterized by the elaboration tation of violence or of content that can
and the application by communicators hurt the publics sensitivity, the portrayal of
themselves of instruments to gain the trust minorities and of young people under the
of the public. They vary depending on the age of consent, the choice of words and
countries but on the whole they tend to the appropriate level of language, etc. They
assert similar processes. They establish are not binding per se and they are mostly
standards and guidelines that communica- directions for use.
tors must abide by in their daily work. Such
commitments are often written in the con- > Writing up negotiated guidelines for
stitutions of nation-states, if not in the char- standards of good practices. They tend to
ters establishing a media sector. They focalize on issues of objectivity, equity, pro-
underline the importance of freedom of tection of sources, independence, avoid-
expression and are a reminder that infor- ance of conflicts of interest especially when
mation is a common social good, and not commercial sponsors, political clientelism
just a commercial product. These princi- or nepotism are at stake. Some take into
ples can then be reinterpreted at the level account the rights of the public and the pro-
of each media institution and professional, fessionals duties to the public. They corre- 83
media EDucation
spond to the values of freedom of expres- > Publishing professional journals and
sion. They echo the principles of the profes- producing programmes that criticize and
sion as expressed in international docu- review media. Some specialized journals or
ments, like the 1983 declaration by programmes participate in the self- criti-
UNESCO on the ethics of journalism or the cism of the profession and stimulate dis-
similar declaration adopted by the cussion about journalistic standards. Their
European Council in 1993. They establish content generally examines techniques for
the social accountability of journalists, the enquiry and reporting; it can include the
integrity of the profession, respect for exposure of botched articles or untrue
human dignity and the public interest, the reports. They can even go as far as publish-
diversity of cultures and the culture of ing documents that have undergone cen-
peace. In general such guidelines are not sorship. They also can deal with relational
binding and dont mention fines or sanctions. issues in the editorial board (discrimination
in terms of gender, race, for example) and,
> Establishing ombudsmen for news or for in certain cases, they denounce the collu-
a whole television station. This instrument sion of interests between the press and the
tends to be visible mostly on public service political or economic world. They serve as
channels. The ombudsmen tend to be the a reference in the field and tend to allow
human interface between a media and its the members of the profession to assert
public, for they try to relay the suggestions their independence.
of the users and the complaints that are
lodged. They can remind their colleagues of > Convening press councils. Their role
the basic guidelines ruling the profession: consists in ensuring that the press is really
journalistic interest in a topic, attention to independent while taking into account its
broadcasting time, application of the rec- readership. Meetings between members of
ommendations of the charters or guide- the press and representative citizens take
lines for good practices. They can have place on a monthly or bi-monthly basis;
their own programme or a time to answer complaints are examined and solutions con-
the public, which gives them a pedagogical sidered. These councils only have a consul-
or educational function. They can thus be tative power and they cant prescribe sanc-
facilitators for a better understanding of tions but their recommendations can be
key questions in communication, among published in the columns of the newspaper.
professionals and among citizens. Their They tend to be useful and visible at the
mediation can be related to an informal local level rather than the national one.
negotiation, internal, without going so far
as arbitration. > Setting up professional ethics work-
shops. They initiate citizens to the everyday
> Creating ethics or liaison committees. work of the press. Members of the public
They can be made up of members from have the opportunity to discuss editorial
outside the media environment (teachers, decisions with journalists: their methods of
therapists, association leaders, ) whose enquiry and reporting, their difficulties in
expertise and competence can represent preserving objectivity and pluralism. The
some of the interests of the general public. purpose is not to bring both parties to write
They aid the media in exploring ways to up the news together but to develop a
present democratic debate and respect for mutual understanding between the profes-
human dignity, to protect minors and to sionals and their various publics. They are
take responsibility for the socialization of spaces for debate, often at the local level,
young people. They point out any lack of but they can be enlarged to become wider
rigor in news production, any absence in events, like the week of the press.
the news agenda and follow-up, as well as
any accumulation of trivia to the detriment > Broadcasting call-in shows. These allow
of issues of national and international the audience to express themselves freely
importance. They have a consultative sta- and are an echo to the very old practice of
tus and their existence contributes to the publishing letters to the editor in the print
public image of the media. media. They make it possible to publish con-
84
handbook for ethical relations
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tradictory comments or to echo questions tend to lay the burden of social responsibil-
of readers or auditors. The Internet sites ity for news on to the single person of the
for such programs as well as channels pro- journalist, while hiding the role of the media
gramming for young people tend to relay industry. This personal approach can seem
them. This opens additional possibilities for nave and explains the reservations the pro-
education thanks to interactivity. It is one of fession harbours in their regard.
the humblest MAS but also one of the most
efficient, because of its simplicity, its imme- Besides news, media professionals have
diacy and its aura of authenticity and partic- adopted other solutions for their dialogue
ipation. The channels often have to take with the public where other programme
precautions in order to answer peoples genres are concerned (fiction, games,
calls for help or respond to provocations to advertising, for example):
discrimination, sexism or violence. They
need to show responsibility in the transmis- > Creating self-regulated monitoring enti-
sion of civic and democratic values to young ties. In advertising, where whose practice
people. can sometimes run afoul of the citizens
right to true and contrasted information,
> Awarding prizes. They stimulate person- self-monitoring is especially common. As
al motivation and give professional recogni- the rules and guidelines differ from one
tion; financial rewards can be attached to transmission vehicle to another, these self-
them. The Pulitzer Prize is one of the most regulating entities tend to have a transver-
prestigious but all kinds of other awards sal competence across all media. Sponsors
have been created, tagged for special join on a voluntary basis and they can refer
domains (environment, health, etc.), for the to self-regulators for advice. Such entities
print, audiovisual and on-line media. The can formulate rules and recommendations,
publication of their yearly list of winners, so as to be in step with the networks pub-
highlighting the performance of a publica- lic service obligations like the clear-cut sep-
tion or of a programme, is an interesting aration between programmes and advertis-
alternative to the celebrations around the ing. When the public expresses concerns
big prizes. These rewards function as a about the image of women and children,
MAS in their positive form of encouraging hidden sponsoring or product placement,
quality. They provide a counterpoint to the these entities can respond.
negative criticism of the profession.
> Elaborating labels and classificatory
In general, these MAS tend to remain with- systems. In some countries, video cas-
in the sphere of news, not fiction. People in settes, DVDs and video games have to be
charge of self-regulation in the media, like classified, either in a voluntary manner or
the ombudsmen, tend to think about the according to requirements formulated by
impact of programmes on children and the regulatory entity in concert with the
teenagers in isolation. There is no system, publishers and producers. The classifica-
no institution and no network to organize tion choice must be fully displayed on the
them in regular seminars on their activities. product cover (almost always in case of vio-
There is hardly any training for the MAS lent or pornographic content). The mecha-
personnel. They seldom meet their col- nism for classification needs to be activat-
leagues in other media, let alone ed and maintained by the producers them-
researchers or association members. All selves and, in some countries, ad hoc com-
these encounters could give more sense missions to solve actionable cases have
and efficiency to their everyday practice. At been created. In most countries this volun-
present, MAS have a limited local scope, tary classification done by producers is not
without much claim to be representative. connected to sales or rentals to minors
They often rely on the personality and good- and doesnt put a limitation on their access
will of a few participants. Their presence to products that are not made for them.
tends to diminish in direct relation to any
decreased mobilisation of public opinion. In > Establishing screening committees.
their reliance on personal relations, they Their status and composition varies a lot 85
media EDucation
from country to country and according to ticipation of consumers and users. Media
the audiovisual media (public or commer- education is often considered as an essen-
cial). Managers of programme units who tial dimension, if not the best filter.
are or in charge of compliance with the
channel obligations are assisted by people Regulation
representing the public (parents, psycholo- by state entities
gists, therapists). They tend to take the
final decisions for buying programmes and Through regulation the state delegates part
scheduling them. They are not real tools for of its authority to an intermediary entity.
evaluation and because of competition Regulation of media is established between
rules, it is difficult to reconcile some com- government and communicators to pre-
mercial decisions with committee recom- serve or correct the market balance. Its
mendations (in the case of youth program- role can vary from country to country, as it
ming for instance). can either ensure that official texts are
respected and applied, or encourage the
> Offering scrambling or remote control adoption of standards for better practices.
locking systems. Some media offer a tech- In most countries, where they exist, these
nical system for encoding programmes. entities are called commissions or coun-
Parents use them who would like to receive cils, like the Federal Communications
scrambled programmes or who would like Commission in the United States or the
to forbid their children access to pro- Conseil Suprieur de lAudiovisuel in France
grammes or websites that dont corre- They are buffer-agencies, with members
spond to their age or to their family values. from the state, the profession and occa-
Such systems rely on technical capacity sionally, from civil society. Historically, their
and access to digital tools via satellite, even task has consisted in monitoring the broad-
if more and more television sets are built casting norms (for high fidelity), and in
with integrated chips that can be pro- negotiating the commercial licensing of
grammed at will. In some countries, double public airwaves,as often required by the
encryption systems are being tested, to private sector itself. At any time they may
draw the parents attention to the need to be captured by the state or the industry.
make decisions on content availability. With the state comes the risk of a priori
Some Internet servers offer these locking censorship of some programmes (for
systems for free download. This is particu- example, those with a political thrust).
larly true on the official sites of some televi- Industry might lower public service obliga-
sion channels, and also on some digital tions. With the rise of an organized con-
service providers sites and on sites dedicat- sumer sector, regulatory agencies have
ed to games and activities for children. progressively been involved in the manage-
ment of disputes concerning ethical stan-
Other problems associated to education dards and public service obligations of the
and values can appear that are not related networks. They have been increasingly
to the media per se but to societal issues transparent as to their procedures.
at large. These issues are often connected
to political and legal decisions, which have > Establishing regulatory entities. These
an impact on all the industrial sectors of a have the power to authorize broadcasting
country, and dont spare the media indus- agreements and to establish services and
try. Such decisions can refer to equality obligations. They must negotiate the con-
between the sexes, the protection of tracts with each operator, even in domains
minors, racism, cultural diversity, handi- that pertain to the general interest, like the
capped people and other minorities. In protection of minors. They aim at maintain-
such cases, the dominant trend is to let ing the principles of pluralism and cultural
regulation or co-regulation take over, espe- diversity as well as the balance between
cially as they have evolved through time: the various opinions, existing rights and expec-
entities for media regulation are moving tations of different sections of the public.
away from notions of censorship to lay the Sometimes they incorporate research and
emphasis on the preparation and the par- development departments. They usually
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handbook for ethical relations
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scarcity, either caused by poverty or organ- principles of the protection of minors (hav-
ized suppression, of media in others. Over ing to do with advertising, violence).
exposure to media tends to disconnect Similar actions have been conducted in
young people from real life objectives, caus- other countries, like Japan (the Forum for
es disinterest in school work, brings on anx- Childrens and Citizens Television), Canada
ieties and insomnia linked to the stress (the Alliance for Children and Television)
induced by some programmes, increases and France (the Collectif Interassociatif
aggressiveness or dependence. Under- Enfance et Mdias).
exposure tends to result from censorship
and limitations on access of all sorts, which Civil society entities can be involved in such
entail their own dysfunctions in the modern actions at different stages of intervention,
world. at the local, national or international level.
The range of actions is very wide:
Civil society associations base their activity
on the awareness that it is impossible to > Participating in advisory councils for pro-
expect economic or political actors to take grammes or multi stakeholder forums.
initiatives of their own accord. In a context In some countries, public service channels
of governance, the associations claim have incorporated users as part of their
responds to the expectation for direct par- councils. Other channels have invited users
ticipation in a democratic process. This to forums to discuss rights on the internet.
claim includes the media that have long Councils can also be part of ministries such
been considered an essential mechanism in as education or communication and cul-
democratic political theory. Civil society ture. In a variety of countries, the entities in
associations want to participate fully in the charge of regulating or co-regulating the
co-regulation of the media industry, not only media officially appoint council members
at the implementation of regulations and who come from the world of education and
follow-up level of enforcements, where tra- of paediatrics. They can present state of
ditionally they have acted, but also at the the art research and practices. These
decision-making level. They require essen- appointees can participate in exchanges
tial information in a sufficient timeframe so that extend beyond the decision-makers to
as to make their own counter-proposals include producers and broadcasters. They
and additional contributions. They want to can help write up recommendations about
develop a structured relationship with the certain values, certain content issues, edi-
media and to establish ethical relations with torial strategies and specific formats that
professionals. correspond to the expectations of the com-
munity they represent.
These independent associations are trying
to arouse an active critical awareness of > Creating media monitoring entities. This
the general public on issues like the rights is one of the Media Accountability Systems
of minors and other rights related to com- most favoured by civil society. The aim is to
munication and information. They aim at create stable structures allowing associa-
establishing principles, recommendations tions to exercise a degree of surveillance in
and standards of practice and to dissemi- relation to the young public. These watch-
nate them. They encourage cooperation groups also raise awareness among the
agreements among the different actors general public, stimulate and popularize
implicated in the media process. When not research, and foster dialogue with the com-
being critical or defensive in their role as municators, the government officials and
media educators, they show their unity and the researchers. Beyond the creation of a
solidarity in support of positive actions from space for exchange with the public authori-
the state or the industry. In the United ties and the media on issues related to the
States for instance, Action for Childrens media environment of young people, such
Television spent more than two decades structures can litigate against industry, reg-
lobbying the American administration and ulation and co-regulation entities. They tend
the media regulatory entities to make sure to receive support from non-profit founda-
the industry would apply some of the basic tions and collectives, and depending on the 89
media EDucation
country, they can act as watchdogs and munity activities have long been using
denounce or offer critical analysis strate- media, especially portable media like radio
gies. They are quite numerous on the or video. Tele-centres have introduced the
Internet, where the swiftness of informa- use of computers and networks in media-
tion and response provides them with an deprived places in the world. More and
increased capacity to remain on alert. more hybrid solutions are being set up, that
offer a combination of old and new media,
> Organizing multi-stakeholder events. in a sustainable development perspective.
Such ritual events can range from festivals This implementation is often rationalized
to summer universities to workshops and with general arguments about increased
also the week of the press in review or democracy not only in relation to media but
information society day They attract to the political environment of a country. By
multi-stakeholder participants and guests providing a community with its own media,
from the industry, the public authorities and an essential process of education is trig-
the network of associations. Such semi-for- gered, even if the degrees of clarification as
mal and semi-official meetings contribute to the learning goals can be varied and con-
build trust and habits of exchange among text-specific.
actors who rarely have the opportunity to
meet in neutral places. > Involving religious organizations and
foundations. Churches in some countries
> Developing resource centres. Such cen- have played a major role, by promoting
tres can be media libraries, computer data- media education outside the formal educa-
bases or on-line portals. They can store tion system. So have foundations, from the
documents used by associations needing non-profit and non-denominational sector.
regular updates on events, to shed new Such work has diverse motivations. In
light on their own analysis of media issues some cases, media education has been
related to children and youth, and even to used as a means of opposing the con-
train their representatives in the different sumerist or anti-religious values seeming-
entities and public authorities where they ly promoted by the media. In others, it has
are involved. been promoted as an ideological tool
against foreign media and their cultural
> Publishing pedagogical materials. Such imperialism and as a means of counterbal-
documents can be published in different ancing their influence. In Latin America, the
formats: manuals, newsletters, even pro- liberation theology developed around the
grammes to be broadcast on local and ideas of Paolo Fraire, aimed at bringing
community channels. They spread training about social transformations, especially via
and self-tutoring methods and content to popular education as it can be conveyed by
develop media literacy for adults. They can mass media like radio. Many religious
be distributed within the context of a club organizations and foundations have pro-
or an association. duced their own pedagogical materials, to
reach parents. They tend to offer either
> Launching campaigns to increase public very protectionist and prescriptive methods
awareness. Such media education initia- of dealing with media or very liberal and
tives mostly focus on parents but they can suggestive methods, with a plethora of
include campaigns aimed at children. They advice and practical ideas.
encourage adults to get involved by treating
them like active participants rather than > Establishing Non-Governmental Organ-
simply by telling them what they must or izations (NGOs). These organizations are
must not do. They are most successful independent and work on specific issues,
when they take into account cultural differ- like those aiming at the protection of jour-
ences and the real-life difficulties met by par- nalists or of human rights (Journalists
ents in the process of raising their children. Without Borders, Amnesty International,
Human Rights Watch). These civic rights
> Implementing community media centres associations monitor the rights and duties
and tele-centres. In many countries, com- of media in all countries, collecting precise
90
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with professionals
read his/her articles in the press or watch or the representation of minors in television
his/her programme on television, then spots can be explored fruitfully. Taking spe-
establish direct contact, either to ask ques- cific examples, the students can consult
tions or to invite him/her to participate in a the regulation authorities and compare
debate in the class or with the community. their own decisions with those expressed
by the professional organs and the lobbies
Activities for understanding regulation involved, in the industry as much as in civil
Regulatory authorities tend to provide annu- society associations.
al reports, to publish other documents
(resolutions, recommendations, etc.), and Activities for understanding co-regulation
they can even organize public consultations Many initiatives are possible, to involve par-
before coming to major decisions (renewing ents and medias, to which the education
the licences of radio and television chan- system can be associated. Ritual events
nels, creation of a new channel, evaluating tend to be federating moments and places
classificatory systems). Becoming famil- of exchange, beyond the school walls.
iar with such documents and processes
can be the main thread for a course > Get involved in the week of the press or
sequence. Consulting the data, visiting in a programme for reviewing media con-
some of those services and entities can tent;
also have an added value as a pedagogical
experience. Forums and discussion groups > Participate in a festival for youth produc-
that are set up during public consultations tion, that showcases films and pro-
can also offer opportunities for contact and grammes made by people or young people,
participation, via the independent associa- especially if they are developed in the con-
tions mostly but on a personal base as well. text of the class or the school project;
Activities in the field are numerous and -enter the class in a competition for best
rewarding: scenarios or photographs;
> Examine the official texts on the image > Test the pedagogical materials that are
rights of young people and organize a available on portals and exchange impres-
debate in class about scrambling the image sions with the associations that have devel-
of young people and their representation in oped them;
the media;
> Collaborate in a campaign to raise
> Write to the regulatory entity (a letter of awareness among parents and children, as
complaint or of congratulation) and arrange for instance a campaign on parental warn-
a visit; ings or on risk-inducing behaviour on the
Internet. Several dimensions could be
> Analyze the licence of a channel, and explored, like the education stakes for
mark out its public service obligations; media, childrens curiosity, the dialogue
between young people and their families
> Create a classification system specific to
the class or the home, using some films or Such an array of activities is an opportunity
television programmes as examples, mak- to deal with the relations that exist among
ing sure that each category and decision is the several key-concepts in media educa-
properly justified; tion, namely production, languages, repre-
sentations and publics. By testing them
> Test the various labels or encryption sys- against ethical issues, they could cover the
tems available on internet sites, compare following notions with renewed interest:
them, taking into special account the con-
tents they evaluate, the sampling they use Production: the integration of regulation
and the age groups implied; and self-regulation constraints on produc-
tion, the positions of the broadcasters and
> Evaluate the constraints of regulation, on advertisers on the criticisms emanating
advertising for instance. The use of animals from civil society associations, the conse-
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quences of ethical decisions on the sale of > Translation: Can be applied to how chan-
certain programmes, across several nels and networks transpose directives or
media. how they interpret classificatory systems
and parental warnings in fiction program-
Languages: the analysis of montage and of ming. It can be interesting to observe the
visual style in programmes for critical intellectual property rights negotiations as
reviewing of media, the rhetoric of ombuds- a text is transposed from one genre or one
men, especially as addressed to their col- media to another (novel-film, reality pro-
leagues in the journalistic world, the decon- gramming and its licenses), especially
struction of series or television games with when the publics differ or the countries
materials provided by the resource centres change.
of independent associations or religious
institutions. > Case study: Can be lead by conducting
in-depth research on an ethical issue cho-
Representations: the realism in the depic- sen by the students (the representation of
tion of scenes with violent or harmful con- women, cultural diversity, violence, justice,
tent, the actors portrayal of issues such as copyright, etc.). This can also be done by
tolerance or racism, the construction of focusing on a small association from civil
characters in relation to minority identities society, or on a regulation body and its poli-
or contradictory moral values. cies. The students can proceed by observa-
tion, by interviews and questionnaires all
Publics: audience ratings of a programme the while becoming familiar with the
can be compared to other means of sources of the insiders.
expressing criticism: parodies on internet
websites, complaints by civil society associ- > Simulation: Can take place by means of
ations or lobbies. The reviews of a movie or role-playing. The students can each take
a game in the specialized press can be con- the part of the ombudsmen, the president
trasted with those published in the daily of a viewers association or of a regulatory
newspapers. The exchanges that take entity. They should deal with concrete deci-
place on official websites can be matched sion-making activities, in relation to the rep-
up to those that take place on fan sites resentation of young people or the pres-
ence of racism, for instance. They must
These various activities can also lend them- solve their problem, and compare the deci-
selves to a number of pedagogical strate- sions they came to with those of other
gies: groups in the class.
> Textual Analysis: Can be applied to doc- > Production: Can be done by having a
uments like standards of practices, univer- class participate in a competition, a festival
sal declarations (human rights, journal- or in campaign for awareness raising, for
ism) as well as channels agreements and instance. According to the means available
licence renewals. to the class, it will either lead to a real life
production, like the creation of a short film
> Contextual Analysis: Can be applied to or a spot, or to a lesser production, like the
the retrieval of information published by a elaboration of a storyboard or a scenario,
self-regulatory entity or regulatory body, so that will be exhibited in the class or in the
as to examine the documents they produce school. What is most important is to make
and how they may have an impact on the the communication process visible and
production and broadcasting of media explicit, especially by taking into account
texts. Commercial techniques can also be the various ethical stakes, and the critical
confronted with the constraints and obliga- thinking that motivated the final choices.
tions imposed by the social context. The comparison with real life campaigns or
Comparisons with situations in other coun- productions can be added later, for an even
tries can be very interesting and yield valu- more effective use and understanding.
able results.
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95
media EDucation
introduction
Over the past decade or so, the Internet As we point out in each fact sheet, along-
and mobile technology have transformed side the many advantages the Internet has
multiple facets of life in society across the brought, we must also respond to certain
world. They have changed our work and challenges. Viruses (http://en.wikipedia.
leisure patterns and they place greater org/wiki/Computer_virus), for example,
demands on us as active citizens. cost administrations and private enter-
prise in Europe alone some two to three bil-
The factsheets are intended as an aid and lion euros annually. Unsolicited e-mails, oth-
a guide in using this remarkable network of erwise known as spam (http://en.
information and communication. The aim is wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail_spam), now
to: account for almost 90% of all e-mails, with
more than 1.5% containing malicious code.
> offer teachers and parents sufficient A significant percentage of content on the
technical know-how to allow them to Internet is either illicit or prejudicial, under-
share young peoples and childrens voy- mining the very basis of human rights and
ages of discovery through communi- human dignity. Furthermore, that perma-
cation technology; nently fragile concept of equality is once
again under threat as the digital divide
> highlight ethical issues and give insight (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_divide)
into added-value in education; separates the information haves and
have nots. Many young people are experi-
> provide ideas for constructive, practical encing a growing disadvantage due to lack
activities in class or at home to draw of material means to access the Internet,
benefits from the Internet and mobile technical skills and online skills to search
technology; for information and use it effectively.
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The Internet is, as its name indicates, no For an explanation of the terms used in this
more than a route between information handbook, the authors refer you to
networks. Already access means are Wikipediaa free-content encyclopaedia,
changing with the development of new tech- written collaboratively by users from around
nology such as wireless networking and 3G the world, and which is constantly updated.
mobile services. The handbook provides web addresses that
will take you directly to many specific terms
Nowadays every citizen needs to be infor- in Wikipedia, such as Boolean search,
mation literate, a 21st-century form of liter- zombie computer or phishing to name
acy built upon the four fundamental pillars but a few; others can be found via the
of education which constitute the very foun- Wikipedia home page at http://www.
dations of society. These are learning to wikipedia.org. Wikipedia definition address-
know, to do, to be and to live together. es are encased in (parentheses). Other web-
site addresses are encased in <brackets>.
An evolving manual to
respond to teacher Please note that Wikipedia references link
and parent needs directly to the English language version of
the Wikipedia website, which offers a num-
As technologies evolve and other informa- ber of other language versions to choose
tion sources become available, these fact- from.
sheets will be updated and new ones
added. You are welcome to participate in To avoid having to type out lengthy and cum-
this project by sending us your feedback or bersome Web addresses cited in this hand-
your ideas on classroom activities, best book, consult the online version, which pro-
practice or pertinent links. vides automatic links. It can be accessed at
http://www.coe.int/media. Consult it as
well for any Web addresses that you are
unable to open.
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media EDucation
Getting connected
home, you will need:
- a computer equipped with a modem;
- a telephone connection;
The Internet is a worldwide network of com- - a subscription to an Internet service
puters linked together through servers provider (ISP).
which function as connection nodes
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Node_%28 > ISPs (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
networking%29). In March 2005 there Internet_service_provider) form the neces-
were an estimated 900 million Internet sary link between the user and the Internet.
users in the world of which more than 250 They can be private companies such as
million were in Europe. telecom or cable companies, or organisa-
tions such as universities.
Educational benefits
> ISPs usually require a monthly subscrip-
> The Internet offers a wealth of new ideas tion fee, and offer a range of services.
and resources for teachers. Lesson plans,
online exercises for students and electron- > A dialup (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
ic educational games. Dial-up_access) connection allows the user
to access the Internet through a standard
> The Internet facilitates exchange of experi- analogue telephone line. The user is often
ence and communication between teachers charged according to time connected, as
and students across international borders. with a normal phone call. An analogue line
does not allow an Internet connection and
> The Internet provides students with the phone connection at the same time.
opportunity to take part in projects to prac- Connection speeds are slow.
tise language and share cultures. This can
be quicker and more efficient than tradition- > A broadband (http://en.wikipedia.org/
al pen pal exchanges and does not involve wiki/Broadband_Internet_access) connec-
the expense of a school trip. tion provides access through a digital line.
ISDN (http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ISDN)
> The Internet makes research tools and DSL (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
accessible even to those who do not regu- Digital_Subscriber_Line) are examples. ISPs
larly visit a traditional library. broadband subscriptions usually allow unlimit-
ed access time for a fixed fee. However, a
Ethical considerations cap may be set on how much data can be
and risks downloaded. Connection speeds are much
faster and these lines allow a phone to be
> As in the offline world, there is fraud, used without the need to disconnect the
false information and inappropriate materi- Internet.
al for children.
> An increasing number of computers, espe-
> While Internet offers a number of new cially laptops, are fitted with wireless network
possibilities, technical solutions are not cards (Wifi) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
always better than traditional ones. For wifi). These allow cablefree access to the
example, e-mail has revolutionised commu- Internet at home or at wireless hotspots.
nication, but it will never replace face-to- Wireless hotspots can be found at public
face communication. places such as caf s and airports.
> If you have broadband, do not remain > Draw up an acceptable use policy (AUP)
connected unless you are using it. It may (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AUP) if
not cost extra money, but it increases the others will be using the computer or net-
security risk to your data (see Fact Sheet work you are responsible for.
16 on security).
> Advice on writing an AUP from can be obtained from Becta, the UK agency for
ICT in education: <http://www.ictadvice.org.uk/index.php?section=
ap&catcode=as_pl_acc_03&rid=1963&rr=1&PHPSESSID=820174b4b4df8ca7
de75604c566d00ee>.
> The Insafe portal offers resources and advice on how to get connected and surf
safely: <http://www.saferinternet.org/ww/en/pub/insafe/>.
School administrators, teachers and stu- > The Internet makes it possible for stu-
dents increasingly feel the need to present dents all over the world to communicate
their school and/or work on the World and collaborate very easily. Todays class-
Wide Webthe growth in the amount of room defies the traditional image of a brick
homepages is incredible. A good school and mortar room in a fixed geographical
website is a wonderful public relations tool location. When using the Internet as a
that can be used in many different ways, communication tool, classroom walls disap-
for example for presenting school informa- pear and local schools go global.
tion or publishing lesson plans. It is also, of
course, a very important pedagogical tool. > A good school website is interactive and,
by means of tools such as message boards
But since websites can be used in so many (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_b
ways, it is sometimes overwhelming for oards), it is possible for students, parents
administrators, teachers, students or par- and teachers to access the latest school
ents who want to start their own website to information anytime anywhere.
know where to begin.
> Students can play an active role in set-
Before starting to build your own website, ting up websites. In fact, when we look at
you should consider the following points: website contests like Think Quest at
> What is the purpose of your website? <http://www.thinkquest.org/>, CyberFair at
> Why do you need a website? <http://www.globalschoolnet.org/index. 99
media EDucation
html> and others, websites made by lower wise? Many schools find a combination of
and upper secondary school students are these two techniques to be effective.
very often of a better quality then the web-
sites made by teachers. > When students create a website as an
assignment, keep in mind that it can be vis-
> Web-building basics can be taught as ited by users from all over the world. Think
part of the curriculum: students can cre- of these websites as a kind of public rela-
ate websites as assignments for math, biol- tions tool for your school. Therefore it
ogy, language or music. In fact, all subject would be wise for teachers to supervise
areas are compatible with website creation. students work and guide them during the
creative process.
> The wonderful thing about the Internet is
that students are not restricted to creating > Teachers are ultimately responsible for
websites with their own classmates: they all work students produce. Therefore,
can collaborate with students from all over teachers need to have the power to refuse
the world using communication tools like web pages or remove them from a school
e-mail (http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Email), or project website. In order to adequately
video conferencing (http://en.wikipedia. supervise students work, teachers should
org/wiki/Video_conferencing) and chat always have access to passwords (http://
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Chat). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password), websites
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website)
For further information, take a closer look and so forth.
at Fact Sheet 7 on chat, 11 on creativity
and 1 on getting connected. Building a school website
> Will you filter your Internet access or will A wide variety of content may enrich a web-
you teach your students to be more street- site, but a wide base of contributors can
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also make Web maintenance chaotic. It is > Contact information such as addresses
important that a small team of people is and telephone numbers.
chosen to be responsible for collecting and > Information about the school, for example
editing content. This task might be best lessons plans, care and so forth.
carried out by a teacher or administrator > Information about the staff.
or other person chosen to function as the > Information about the involvement of the
information and communication technology parent-teacher organisations.
(ICT) co-ordinator. > Classroom pages with the latest informa-
tion, drawings and photos from stu-
Some basic requirements to consider dents.
before website set-up are: > Links to related educational sites.
> A guest book for visitors to sign.
> Software: Most webmasters and web
editors prefer to work with WYSIWYG Some technical considerations for best prac-
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WYSIWYG) tice would include:
html editors such as Dreamweaver and
FrontPage. These programs allow editing in > A pleasant, easy-to-read design.
a familiar environment without necessarily
requiring the user to know html. Web con- > Web accessibility compliance to cater to
tent management systems are often used users with disabilities.
and some have been designed with schools
in mind. > Avoiding large graphics or other files
that will take a lot of time to load.
> Hardware: Modest hardware resources
are helpful, such as image scanners (http: > Consistent use of layout, easy navigation
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_scanner), and information on when the last update
digital photo cameras, digital video cam- was made.
eras, tripods and tape recorders.
> Versions in different languages when
> Hosting (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ appropriate. English is often chosen as a
Web_hosting): Schools need to find an common language when reaching out to
organisation which will provide an online students from different countries.
system for storing Web pages, images,
files video and so forth and making them > A healthy respect for childrens rights,
accessible via the web. It is important to social and cultural diversity, personal and
research different providers and services physical integrity, and the democratic val-
offered to ensure that the plan meets your ues of equality, freedom and friendship. For
schools needs. example, if students will be using your
school website to connect with each other,
Best practice it might be helpful to employ guidelines
such as those published on Chatdanger:
Through trial and error, your school will <http://www.chatdanger. com/>.
develop a method to reach your target audi-
ence in an efficient manner. A model school
website often includes:
There are thousands of good websites that meet these standards: two examples
are St Joan of Arc primary school in the United Kingdom at <http://www. st-
joanarc.sefton.sch.uk/index.php> and the International School of Amsterdam in
the Netherlands at <http://www.isa.nl/About/ abouthome.html>. More
information to help in building your school website can be found at:
101
media EDucation
Fact Sheet 3
Educational added value
Searching for
information
> The Internet is an exceptional resource
that allows quick and efficient research on
any number of topics.
Introduction
> The skills necessary to perform research
The Internet is the source of an unprece- on the Internet and in traditional libraries are
dented amount of information, and is con- similar. Successful searches require critical
stantly changing and expanding. The first content analysis and Internet literacy.
search engines (http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Search_engine) for the Internet Ethical considerations
appeared in 1993. and risks
Most searches work by collecting informa- > Maintain a healthy scepticism about
tion about websites using an automatic web material you find. The Internet offers a free
crawler (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ space for people to air opinions and put for-
Web_crawler) which follows links and ward ideas. Be sure to evaluate with a crit-
stores information about content. Many ical eye in order to avoid propagating myths
search engines check not only web pages or falling for false claims.
but also online newsgroups (http:// en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsgroup) and data- > A number of websites offer complete
bases, and a search for the word website essays on a wide variety of subjects for use
on the popular search engine Google at by students. By using these files, students
<http://www.google.com/> finds more are misrepresenting their work and com-
than 1 billion results in 0.07 seconds. mitting plagiarism.
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> As there will probably be too many links > Apply an evaluation of each portal
for individuals to follow, create teams to according to criteria agreed as policy in
divide up the links and cover as many as your school, or use the evaluation process
possible, and allow each team to present guidelines in Fact Sheet 3.
their findings.
In addition to evaluating information, you
> Team results may differ, thus providing a may also establish whether the service is
narrower focus for further refinement of free or not; what value system underpins
the class learning. the service; whether there are any cul-
tural or language issues to be taken care
> Create a portal for either of the above of; if the site promotes or sells any prod-
two subjects. This would involve creating a ucts; if the site offers services such as e-
web page, defining the categories that mail or chat; and if you would want stu-
emerge from your projects, creating the dents to access these services (see Best
links that inform these categories, and test- practice in Education Portals below for an
ing the page with another class. in-depth discussion).
> E-mail is the most common method for > Think carefully before including private or
spreading malware (http://en. wikipedia. sensitive information, such as bank details.
org/wiki/Malware) such as viruses (http: E-mails can be intercepted and are easily
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_virus), forwarded.
and worms (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Computer_worm). > Use the plain text only setting in your e-
mail. Html can allow for more attractive
> It is easy to conceal a name in order to presentation but can also be used to
be misleading. This can be done by simply spread malicious code.
changing the name in the settings or creat-
ing a webmail address such as elvispres- > Maintain a healthy scepticism about
ley@hotmail.com. Even if you recognise the e-mails you receive. Do not open e-mails if
e-mail address, be aware that that the you do not trust the source.
owners machine may a zombie computer
(http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Computer_ > Be especially wary of attachments. If you
zombie) affected by a hacker or virus. were not expecting an attachment from the
sender or do not trust it for any other rea-
> A link may appear to be directing you to son, delete without opening.
one website when in fact it leads to anoth-
er. This is particularly common in phishing > Be sure to consult Fact Sheet 6 on spam
scams (http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/ and 16 on security for additional advice on
Phishing). e-mail.
> Keep e-mails messages short and to the > E-mail with a MUA (http://en.
point. Try to avoid long blocks of text. wikipedia.org/wiki/MUA) requires the pro-
gram to be installed on your computer.
> Make sure you include relevant words in Most computers come with a pre-installed
the subject line. This helps the recipient MUA (http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/MUA)
identify your message as being genuine and such as Microsoft Outlook.
aids finding the mail at a later time.
> Setting up a free web-based e-mail
> Be considerate in the volume of e-mail account is very simple. Popular webmail sites
you send out. Use the reply-to-all facility such as Yahoo! <http://mail. yahoo.
only if the message is relevant for all, and com/> and Hotmail <http://login. pass-
avoid forwarding mails to those who may port.net/uilogin. srf?lc=1033&id=2> have
not appreciate it. a straightforward registration procedure.
> Avoid checking your e-mails every 10 > For information on setting up a spam fil-
minutes. Many people allow e-mail to be a ter see Fact Sheet 6.
constant interruption.
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> Truth or Fiction is a website for Internet users to check the veracity of commonly
forwarded e-mails: <http://www.truthorfiction.com/>.
spam
recipients in order to gather mail address-
es for their databases. For example, mails
may be sent requesting recipients to add
Introduction their personal information to a list in order
Spam refers to the mass mailing of unso- to support a petition or cause. Often citing
licited messages to multiple recipients. It is a cause such as a sick child requiring sur-
most commonly associated with e-mail, but gery, it falsely claims that a company or
also applies to newsgroups, instant mes- organisation has promised that money will
saging and so forth. be paid each time it is forwarded.
Different countries have different legal > Spam may contain malware (http://en.
definitions for spam and use different wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware).
approaches to counter it. The Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Develop- > Another type of online fraud is 419
ment (OECD) has put together a task force named after a Nigerian law prohibiting this
to try and homologise these approaches: type of victimisation. This typically involves
see <http://www.oecd.org/department/ promises of a share of a large sum of money
0,2688,en_2649_22555297_1_1_1_1_ in return for help with bank transfers.
1,00.html>.
> Spam can also be used as sabotage.
Phishing (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ One example is the bombardment and sub-
Phishing) is a more recent evolution of sequent overloading of discussion groups
spam and represents a growing concern in with false messages.
the world of consumer safety. In this
version, recipients receive spam which is Best practice
disguised as legitimate mail from a known
institution such as a bank. These mails often > Maintain a healthy scepticism about e-
contain links to false websites which are mails you receive. Do not open e-mails if
used to gather sensitive user information. you do not trust the source.
Spam is popular for commercial purposes > Be especially wary of attachments. If you
because it is an extremely cheap and effec- receive something that looks suspicious, or
tive way of reaching a large audience. that you have not requested, delete it
E-mail addresses for mass-mailings are immediately without opening it.
usually collected using web bots (http:
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_bot) > Check all links in e-mails before clicking
which search the Internet and harvest on them. This can be done by holding your
addresses from various websites. cursor over the linkthe URL should appear
in the bottom left-hand corner of your
Ethical considerations screen just above the task bar. If you are
suspicious that a link does not lead to
> Spam often includes false or fraudulent where it claims, type it into your browser
information. Because the sender remains instead of clicking on it.
anonymous, it is currently not possible to
prosecute for false claims.
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> Use spam filters to avoid wasting time acters which will fool a web bot. See
deleting unwanted mails: http://spam-fil- Lancaster Universitys tips on reducing your
ter-review.toptenreviews.com/). visibility at <http://www.lancs.ac.uk/iss/
email/spam.htm#reduce>.
> Avoid distributing your e-mail address on
a large scale. Bear in mind that if you > Do not respond to spam. This will con-
include your e-mail address on a website, firm your e-mail address to the spammer.
web crawlers can pick it up and add it to Be aware that links promising to remove
distribution lists for spam. you from their mailing list may not be gen-
uine. Automatic out-of-office replies also pose
> If you do need to post your e-mail a problem since they send responses to
address, you can disguise it by adding char- spammers as well as legitimate contacts.
> Microsoft spam and phishing page. Bill Gates article of 28 June 2004 on
Preserving and enhancing the benefits of e-mail:
<http://www.microsoft.com/mscorp/execmail/2004>.
> Truth or Fiction is a website for Internet users to check up on claims made by
commonly forwarded e-mails: <http://www.truthorfiction.com/>.
> SpamBayes, free spam filter which can plug into Outlook:
<http://spambayes.sourceforge.net/>.
> <http://www.messagingpipeline.com/news/159903196>.
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Educational applications
What is chat?
of chat
Chat is a generic term that refers to inter- Teachers often underestimate how impor-
active communication which takes place on tant chat is to young people. Chat and
a dedicated discussion channel. Users can instant messaging are popular pastimes
talk to groups of people in chatrooms (http: and are transforming the way young peo-
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatroom) or ple communicate with each other. It is
hold private conversations with selected entirely feasible to harness this force and
friends by using instant messaging services apply it as an educational tool. Some ideas
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_ include:
messaging). > Brainstorming sessions and problem-
centred real time discussions.
Chatting is a very informal means of com- > Role-playing games and simulations.
munication similar to face-to-face conversa- > Exchange of opinions and debates and
tions and occurs between two or more per- small-group panel discussions.
sons. Chat discussions are usually typed > Tutoring and guidance.
but can also include video or audio stream- > Group investigation.
ing (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ > Creation of an online community
Streaming) through the use of headsets
and webcams. This form of communication How to get started
is instantaneous and therefore different
from e-mail, which does not depend on the There are many kinds of free chat pro-
recipient being present at the same time as grames available on the Web. You can find
the sender. a wide range by searching for chat in any
search engine (http://en.wikipedia.
Is chat dangerous? org/wiki/Search_engine). Many web-based
chat programs such as Yahoo Chat
There has been a lot of negative publicity in at <http://chat.yahoo.com/?myHome>,
recent months about risks young people ICQ at <http://www.icq.com/> and AOL
might encounter when using chatrooms. Chat at <http://site.aol.com/community/
Due to several high-profile criminal cases, chat/allchats.html> provide a wide variety
parents and teachers often worry about of chatrooms with real-time discussion
the possibility of children coming into con- groups. Users must often first download a
tact with paedophiles in chatrooms. small application to enable chat and regis-
Although these dangers do exist, it is ter with the moderator but can then login
important to keep these fears in perspec- and participate freely.
tive. A vast majority of chatroom users are
who they say they are, and most chat com- Instant messaging (http://en.wikipedia.
munication is completely innocent. Rather org/wiki/Instant_message) applications,
than preaching fear or banning the use of which allow private conversations with
chat, adults should empower the young by select users, now surpass chatrooms
teaching them how to stay safe. Some in popularity, see <http://www.saferinter-
basic rules to follow are: net.org/ww/en/pub/insafe/news/
articles/0305/uk_ukcgo.htm>. These
> Never give out your personal information capabilities can be found by searching for
or post photos of yourself. instant messaging in any search engine
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_engi
> Always bring an adult with you if you are ne). Users download an application to
going to meet a chatroom friend. enable instant messaging and then compile
a list of people with whom they want to
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chat. Because communication takes place > Click on that persons ID to send a mes-
in a restricted user group, instant messag- sage and open a dialogue for communication.
ing is often considered safer than chatting
in chatrooms > Type your message and press enter or
click send to post it so that chat partici-
How to use a chatroom pants can see it.
> Provide a username and password if Chat is text-based. Because social cues,
necessary. gestures and non-verbal communication
cannot be transmitted while typing, misun-
> Choose an appropriate chatroom. derstandings can easily occur online. One
Usually there are rooms for different pur- should be as agreeable, polite and well-
poses and topics, for example automotive mannered as in real-life situations and
interest groups, subject-specific study make a habit of using good netiquette
groups, chats for teachers and so forth. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netiquette).
Humour and emotions can also be shown
> Once you are logged in, you will see the through use of emoticons (http://en.
participants conversation scrolling on the wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoticons), small sym-
main text screen. bols that look like faces written sideways.
> Type your message and press enter or When chatting with strangers on the Web,
click send to post it so that chat partici- one should also remember that it is always
pants can see it. possible that people may not be who or
what they say they are. Closed groupware
> If you want to send a message to one (http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Group ware)
specific person, select a person from the chats which provide conferencing possibili-
participant list in the window. ties for use in a school or classroom set-
ting are safer to use and do not have this
> Many chatrooms can also be used for problem because participants represent a
peer-to-peer file exchange: (http://en. limited user group. See <http://www.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_to_peer). netlingo.com/right.cfm? term=username>.
Chatrooms enable the swapping of files too
large to be sent by e-mail (http://en. It is important to remember that file
wikipedia.org/wiki/Email). exchange between users is vulnerable to
security. Make sure that all files have been
How to use instant scanned for viruses before sharing them
messaging and scan anything you receive before open-
ing it (see Fact Sheet 16 on security).
> Open your instant messaging application
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_ Some rules of thumb
message).
The language used in chatting is fragment-
> Check your list of contacts to find out ed, associative and very colloquial; a chat
who is online and available to chat. participant must not only be fast but flexible
enough to switch from one topic and even
> You can add new contacts by entering in one discussion to another. The supporting
their e-mail address (http://en. wikipedia. role of the teacher is very important when
org/wiki/Email) and inviting them to join assuring quality of content and balanced
your contact group. They will receive an e- participation by all those who contribute to
mail invitation and if they agree, they will be the chat. The younger students are, the
registered in your list. This will enable you more important it is that the chat is hosted
to chat with them real-time when you are and moderated by the teacher.
both online. 111
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> Follow the discussion actively during the > At the end of the project, students pre-
whole chat session. pare presentations suitable for a chat ses-
sion. Chat starts with small-group presen-
> Agree on the schedule of the session tations of different study topics. The study
beforehand: everyone should be present at community sums up together what they
the same time. have learned during the course.
> Be polite and kind, as if you were face-to- > Because chat sessions model real-life
face. conversations, they offer students oppor-
tunities for authentic interaction and are
> Remember that a carelessly written therefore useful in studying foreign lan-
message can hurt even if this was not your guages. The teacher can encourage stu-
intention. dents to participate in the discussion,
advising them to post short messages.
> A short message works best. Do not Interaction can be enhanced by creating
monopolise a real-time chat session by roles for students: one may be an innova-
pasting chunks of pre-written text which the tor, another a critic. The other students
others are obliged to read and respond to. can follow the discussions at first and later
provide feedback.
> Chat style is close to a stream of con-
sciousness style. Try to read carefully oth- > Environment Online (ENO) at <http:
ers messages and understand what they //eno.joensuu.fi/tools/chat.htm> is an
are trying to say. This may involve filling in international web-based environmental edu-
the blanks. cation project. At the beginning of the
course, students get their topics from the
> Remember not to share your username web pages of the project. The students col-
and password. lect scientific and empirical environmental
data, measure different phenomena or
Some ideas for take photographs.
classroom work
> During each theme period, virtual les-
> Pick a topic and have students ask each sons are arranged in the form of interactive
other questions and exchange information and synchronous real-time chats <http:
in a chat setting. //www.netlingo.com/right.cfm?term=
real%20time% 20chat>, electronic ques-
> Decide on a study topic, such as poetry tionnaires and message boards (http://
in 19th-century England. Gather some ori- en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Message_boards).
entation material to help students to do Before and after lesson activities, students
their pre-lesson activities. Have the stu- share ideas and monitor their tasks via
dents work on their assignments in pairs or chat and reflect on what they have learned.
small groups. This working phase should be
organised along the lines of a group study
model. (Chat works at its best in small-
group interactions, that is 2-6 students).
Fact Sheet 8
Ethical considerations
Newsgroups and risks
They are still used extensively, and most > Usenet (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
servers and browsers today make them Usenet) is the network which supports
available to interested users. newsgroups. Your Internet service provider
(ISP) decides which ones to offer (http:
Education //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_
provider). It is also possible to find public
> Newsgroups are a useful resource for servers which will allow access.
finding out information.
> You can access many newsgroups using
> Newsgroups can provide a fertile forum a news client. This is included in some mail
for discussions, thereby sharpening stu- programs such as Outlook Express. See
dents debating skills. <http://www.microsoft.com/windows/
ie/using/howto/oe/gettingnews.mspx>
> Teachers can share information and for information on how to do this, with or
experiences about a subject or teaching without Outlook Express.
methodology. 113
media EDucation
> Newsgroups already cover a range of spe- from other newsgroup users or from junk
cialised topics, but you can create your own mail spammers picking it up with web bots
newsgroup. This is a tricky process however. (see Fact Sheet 6 on spam).
The Big 8 categories (the original 8 news-
groups) have a slow and democratic process > When first joining a newsgroup be sure
for accepting new groups. You should post to check the frequently asked questions
your suggestion to news.groups. (FAQ) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faq)
for guidelines. This will give you an idea of
> The more anarchic alt (http://en. the netiquette of the newsgroup. Different
wikipedia.org/wiki/Alt_hierarchy) news- newsgroups have different rules.
groups are outside the Big 8. You can post
your idea for a new alt group in the alt.con- > Keep your messages as short as possi-
fig newsgroup. ble but make sure you give all relevant infor-
mation. For example, if seeking the answer
Best practice to a technical problem, give precise details
about the hardware and software you are
> Be wary of publishing your e-mail using.
address. You may get unwanted mail either
> Newzbot has a number Usenet resources, including a search for public servers
hosting newsgroups: <http://www.newzbot.com/>.
> The Library Spot provides a free virtual library resource centre:
<http://www.libraryspot.com/>.
> The Alex Catalogue of Electronic Texts is a collection of public domain documents
from American and English literature as well as Western philosophy:
<http://www.infomotions.com/alex2/>.
> The Electronic Text Centre collection of the library of the University of Virginia,
where you can browse in 15 languages:
<http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/uvaonline.html>.
> Research Strategies: Finding Your Way through the Information Fog:
<http://www.acts.twu.ca/lbr/textbook.htm>.
> List of 1 000 + webquests from Saskatoon School Division Teaching Resources:
<http://sesd.sk.ca/teacherresource/webquest/webquest.htm>. Article
Historical Research in the Modern Library:
> <http://www.gallowglass.org/jadwiga/SCA/libraries.html>.
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> A creator of audio-visual material auto- > Illegal content most commonly refers to
matically has copyright unless he or she child pornography, extreme violence, politi-
waives it. cal extremism or incitement to hatred
against minority groups.
> Most countries laws maintain copyright
50-70 years after the creators death. > Many countries have a hotline for report-
ing illegal content: <http://www.inhope.
> There is usually more than one copyright org/en/index.html>.
holder of a piece of music. Author, perform-
ing artist, record company and publisher > Taking action may be difficult or slow
may all own rights or related rights. depending on the nature of the content and
where it is hosted.
> Aside from the economic aspect, a cre-
ator of audio-visual content has moral > Hotlines work together with Internet
rights (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ service providers (ISPs) and the police, and
Moral_rights). This relates to the right to are best-placed to tackle illegal content.
be recognised as the creator and the right
for the work not to be altered or edited > Inhope is a network of national hotlines.
without permission.
> The music industry has responded by fil- > Inform students about the risks of virus-
ing a number of lawsuits against websites es and spyware from downloads.
and individual users.
> Inform students about the possibility of
> Using peer-to-peer software (http:// fines for downloading copyrighted music
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer) can be and film.
a security risk to your computer, as viruses
(http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Viruses) > Discuss harmful and illegal content.
and spyware (http://en.wikipedia.org/ Surveys show many students deliberately
wiki/Spyware) are often distributed by or accidentally find this type of content on
attaching them to music and image files. the Internet, but few tell an adult.
> Educational establishments are, in cer- > Schools and companies should have an
tain cases, allowed to reproduce works and acceptable use policy (AUP), which includes
communicate them to the public. Refer to issues on copyright and illegal material.
your national legislation or to the Directive
2001/29/EEC of 22 May 2001. > Parents should agree certain rules on
Internet use with children.
> Works used must be solely for teaching
or scientific research purposes. Copyright
> Source, including the authors name > Get written permission from a copyright
should be indicatedexcept where this is holder before using material.
impossible.
> Credit the author/creator of any materi-
> No direct or indirect economic or com- al you use.
mercial advantage must be gained from the
use of this content. > Apply Creative Commons classifications to
material you create to clarify how others may
> You need written permission from a par- use it: <http:// creativecommons. org/>.
ent or guardian before publishing photos of
students online. Illegal content
> In the case of content published on the > Software filters can help block some ille-
schools website, all content, including con- gal websites.
tent originating from children, is under the
authority of the school. > No filter is perfect. It is also important to
discuss childrens use of the Internet.
In the classroom
> Encourage children to talk about their
> Have a discussion on moral aspects. Is online experiences.
piracy of audio-visual material stealing?
> Report illegal content to a hotline, see
inhope below.
> Pro-music is a good source of information on online music piracy. It has a leaflet
for kids and a Q & A on music downloads: <http://www.pro-music.org/
copyright/faq.htm>.
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> Inhope is the network of hotlines for reporting illegal content on the Internet:
<http://www.inhope.org/>.
> The Council of Europe media page has information on its work in the field of
copyright: <http://www.coe.int/T/E/human_rights/media/>.
European Commission information on intellectual property rights:
<http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/copyright/index_en.htm>.
> The International Federation for the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) gives a legal
overview about online music: <http://www.ifpi.org/>.
> The online safety factor: Do the filters used to create interactive quizzes and activ-
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_ fil- ities for the Web.
ter) put in place to keep students safe also
inhibit access to material needed? How can > Students can create interactive stories
this be dealt with so that students can with multiple outcomes with software such
enjoy safe access to information they need? as that available at Quias website:
(See Fact Sheet 14 on labelling and <http://www.quia.com/>.
filtering.)
> Secondary school and university stu-
> Training for teachers: In many class- dents can create their own 3D learning
rooms students are more Internet savvy environment at <http://www.active-
than their teachers. Teachers need to ben- worlds.com/> with software like Active
efit from all training opportunities available Worlds. They can build their ideal land-
to them in order to properly guide their stu- scape, their own virtual campus. They can
dents in all aspects of ICT. also collaborate with other students in proj-
ects on different topics.
> Technical support issues: Does your
school provide the technical support need- Best practice
ed so that programmes and projects are
not inhibited? > The Internet can be used as a basic
research tool for background information
> A buffered environment: Creativity allows on different topics. Students can then apply
expression of your feelings as an individual. the knowledge they have gained to an
Although you should ideally limit constraints assignment that stimulates creativity.
on a students creative processes, it is Technology provides students the opportu-
important to retain control over the output, nity and the freedom to develop higher-
especially if brainstorming occurs in a order thinking.
group setting, such as chat. A teacher or
other authority figure should be present to > The Internet and other modern technolo-
guide the work in a constructive manner. gy allows for powerful communication and
collaboration between students of different
Boosting creativity in the countries and cultures. More than ever
classroom before, students have the possibility to
brainstorm creative solutions with a broad
> A webquest, <http://webquest.sdsu. peer base.
edu/materials>, is an inquiry-based
approach to integrating the Internet into > Teachers have found that implementing
the classroom. Additional webquest technology in the classroom in such a way
resources are available from the Canadian as to provide hands-on activities allows stu-
SESD teaching resources website: <http: dents opportunities for problem-solving and
//sesd.sk.ca/teacherresource/webquest innovation.
/webquest.htm>.
> Keep learning goals in mind: the key to
> Students can challenge their creativity by reaching these goals is to focus on the
building their own websites. This stimulates process taken to get to the product rather
creative thought processes in different than on the product itself.
ways by requiring input on graphics and
content. > When students publish the results of
creative activities online, they need to
> Students can collaborate on projects respect copyright (http://en.wikipedia.
that develop writing skills by producing org/wiki/Copyright). Remind them to cite
online books and stories. their sources when using material created
by others.
> Hot Potatoes software at <http://hot-
pot.uvic.ca/> is free of charge and can be
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> Global Schoolhouse Cyberfair is an online meeting place where parents, students
and educators can collaborate, interact, develop, publish and discover learning
resources: <http://www.globalschoolnet.org/GSH/>.
> Future Problem Solvers Program: Engages students in creative problem solving by
simulating critical and creative thinking skills: <http://www.fpsp.org/>.
> Gateway to educational materials provides educators with quick and easy access
to educational resources. Do a search for creativity for lesson plans, classroom
ideas: <http://www.thegateway.org/>.
> Games represent one of the rare occa- film violence: <http://resources. eun.org/
sions when adults and children can insafe/datorspel_Playing_with. pdf>.
exchange ideas on an equal footing (inter-
generational communication). > Studies attempting to determine the pro-
portion of young people affected by comput-
> Children learn about democracy by playing er game addiction have had widely different
within different social structures, in an envi- results. This is because there is currently
ronment bordered by rules and parameters. no agreement on an objective way to decide
at what stage heavy use of computer
> Games often involve sharing and games can be considered excessive or
respecting the rights and property of oth- addictive. Gamers may play a high number
ers, sometimes even bringing players into of hours per week without adverse effects
contact with other cultures and intercultur- to their social and professional lives.
al practices. Children can practise social However, it is generally accepted that addic-
skills without fear of failure and with a tion is a problem among a small proportion
sense of control. of gamers. This problem was highlighted
when the case of a Korean man who died
> Because games require children to obey after a 50-hour game session was widely
rules and follow directions, they increase their reported in the media in August 2005.
capacity for self-discipline and autonomy.
> Some games have been accused of sup-
> Puzzles, board games, adventures and porting racial or gender stereotyping.
quests offer opportunities for players to
develop strategic thinking and problem-solv- > Some online games allow the possibility
ing skills. to meet and communicate with strangers.
> Games can be integrated into almost any > Monitor the number of hours spent play-
area of the curriculum, from mathematics ing. Take action if other social activities are
to social studies and languages. avoided or children and young people skip
school in order to spend time gaming.
Potential risks
> Gaming communities can foster a sense
> The violent nature of some computer of belonging and can lead children to trust
games has been loosely associated with vio- too readily. Remind them that online friends
lent behaviour in young people. However a may not always be who they say they are. It
Danish Media Council report in 2002 sug- is important not to give out personal infor-
gested that the violent aspects of some mation to anyone online.
games were not more influential than TV or
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> See charts of top-selling games, and games news, descriptions, research reports
and legislation reviews on the Elspa site: <http://www.elspa.com/>.
> The Pan European Games Information (PEGI) website contains rating and labelling
information: <http://www.pegi.info/pegi/index.do>.
> Playing with fire: how do computer games affect the player, Danish Council
report: <http://resources.eun.org/insafe/datorspel_Playing_with.pdf>.
> Providing students with an access to the org/wiki/Virus) and hackers (http://en.
whole base of learning material gives them wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker) can wreak
the opportunity to become more autono- havoc on a distance-learning system so be
mous in their learning process. sure to consult Fact Sheets 15 and 16 on
privacy and security to see which precau-
> Students have more ownership of their tions you should take.
own learning, and the role of the teacher is
transformed into the role of a coach. > Copyright (http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Copyright) is usually protected by the
> Courses are not restricted to the open- law of the students home country.
ing hours of normal schools or univer- However, when following distance-learning
sities, so everyone can benefit from more programmes in other countries be sure to
opportunities to become lifelong learners. check that the learning sources are cov-
ered by international copyright.
> Distance learning changes the behaviour
of both the teacher and the student. > Fair use and payment of courses is also
Successful students develop persistence and a hot issue: students are expected to use
organisational skills and the teacher must learning facilities in a trustworthy way and
become more conversant in technology. to pay for their courses on time.
> The Distance Learning Network provides information about distance learning,
reports on its effectivenessadvantages, disadvantages, and techniques:
<http://www.distancelearningnet.com/>.
> The Distance Education and Training Council contains a number of reports on
distance learning which are available for free download:
<http://www.detc.org/otherdownld.html>.
> Yahoo! has a directory page for distance-learning programmes and institutions:
<http://dir.yahoo.com/Education/Distance_Learning>.
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Sites are labelled in order to protect > Filtering software-services label pages
minors, increase public trust and use of according to their value systems and social
online transactions, and also to comply with agendas.
legal standards. When labelling website
content, a code is written into the webpage > Filters may block useful sites relating to
html, thereby detailing its contents so that contraception or sex education due to cer-
the page can be rated. This ratingwhich is tain key words they contain.
invisible on the page itself, details the
nature of the content and is detected by fil- > Some countries block sites of opposing
tering mechanisms, which will subse- political parties or ideologies.
quently either block or load the page.
> Some people consider filtering as a form of
Websites can also be branded with Quality censorship and therefore against the spirit of
Labels and Trustmarks, labels which sig- the Internet. Others claim that if filter soft-
nify that specific regulations have been ware did not exist, governments would be
met. These regulations often include pre- under pressure to regulate online content.
scriptions about secure transactions (see
Fact Sheet 18 on shopping online). Two How to
well-known quality labels include Verisign at
<http://www.verisign. com/> and Trust-e > To label content you have created on a
at <http://www.truste.org/>. site of your own, follow instructions on a
rating site such as ICRA at <http://www.
Filtering icra.org/>.
> Filtering is the process of detecting and > You will be asked to classify the material
blocking inappropriate content on the according to a number of set criteria.
Internet. It can be done within browsers and
proxies, or by installing software censors. > Most browsers can be set to filter out
specific sites. For example, in Microsoft
> An alternative to filtering is white list- Explorer, this option can be found under
ing, whereby access is allowed only to cer- security options.
tain pre-approved sites.
> Very few computers are sold with filter
Education software pre-installed. You will need to pur-
chase a dedicated filter program for a
> Filters can be valuable in reducing the more sophisticated approach to filtering
risk of students accessing inappropriate or sites. A number of products are available
harmful material. on the market. 125
media EDucation
> Most filter programs will allow you to will do more to add value to your learners
specify what types of content you wish to fil- Internet experience than censorship or
ter or allow. witch-hunts.
> The Council of Europe media division websiteinformation on their work promoting
self-regulation and user empowerment: <http://www.coe.int/media>.
> The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) aims to defend civil liberties on the
Internet: <http://www.eff.org/>.
> Internet Content Rating for Europe (INCORE) reportan executive summary of a
report on self-labelling and filtering: <http://europa.eu/int/ISPO/iap/
INCOREexec.html>.
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> Most e-mail (http://en.wikipedia.org/ > We are accountable for all decisions we
wiki/E-mail) and Internet (http://en. make about our own and others rights, for
wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet) users assume example copyright (http://en.wikipedia.
that personal information will not be used org/wiki/Copyright) and intellectual
without permission and that information property (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
exchanges are private and secure. The Intellectual_property).
reality, however, is very different.
> Freedom of speech is a politically accept-
> Every time you access a website or send ed notion, however in practice this is a grey
e-mail, you leave information about yourself area with no easy answers. What is
that could include your physical and com- acceptable and what is not? How does one
puter address, telephone and credit card enforce the rules without encroaching on
numbers, consumer pattern data and the rights of the speaker?
much more.
> Teach students how to create secure computer when you visit a website. It can-
passwords (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ not harm your computer, but will give
Password#Factors_in_the_security_of_an_i access to information about your behaviour
ndividual_password). and interests. This can provide a more per-
sonal surfing atmosphere. For example,
Best practice when registering with a website you may be
greeted by name upon your return.
> The golden rule: do not share your per-
sonal information with anyone you do not > It is important to decide how private you
know and trust. want to keep your online behavior. Since
cookies can be used to track usage pat-
> Back up (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ terns and contact information they provide
Back_up) your system, and have a regular a possibility for encroachment on your pri-
backup policy. vacy.
> Update security measures on your sys- > You can use anti-spyware (http://
tem and do some research on additional en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyware) to help
tools at <http://www.epic.org/privacy/ control the data your system is broadcast-
tools.html> that will support your online ing and to clean out unwanted cookies.
preferences.
Data protection
> Anti-virus (http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Antivirus) and firewall (http://en. > Make sure your machine and e-mail pro-
wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall_%28network- grams are password protected (http://
ing%29) software are an absolute necessi- en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password). Most
ty. You might also want to consider other home machines have default user and
tools such as pop-up blockers (http:// password settings which allow access
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_up#Add-on_pro- through standard passwords like test.
grams_that_block_ pop-up_ads) and anti- See <http://www.netlingo.com/ right.
spyware (http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/ cfm?term=default>. Make sure you change
Spyware). Be sure to check your system these default settings to a more secure
regularly. password and ID.
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> The Council of Europes Legal Affairs page contains information about the work of
the Council of Europe in the field of data protection: <http://www.coe.int/T/E/
Legal_affairs/Legal_co-operation/Data_protection/>.
> The Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) maintains a list of privacy tools
and articles: <http://www.epic.org/privacy/tools.html>.
> Find out what your PC is telling anyone on the net who cares to look by using
BrowserSpy: <http://gemal.dk/browserspy/>.
> Concerned about your civil liberties? These discussions on privacy could keep your
citizenship class going for a while: Electronic Frontier Foundation at
<http://www.eff.org/>, Privacy.org at
<http://www.privacy.org/>, Privacy International at
<http://www.privacyinternational.org/> and Privacy.net at
<http://www.privacy.net/>.
> CryptoHeaven is an encryption package which offers secure mail, file sharing and
chat with symmetrical and asymmetrical encryption:
<http://www.cryptoheaven.com/>.
> LavaSoft Ad-aware is an anti-trackware program that scans your computer and
protects your privacy: <http://www.lavasoft.com/>.
> Anyone who stores personal data on > Set your browser (http://en.wikipedia.
clients or other acquaintances is responsi- org/wiki/Web_browser) to disable scripts.
ble for keeping this information secure. You can enable scripts for trusted sites.
> Hacking (http://en.wikipedia.org wiki/ > Do not open e-mails which may not be
Hack_%28technology_slang%29) or other genuine (see Fact Sheet 5 on e-mail).
unauthorised access to information about
others is a violation of others rights. > Make sure you trust the source before
downloading anything to your computer. Be
> It is important to be cautious but do not particularly aware of peer-to-peer software
go overboard with security measures! One (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_to_
of the Webs greatest qualities is its acces- peer), which is notorious for aiding the dis-
sibility. Restricting rights or activating tribution of spyware (see Fact Sheet 10 on
excessive filtering may constitute censor- music and images).
ship or reduce accessibility.
> Regularly back up important files to a
> Spyware refers to programs which hijack location separate from your computer,
a computer usually with commercial such as on CD-Roms.
motives. This could involve adding unwant-
ed advertising or stealing credit card infor- > If you are managing more than one user
mation. Dialers are a form of spyware that of a computer or network, make sure each
cause modems to dial numbers without the user has appropriate rights. Restricting
users authorisation. This has been used to unnecessary user rights can help avoid
make calls to premium rate phone lines. accidental or deliberate security problems.
> Cookies involve the storing of personal > Network administrators should create
information. See Fact Sheet 15 on privacy an AUP (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
for more details. AUP) so users do not jeopardise security of
systems.
Best practice
> The Windows operating system and
> Install anti-virus software (http://en. Internet Explorer browser are the most
wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-virus_software) common targets of malware. Consider
and keep it updated. alternatives such as open source software
130
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literacy handbook
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source)
or Mozilla Firefox: <http://www.mozilla.org/>.
> OECD guidelines for the security of information systems and networks:
<http://www.oecd.org/document/42/0,2340,en_2649_34255_15582250_
1_1_1_1,00.html>.
she is unable to focus, feels threatened and > There should be a procedure in place
loses self-confidence. that can document Internet usage, includ-
ing who is online, when and where.
> It is the responsibility of teachers and
parents to ensure the best learning envi- > Students should be told to discontinue
ronment possible, whether in the class- contact with anyone who is harassing them
room, on the playground or working online. or making them uncomfortable in any way
when online.
> Students need to be able to take respon-
sibility for their own actions, but bullying > Students should immediately tell a trust-
undermines confidence and self-esteem. ed adult what has happened and, if possi-
ble, show them the offensive material. Then
> Students who feel threatened (either the adult should follow the procedures
online or off) need the help of a trusted spelled out in the schools AUP.
adult. We should also remember that the
person doing the bullying is also in need of > The procedure is the same as in real life,
guidance so that this behaviour is not were a child to be harassed by someone.
repeated in the future. They should discontinue contact with the
offender and tell a trusted adult about the
> Schools should have specific guidelines incident. They should not feel as though they
in place as well. It would be a good idea to are alone or have to deal with it themselves.
incorporate precautionary measures in
your schools Internet policy to deal with In summary, school Internet use policy
bullying. should include intervention methods such
as conflict resolution, training of students
Ethical and safety issues and staff about what to do in the case of
harassment online, provision of positive
> Bullying and harassment in the class- support to the targets of abuse and, wher-
room can lower the morale of the whole ever possible, help the abusers to change
class, creating an atmosphere of fear and their behaviour. With such a policy in place,
distrust and making learning nearly impos- schools should have little problem dealing
sible. with bullying or harassment.
> One preventive measure to help keep bul- Ideas for classroom work
lying or harassment from becoming a prob-
lem is to introduce anger management and > Role play: students participate in a mock-
conflict resolution into your curriculum. conflict resolution process. The teacher
Well-chosen programes of this type will assigns the roles and organises groups in
allow children and teenagers to discover which students are responsible for settling a
their own talents as potential mediators in dispute. The next step is to reverse the
the conflicts. In this way, the risk of minor roles, allowing students to approach the
conflicts developing into threatening behav- issue from a different perspective.
iour will be reduced both offline and online.
> Discussion groups: students participate
> Your school should have an explicit policy in discussion groups where their group
in placecommonly called an acceptable work is evaluated, and where they are
use policy (AUP) (http://en.wikipedia. encouraged to talk about their impressions.
org/wiki/Acceptable_Use_Policy)to moni-
tor when and how students and staff use Best practice
the Internet at school. This document
should explicitly explain that vulgar language Here are some ideas on how to handle
and bullying / harassing language will not online bullying, harassing e-mails or mes-
be tolerated. Direct consequences should sages of any kind:
be spelled out clearly for anyone who uses
the Internet in an inappropriate manner.
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literacy handbook
> Students should be instructed not to > Your schools policy on bullying and/or
open e-mails from unknown sources. acceptable user policy should have provi-
sions on how to handle online harassment
> If an e-mail is opened and found to be by students.
offensive, delete it immediately.
> Just as with any other kind of bullying,
> If a person keeps sending offensive or students should know they can come to you
harassing e-mails and it is possible (by means or another trusted adult anytime they are
of the e-mail address) to find out where the harassed online.
e-mail is being sent from, contact that serv-
ice provider (http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Internet_Service_Provider) immediate-
ly to report the harassment.
E-commerce may be defined as the collec- > Educate students to find out about the
tion of services, software, and procedures retailer and the conditions of sale.
that allows the sale of products online.
Almost anything can be bought online from > Invite students, alone or in groups, to
books to holidays, from clothing to electron- look on specific commercial websites for
ics. Apart from material goods, you can products or services, with a particular goal
also pay for services such as access to in mind. For example, planning a holiday
online content. According to Forrester according to a fixed budget (see Fact Sheet
Research at <http://www.forrester.com/ 3 on searching for information).
my/1,,1-0,FF.html>, the European online
retail market is expected to grow from ? > Plan an e-commerce website with your
40 billion in 2004 to? 167 billion by 2009. students (to sell school products, for
instance), or do further work on existing ini-
Education tiatives of that kind already taken within the
framework of the school. Study the struc-
Young people need to be well-informed con- ture of a good e-commerce website.
sumers. As online shopping gains in impor- 133
media EDucation
> TRUSTean independent, non-profit, global initiative aimed at building trust and
confidence in online transactions: <http://www.truste.org/>.
> As the Internet continues to evolve with > The Internet also enables citizens to par-
the growth of wireless networks (http:// ticipate in online discussions and debates
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network) about topics of interest in public or local life
and 3G (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3G) and even take part in elections by e-voting
mobile technology), increasing importance (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-voting).
will be placed on the ability to use todays
technology to receive and transmit informa- Ethical issues
tion efficiently in a way that transcends on e-citizenship
both media literacy and Internet
literacy. By having access to constantly updated,
quality information, citizens are in a better 135
media EDucation
> The European Commission has information on protecting children and human
dignity in audiovisual services: <http://europa.eu.int/comm/avpolicy/regul/
new_srv/pmhd_en.htm>.
> They threw me a computer but what I really needed was a life preserver, article
in First Monday, a peer-reviewed journal on the Internet, identifies four attributes
of the digital divideliteracy, access, content and trainingand discusses the role
of libraries and museums in cultivating each of these capacities:
<http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue6_4/wilhelm/index.html>.
> Article The responsive classroom: a practical approach for bringing democratic
ideals into the daily fabric of classroom life:
<http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/democratic/gimbert.htm>.
Few people bought mobile phones when > SRI International research in 2003
they first became available in 1983. In found that 90% of teachers who had used
1995, there were five mobile subscriptions mobile technology found it contributed pos-
per 100 inhabitants in the European Union. itively to student learning: <http://www.
According to Eurostat (2005), in 2003 the intel.com/education/handhelds/ SRI.pdf>.
figure was 80 mobile phones per 100 inhab-
itants among the enlarged EU of 25 coun- > M-learning offers the possibility to per-
tries. Mobile phone usage is a worldwide sonalise the teaching delivered to students.
phenomenon, growing fastest in Africa. For example, a school in the United States
has set up a paperless classroom, using
Standard features of mobile phones are the technology to give classes and provide
voice calls and short message service extra assistance to those who have English
(SMS) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ as a second language: <http://www.
Short_message_service). So-called smart- paperlessclassroom.org/>.
phones have new capabilities such as e-
mail, picture messaging and video. > The future of m-learning depends not
only on the development of technology, but
The worlds of mobile technology and per- also the development of educational materi-
sonal computing are becoming less and al that can be delivered over handheld
less distinct as many mobile phones now devices.
have Internet browsing and e-mail capabili-
ties, and more and more computers are > Korea is recognised as one of the pio-
wireless. neers in mobile learning. Since 2004, stu- 137
media EDucation
dents have been able to download lectures > Mobile bullying is of growing concern.
to handheld mobile devices. Young people called happy slappers
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_slap-
> Games for mobile phones are becoming ping) use mobile phones to record attacks
increasingly popular as the technology and then post the images on the Web to
improves and it is anticipated that educa- humiliate the victim. This takes place most-
tional games and other types of informal ly in the United Kingdom (see Fact Sheet
learning will be well-suited to the medium. 17 on bullying and harassment).
> The portability of handheld computers is > Because they are a distraction, mobiles
beneficial for teachers who are on the can pose a risk while driving.
move and for students working in groups or
doing fieldwork > Viruses (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Computer_virus) and worms (http://en.
> Use of handheld computers has been wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_ worm) have
found to encourage students to take been infecting mobiles since 2004. One
responsibility for their work and they are example is the Cabir worm.
less likely to lose notes and assignments.
How to
> Since mobile phones are so popular with
young people, teachers can engage stu- > Mobile phones are popular and it is easy
dents by incorporating use of SMSs and so and relatively inexpensive to own one.
forth in classroom activities.
> Once you buy a handset you can choose
Issues to pay a-la-carte for certain increments of
minutes or you can subscribe to a specific
> There are concerns about children provider and pay a monthly fee for services.
receiving mobiles too early. Research is
inconclusive about the dangers of radiation Best practice
exposure over time, however minimal.
> Encourage young people to restrict their
> Computer use is still regulated within the use of mobile phones. Do not prohibit use,
home. Mobile phone use, however is con- however. Mobile phone use is a widespread
sidered by many parents to be private. phenomenon among teens and in many cir-
Emboldened by newfound freedom, children cles it is essential for networking among
could get themselves into financial trouble peers.
by spending money on prize giveaway
media campaigns or accessories such as > Do not leave Bluetooth on if it is not
ringtones. being used in order to avoid security risks.
> Mobiles may be used as tracking devices. > As with e-mail, accept data only from
The issue of safety versus freedom is a con- trusted sources.
troversial one.
> Be considerate with your use of the
> Bluetooth technology (http://en. phone. People around you may not appreci-
wikipedia. org/wiki/Bluetooth) raises secu- ate having to listen to your conversation.
rity issues such as hacking and sending
unsolicited messages.
> Children and mobile phones, an agenda for action, online publication by Childnet
International: <http://www.childnet-int.org/downloads/CMPAAA_A4.pdf>.
> Nokia page on protecting your phone from Bluetooth and malware:
<http://europe.nokia.com/nokia/0,,76016,00.html>.
blogs
have taken up blogging, blogs continue to
be most closely associated with more ordi-
nary people airing their views and talking
Introduction about their daily lives.
> The word blog (http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Blog) is short for weblog, and > Because of the recent popularity of
refers to an online journal created and pub- blogs, many websites have been created
lished by groups and individuals. which offer software to help create and
publish material. Each entry in a blog can
> The term weblog was added to the be commented upon, which provides oppor-
Oxford dictionary in 2003. Blogs are a tunities for discussion and can help gener-
recent phenomenon on the Internet. ate new ideas. Mobile blogs, known as
moblogs (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
> Because bloggers post articles and infor- Moblogging), have recently emerged thanks
mation online, this trend has begun to take to development of e-mail features in mobile
over a lot of newsgroup traffic (see Fact phones (see Fact Sheet 20 on mobile tech-
Sheet 8 on newsgroups). nology).
139
media EDucation
> RSS (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSS > Blogs give every student in the class a
_%28file_format%29) or rich site summary chance to participate in a discussion which
is now being used to syndicate blogs. Those exposes children to different perspectives.
who wish to have their content published on
other websites can make it available using Ethical considerations and
an XML (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ risks
XML) or extensible mark-up language ver-
sion for web syndication. XML is a type of > Remind students that they should not
code similar to HTML and is also known as give out personal information in public
a feed. Basically it allows readers to sub- Internet spaces. This is a particular prob-
scribe to content and have blog updates lem with blogs, which are often personal by
delivered to them so that they do not have their very nature.
to visit the blog to get it. This sounds com-
plicated but is actually a standard option on How to
most blogging software.
> If you have the technical skills, you can
Educational uses of create a blog from scratch. Most people
blogging use sites which offer tools for creating and
publishing content as a blog. School Blogs
> Blogs give students a chance to take at <http://www.schoolblogs.com/> and
control of their learning and set up a public Blogger (see below) are popular hosts
forum in which to publish their thoughts which provide free services. They provide
and feelings. easy, step-by-step instructions which help
you create an account, name your blog and
> Blogs can be used as an innovative choose a template.
teaching tool for discussion and collabora-
tion. For example, a modern literature > Once your blog is up and running, you
class used blogging to study the novel compose and edit entries from a central
webpage. The interface for popular soft-
The secret life of bees (http://weblogs. ware is WYSIWYG (http://en. wikipedia.
hcrhs.k12.nj.us/bees/). The author wrote org/wiki/WYSIWYG) format and is extrem-
an introduction to the lesson and students ely user-friendly.
and their parents were invited to write
about their impressions of each days read- > Visitors to your blog can comment on
ing assignment. The author then comment- content by clicking on a comments link at
ed on these. See: <http://weblogs.hcrhs. the end of each entry.
k12.nj.us/bees/>.
> Be sure to enrich your commentary with
> Experts note a three-step process hyperlinks and images! Buttons for these
involved when blogging. This is described at features should be included on the toolbar
<http://www.thejournal.com/magazine/v above the text box where you enter your
ault/A4677C.cfm>. Bloggers must contin- content.
ually scour, filter and post material. By
searching for material to comment on, the Best practice
student becomes increasingly familiar with
different theories and ideas and develops > A blog is a great opportunity to air your
skills needed to critically analyse content. views but you may wish to protect your pri-
vacy by using a pseudonym and holding
> Technology can be used as a motivating back certain personal details.
factor in education. Students are interest-
ed in blogs because of their novelty and the
140
Internet
literacy handbook
> Children and young people should be par- com/) website has more than 4 000 mem-
ticularly careful about revealing personal bers and gives users the possibility to
information in a blog. launch their own school blog.
> Respect copyright laws and do not use > Spend time explaining the concept of
other peoples blog designs without their blogging to your students. Tell them why it
permission. is done and give examples of good and bad
blogs. Then give students a set of strict
> Start your own blog to familiarise your- rules which might include length and fre-
self with the practice before introducing it quency of posts, topics, number of hyper-
into the classroom. It might help to visit links/photos and so forth. Assign students
other blogs for ideas and inspiration. The to keep a blog, discuss their experiences
School Blogs (http://www.schoolblogs. and comment on others blogs.
> Blogger is a site providing tools for blogging and now moblogging:
<http://www.blogger.com/start>.
> Blogging and RSSthe Whats It? and How To of Powerful New Web Tools for
Educators: <http://www.infotoday.com/MMSchools/jan04/richardson.shtml>.
Educational Weblogs: <http://educational.blogs.com/>.
> The Educated Blogger: Using Weblogs to promote literacy in the classroom:
<http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue9_6/huffaker/>.
> Blog Idea File: list of ways that teachers are using blogs: <http://www.weblogg-
ed.com/stories/storyReader$100>.
141
Faq: Frequently
Asked questions
This section tries to answer the questions most frequently asked about
the media, under the shape of an imaginary interview. Indeed, many
people have questions and doubts, that deserve to be attended to. More
than a last word on the issue, this is an additional occasion to think about
the role of the media in peoples lives and in society in general. This
section underlines the enormous need for research and reaching out to
be done, both on the media and on media education.
faced with the satisfaction of the divinity means and processes of communicating.
that had invented the new art, expresses There seems to be a fear that the interest
his concern for the evil consequences that they arouse may compete with other insti-
writing would bring about. It would cause tutions responsible for the education and
oblivion, because human beings would neg- socialization of the younger generations;
lect the use of their memory, as they would that it could even supersede them, thus
start trusting what was outside of rendering them obsolete and useless.
themthe charactersand no longer what Nonetheless such concerns are part and
was inside of them. parcel of the social process of appropria-
tion of the media and shouldnt be dis-
Gutenbergs printing machine was the missed without attention. A certain right
object of close scrutinyincluding official to indignation should not be stifled as new
and ecclesiastical censorship of published media, taking advantage of the lack of reg-
material. The same could be said of cinema ulation and novelty, will tend to trespass the
and, successively, of cartoons, radio, televi- consensual and binding values of a given
sion, computers, video games, the society as well as some universal human
Internet, etc. And the same will certainly rights.
occur with other, future media. The radio, a
means with which we live peacefully nowa- It is particularly in relation to children
days, led a North-American author to issue and teenagers that such fears are
the following comment, back in 1936: The expressed. How is the controversial
popularity of this new pastime has grown issue of the effects of television on
rapidly among children. This new invader of young people to be addressed today?
domestic privacy has brought with it a dis-
turbing influence on their development. The younger generations are considered to
Parents are gradually becoming aware of an be particularly vulnerable and more likely to
intriguing change in their childrens behav- be influenced by contents and processes
iour. They feel confused by a set of new prob- not controlled by those entities which are
lems which they do not feel fit to handle. culturally and morally responsible for educa-
tion-related tasks. This can explain the cur-
And yet, who worries about the effects of rent chorus of criticism around television.
radio these days? In spite of reasons for
concern, as evinced by some listening prac- It should be recalled that research shows
tices of young people especially on call-in the importance of models and representa-
shows, there are advantages in looking at tions for the development of young people.
the historical perspective. It tends to show Some of the earliest studies in the domain
that it is not so much in the media that the showed results concurring in that direction,
problem lies, but in the way they interact in the late 1950s, Professor Himmelveit,
with a whole series of social actors, like the coordinator of one such project, pub-
producers, broadcasters, regulators and lished in 1958, wrote: Television is not as
the publics. Besides, the way they are dark as one pictures it, but it isnt either
adapted to a given culture also needs to be the great herald of culture and enlighten-
taken into consideration. ment that his partisans would like it to be.
Research has evolved since, as well as the
Where do these fears spring from then? supply for new vehicles and new contents in
the media. The research results in conse-
Apparently they spring, on the one hand, quence offer a very complex universe, very
from the belief that those technologies controversial, with two major trends, the
have a specific capacity to markedly influ- effects school and the uses and gratifica-
ence whoever uses them and deals with tions school.
them, and, on the other hand, from the
very contents such technologies convey The effects school tends to posit that tele-
and spread. What often seems to cause vision (and media in general) actually seek
concern is the power of attraction and to have an impact on the behaviour of
seduction linked to many of these new young people. They use it to look for role-
144
Faq: Frequently
Asked questions
know that the narrative dimension is one of too, which, while apparently irrelevant in
the most ancient ways of telling about life some countries like France, is a major con-
and the world. Television grasped that cern in others, like the United Kingdom.
dimension, and worked to master it. The reason for these types of concern is
basically the same, i.e., the influence that
Some criticisms of television are recurrent, may be exerted on the most vulnerable
in the sense that they are similar to those social groups, children in particular.
that other media, before and after televi- Moreover, there are those complaints
sion, have aroused. Note should be taken which, from the beginning, have supposed-
that the idea of alienation, which some use ly been related to the effects of TV-watch-
to describe the relation of individuals with ing: school failure, passivity, eyesight prob-
todays media, was already, to some extent, lems, obesity, lack of reading habits, and so
present in the platonic legend mentioned on. In this case, its not so much a given
above on the invention of writing. Radio type of contents or programs that are
itself was actually seen by some as a threat questioned, but television as such, with
to privacy. It was considered that the radio everything it is deemed to represent. Not
soap episodes, or the lyrics of songs, could surprisingly, a considerable part of these
have negative consequences. On television, objections are already being passed on to
everything is intensifiedor exacerbated by the use of the Internet.
the fact that we actually see the things,
persons and situations. By presenting fic- Before discussing in greater depth some of
tional versions of everyday life scenes, these issues, it is worthwhile looking at the
sometimes in their most extreme and their conclusions of research studies on the con-
most hidden aspects, the world, so to sumption of TV by children. The first point
speak, became wide open. Take, for exam- to be made almost states the obvious:
ple, the issue of the relationship between large majorities of children spend a signifi-
the sexes or of sexual relations themselves. cant part of their day accompanied by tele-
In former times, it was possible to control vision. In quantitative terms, this should be
and postpone until late in the development roughly three hours daily, with a bigger or
of a child the unveiling of the secrets of lesser increase on weekends. If we take
adult life. Today, that is impossible. Some into account that this is an occupation that,
see in that disclosure, and its endless rep- in most cases, has neither weekends nor
etition, not only a dilution of the boundaries holidays, we can say it is the activity that
between generations but also a dramatic occupies more time than any other, if we
downgrading in the lives of individuals and dont count the time children spend sleep-
communities. Others see the gains and the ing. It should be remembered, however,
enrichment to be derived from it, as sensi- that we are speaking of average times:
tive matters can be more freely discussed. there are many children who dont watch
Every one has the right to an opinion, tak- much television and many others who
ing into account the need for balance in the watch it for much more than the average
relationship the media maintain with socie- number of hours.
ty: it is not certain at all they are the cause
of all evils and they bring real gains but they Such data show that the younger children
also offer representations that can exert a spend more time in front of Television than
gripping authority on the mind. with their parents or teachers! Its no won-
der then that Television is commonly
Concerns over the effects of TV are referred to as the babysitter or the elec-
focused on sex and, particularly, on tronic granny. However, one must not jump
violence, isnt that right? to conclusions, for consumption should not
be mistaken for the time during which the
These are the two most visible problem Television set is switched on, nor does all
areas. However, there is another one television consumption take place in the
which, albeit to a lesser degree, is also a absence of adults. There are, of course,
reason for concern: advertising and the those television programmes which chil-
incentive to buy. A language problem exists dren, just like the grown-ups, will do any-
146
Faq: Frequently
Asked questions
thing not to miss and which they watch with or unemployed family members in the home
deep devotion and delight. But it is also true also tends to increase television consump-
that, during much of the time, television is tion. School attendance times can also
just company, a kind of fireplace which one have an impact, as well as the holidays: on
is half-absently aware of. Should there be average, children who attend school only in
other interesting ways of occupying ones the morning or the afternoon watch much
time, television is put aside. more television than others who spend
both the morning and the afternoon in
Does that mean that the stereotype class. During the holidays this can be all the
of the mouth-gaping child transfixed more intensified as most networks tend to
by the screen, as if he were an modify their usual scheduling to accommo-
addict, is exaggerated? date the presence of the young public. It is
not surprising, come to think of it, but the
Such cases exist but they correspond to implications are quite considerable.
specific moments or to children living in
particular circumstances (of isolation, neg- To what extent is the type of television
lect, etc.). Such cases, worrying as they use by the parents likely to influence
are, are not a majority. Television addiction, the childrens television practice?
rather than a consequence of television,
might be, in the first place, a symptom of a A great number of researchers consider
serious problem, a sign that something the environment and lifestyle in which the
wrong is going on, to make the world of tel- television is set as decisive for the way in
evision more gratifying and welcoming than which the children relate to the media. It is
the world of direct relationships, the so- an indirect form of mediation which can be
called real world. Fortunately, this does not very powerful. It is exercised through exam-
happen with most children. That doesnt ple, continuity, routine. Mind you, it is not
mean that the younger ones cannot feel only the television that is at stake here. The
fascinated by a story, a series, or a hero, television is only a strandalbeit eventually
just as adults can feel. very expressiveof a wider fabric that also
includes the familys social attitudes and
On media and family
practices, the leisure time activities and
general culture. All this contributes
What factors are likely to contribute towards creating the cultural environment
to a bigger or lesser television in which the children grow.
consumption?
Is the multiplication of TV sets in
There are countless factors, and they peoples homes positive or negative?
depend on the fare from the different avail-
able channels just as much as on the con- The presence of more than one television
ditions and circumstances at the reception set at home is not, by itself, a positive or a
end. As far as television fare is concerned, negative factor. What can be problematic is
one has to consider both the programming the uses and the practices that may arise
grids and rituals (like a series transmitted from more or fewer sets. Multiple sets
on a specific day of the week, at a given solve, momentarily, the coincidence of dif-
time) as well as specific and once-off events ferent programmes that two or more mem-
(like the broadcasting of a football match). bers of the family wish to watch. But it is a
Relevant factors at the reception end may very different thing when systematically
range from individual characteristics (age, each member of the family retreats into his
stage of development, sociability networks) or her little corner, and the context and
through time lines (hour of day, day of the space of interaction and assembly disap-
week, season) to the weather conditions, pear. The issue, however, is to know
the availability of alternative activities, whether it is the television and its multipli-
habits and routines, the characteristics of cation in the home that produces this pri-
the house, and the familys lifestyles and vatisation or if the latter is the expression
cultural practices. The presence of elderly of a deeper and wider lack of communica- 147
media EDucation
tion. There are some who say that the stances, nothing is more powerful than
organ makes the function: just as there are direct human relations with the child. The
families who deliberately decide not to have emphasis then is on the quality of human
television at homean attitude that can be interactions. They are the most efficient in
seen either as respectable or as question- helping the construction of the childs per-
ablethere are others who decide, deliber- sonality and the creation of references that
ately, to have only one set, placed in a com- allows him or her to evaluate situations.
mon area of the house. The television set in They can play a decisive part in diluting, filter-
any case does contribute to structuring the ing and digesting aggressions that will come
familys time and space. from the environment, including the televi-
sion fare. The situation worsens if the child
Can it be said that a child who sees (and feels) that these interactions are
practices other activities, besides diminishing or even disappearing. In such a
school, is less TV-dependent? case, his or her vulnerability is far greater,
especially where television is concerned.
If there are other activities that force the
child to go out and occupy his or her time, Is there a marked difference between
TV consumption will tend to decrease. the violence depicted in fictional
Some researchers, though, have come programmes and the violence depicted
across cases where extremely busy chil- in news bulletins?
dren were also great TV consumers. The
relation between TV consumption and the When a child (or an adult) has a minimum
frequency of other activities is neither sim- command of the codes of a given pro-
ple nor straightforward. In some cases, the gramme and knows that what he/she sees
frequency of other activities is influenced by is fictional, he/she still experiences the
TV. In other cases exactly the opposite hap- emotions and feelings inherent in the
pens. A French scholar, Franois Mariet, action. That experience occurs in a sort of
wrote in this regard: One criticises televi- game of make-believe. There is in it some-
sion for preventing children from doing thing analogous to our dreams and to the
other things, but it is precisely for a lack of cruelty or violence that sometimes come to
other things to do that they watch televi- the surface in them. Watching the images
sion. In any case, it is a positive thing that of news reports implies a command of the
children be given the possibility to experi- respective codes: real persons committed
ence different contexts and situations and certain acts, others fell victim to those
the opportunity to organise their own fun acts; some people were marked physically
and games activities, with some autonomy. as well as mentally, and possibly died, as it
To that end, however, the families and local can occur in terrorist attacks or at war, for
communities, and particularly the local example. This is why news reporters and
authorities, have to arrange convenient editors are required to be sensitive to
spaces, not excessively formatted but with codes and to be extremely careful to act, in
the necessary safety conditions, for chil- this case as well, in a balanced and sensi-
dren to be at ease. One great aspiration ble way. They must not indulge in morbid
that children express is the possibility to per- explorations of horror and cruelty that are
form outdoor activities: practicing sports, easily filmed everywhere in the world. They
riding a bicycle, travelling, playing, etc. must adhere to certain codes while still
informing and raising awareness among
Is it acceptable to say that the the public.
influence of television is more
powerful than any other factor On media and
in a childs life? young people
Such cursory assertions are easy to make Children dont perceive images the
because the variables to take into account same way, at all ages. What is the
are numerous. There is a relative consen- impact of television and media
sus around the idea that, in normal circum- according to different age groups?
148
Faq: Frequently
Asked questions
action and emotion. Their speech is always Multimedias games and devices have
accompanied by the speech of experts or emerged from this recent step of techno-
representatives of institutions for control logical and commercial convergence. They
(police, school, hospital). As a result these can perform all these functions, while
appear in a situation of power and authori- increasing their capacity because they can
ty, to the detriment of the younger ones. play on several modes of expression and
representation (written, oral, visual, physi-
Patrick Huerre, a psycho-paediatrician, cal). However, in the marketplace, where
notes this media paradox: If we continue specific publics are targeted, multimedia
watching those 5% teenagers who are in have become specialised and they tend to
trouble, we are going to doubt that the favour one or two functions over others.
95% remaining ones are doing well. Such is the case with educational software
Teenagers who are not violent, drug-addicts (the transmission function) or for on-line
or who havent had sexual relations as por- action games software (the entertainment
trayed in pornographic movies are going to function) or else for instant messaging (the
end up thinking that they are not normal. correlation function). Some allow for
And thats whats new: such negative enclosed navigation (CD-Roms) and others
images as are shown in the media might for open navigation (internet sites with on-
induce young people to think that trans- line games), others even allow for mobility
gressive behaviour is the norm. (the portable phone, the palmpocket)
The representation of young people in media The current period seems to show an
is a reflection of how adults view them, with acceleration of the development of hybrid
consequences in reality. Stigmatising young media and means of representation. It is
people can sadly affect a whole society. In very unsettling for some people as it blurs
fact, behind this image of troubled youth, our traditional hierarchies and expecta-
there lurks the question of the responsibili- tions. An impression of instability and
ty of adults and of the viable and acceptable uncertainty tends to prevail, reinforced by
forms of authority they can exert. the feeling that the media no longer aim at
Recognizing the place of young people, valu- building consensus or social bonds. On the
ing their actions, modifying their bad contrary they tend to create fissures within
image can contribute to re-establishing the age groups and between the generations,
intergenerational dialogue and to giving putting social cohesion at risk.
more optimistic future perspectives to
them. Media education can contribute to it Why are young people so attracted to
fully, be it only by putting the representation multimedias devices and games?
of young people in a balanced perspective.
For young people, these functions parallel
How can we account for the increased their developmental needs. This partly
presence of multimedia games and explains why they seem to understand the
devices in our society? technology with a special intuition, even as
it has become more user-friendly to every-
Traditionally, medias have fulfilled three one over time. These functions correspond
functions: observation (monitoring the envi- to their need to explore the world, to pay
ronment), correlation (for exchanging and attention to others, and to experiment with
bonding) and transmission (socializing to distance and vicarious devices. The suc-
the norms and values of a culture). Then cess of simulation games must be seen in
other functions were added: transaction this perspective. They provide adventure
(selling services), entertainment (enjoying and broaden geographical, historical and
leisure time) and acculturation (adjusting cultural horizons. Having access to various
for cultures in contact and globalisation). modes of communication via a single media
These new functions have been extended to enhances capacity-building, self-presenta-
satisfy primarily the increased commercial tion and self-broadcasting. A paradoxical
needs of large corporations in media and relation to the others, parents and peers,
telecommunications. is thus established: very externalized, extro-
150
Faq: Frequently
Asked questions
verted and gregarious on the one hand, fostered the creation of a total universe of
very internalized, narcissistic and individual- very coherent signs around audiovisual pro-
istic on the other hand. grammes and their merchandized prod-
ucts. It should come as no surprise that
For the externalized dimension of their some walkmans make it possible to down-
sociability, when navigation goes beyond the load musical pieces that are at the top of
walls of their home, young people need a the charts on the music channels; internet
public, if not publicity. They allow them- is often used in association with television
selves to be seen, by ostentatiously using and radio programmes, with young people
multimedia devices in public spaces like the as targets because they are malleable and
street, the train or the coffee-shop. Their avid for new knowledge.
presence is thus felt in common areas
where they rarely occupy a legitimate and The driving forces that allow multimedia
recognized place. They claim recognition, games and devices to cross over between
heedless and ignorant of any etiquette, the fictional universes and the real one are
chatting away, to insist on their increasing still not well understood. The same applies
emancipation. Their favourite multimedia for acculturation processes and their
devices (mobile phone and walkman) are impact on young peoples identity construc-
eye-catching signs of their changing status. tion. But researchers observe some posi-
They emphasize their will to choose an elec- tive tendencies and some negative ones.
tive family and to move away from their bio- The universes that are simulated in some
logical family. For them, the added social games efficiently empower spaces for infor-
value of these devices comes from their mal learning. Other universes provided by
being public indicators of this identity trans- these games can represent very violent
formation,which has characterized adoles- imaginary worlds that tend to mobilize the
cence for generations. players attention on repetitive scenes of
aggression. They can feed on some young
For the internalized dimension of their players psychic impulses and induce ill-mas-
sociability, young people need to satisfy tered addictive behaviours.
their needs for self-discovery and identity
construction. Multimedia devices partici- There are dangers of potentially harmful
pate in that territorial marking, in the behaviours, not to be neglected though
secrecy of their bedroom, forbidden to they tend to be over-mediatized, such as
adults. This can lead to paradoxical situa- paedophilic predation, illegal or illicit toxic
tions of individuation: in order to lead the drug selling and unprotected sex relations
life they feel like leading and to be different (with risks of infection by Sexually
from others, teenagers need to have Transmitted Diseases, including AIDS). In
access to media similar to those owned by general, most young people are not affect-
their peers, so as to be able to imitate or ed by such behaviours and relations. Those
reproduce their contents. They must be who are marginal, fragile, or else very curi-
able to sing the latest songs downloaded ous, are more at risk. Surfing on the inter-
via internet, to reproduce the moves of the net and searching for autonomy can in fact
Lolitas seen on television and to know the either lead an adolescent to be exposed to
tricks to move forward in some video games. these phenomena, even when not looking
for them, or induce a balanced teenager to
Are there any risks connected to take a risk. Such a teenager may be under
these different uses of multimedia the impression that such a risk is limited
devices by young people? and at a distance as it is mediated.
This double movement, between internaliza- Are there any safeguards and who
tion and externalization, has been very well should apply them?
understood and exploited by the industry.
Aiming at young people, the multimedia The solutions to prevent such risks are var-
sector has elaborated a large complemen- ied. They imply putting some amount of
tarity and circularity among products. It has pressure on industry producers as well as 151
media EDucation
works are spaces for interpersonal and pri- advantages and the drawbacks of internet
vate exchange when in fact anything they uses and of the various forms of practices,
post on them is immediately made public ethics and types of involvement that are
and profitable to some. Thats how chatting available on-line. There is no one-size-fits-all
is a type of communication that exposes solution. Rather the existing solutions are
some young people to new forms of harm- the result of a mix of self-regulation, regula-
ful behaviour. They can broadcast their por- tion and co-regulation strategies and poli-
trait on the internet without suspecting that cies. Media education, if it focuses on the
it can be altered by others; they can pro- differences between being informed and
vide their personal data without noticing informing about oneself, can also con-
that they can be used for teen marketing tribute strongly to the distributed intelli-
and targeting. gence of networks. The added value
resides in the networking dimension. All the
The potentially harmful types of behaviour good practices related to it need to be pub-
between adults and young people have lished, emphasized, taught in schools as well
alerted public opinion and are especially as at home and among groups of peers.
worrying to parents: paedophilia, pornogra-
phy, cyber-violence Other potentially In relation to information, much has
harmful types of behaviour exist among been said about downloading, presen-
young people, like mouse-slapping or cyber- ted as piracy and a violation of copy-
bashing (symbolic violence to others) or, right laws. Are the families and the
more dangerous, encouraging suicide by young people who download informa-
mis-appropriating hot line sites for disor- tion to be treated as criminals?
ders like bulimia, anorexia, etc. Finally there The right to privacy as it concerns the par-
are also sites that are detrimental to the ticipation of young people in media,
dignity of the human person, where xeno- requires an urgent initiation process con-
phobia and racism are presented as games cerning the rights and responsibilities of all
without the caveat that they go beyond the on the internet. Otherwise, a number of
boundaries of what is socially tolerated. valuable and hard-won human rights may
loose their validity and credibility. Young
Another potential danger is that young peo- people often are ignorant of these rights
ple are targeted by the industry. E-market- and responsibilities. At best they have an
ing tends to be mostly teen-marketing, with abstract notion of them, provided in the
commercial practices that are clearly con- civics classes of some countries. They are
ceived as one to one marketing, aimed at unaware of the implementation policies and
creating a trusting relationship with each the concrete applications of these rights
young consumer. The attendant practices and responsibilities. They often dont know
can include creating cyber-cash for young- anything about provisions for the protection
sters, unbeknownst of their parents, and of minors on the internet and in media in
even physing, which consists in obtaining general. They are not alerted to the fact
the familys personal and financial data that their image on internet is publicly avail-
under the guise of official entities, without able. Anybody can take it, modify it, and set
the children being necessarily aware of the it in a context where it can be abusively used
ensuing risks. In this case, the protection by some adults. So young people need to be
of privacy and property is at stake, to which prepared to develop ethical relations with
all users have to be sensitized, in order to professionals and, conversely, adults must
maintain peoples trust in the networks. pay attention to the protection of minors.
What can be done to preserve the The abuse is not all one-sided. Young peo-
benefits of Internet while avoiding ple can make inroads into the rights of
the risks? adults, and more specifically of creators.
This is the case of piracy, especially illegal
It is the task of educators but also of all downloading of intellectual property, like
those involved in the networks to build trust music. Creator rights are infringed upon to
and to clarify as much as possible the a lesser extent when the integrity of infor- 153
media EDucation
mation is distorted in such a way that it matically to them and parents can discuss
lends itself to rumour or libel. There is an them with their children. Mostly it seems
on-going debate in many countries on the that children understand that, when they
status of downloading. Some people liken it are watching a programme not adapted to
to private copy or note-taking, and as such their age, they are trespassing some
find it acceptable, especially if no commer- boundaries. This is thought by some to
cial transaction is foreseen. Others liken it entice young viewers to such programmes.
to robbery, and see a violation of copyright Others see it as an advantage as the warn-
laws. In either case, treating young people ings sensitize young people to the shared
and their families as criminals is not a solu- social norms within their own culture.
tion easily acceptable to a whole society
and it may cause tension. All the actors Such warning systems are not perfect. In
involved need to realize that with Internet some countries for instance, the reason for
and the promises of the information socie- warning is not stated. Not all countries
ty, a new cultural compact is slowly taking have adopted visual logos (indicating the
form, with new practices that will develop presence of sex, violence, drugs, or other
alongside the old ones. It is important to objectionable material), alongside the logos
keep an open mind and to consider flexible indicating the age limit. It is to be noted
and negotiated solutions, most probably that such warning systems have been
within the framework of co-regulation. extended to other media: they can be seen
on video tapes and internet sites which can
offer encrypted systems for blocking
On media and access. The presence of warning systems,
regulation and however, cannot replace the vigilance of
parents, educators and civil society associ-
co-regulation
ations. The media companies are always
strategies looking for strategies to bypass them as
are young people! Certainly, such systems
More and more countries are cannot replace the dialogue between gener-
adopting parental warning systems. ations in families nor media education.
Are there good practices attached to
such systems? In some countries, having a V-chip (a
violence-chip installed in the Television
set) is mandatory, to block violence
Parental warnings have been denounced by and other potentially harmful content.
producers and broadcasters as an infringe- Is it worthwhile investing in such a
ment upon their freedom of expression. It technical device?
is a kind of self-regulated regulation since
the networks classify their programmes The v-chip is a device (an integrated circuit)
themselves. In their everyday practice, they that can be incorporated in a television set
anticipate the warnings in their new pro- to allow parents to block some pro-
ductions, ensuring that they are in con- grammes that have previously been coded.
formity with the parental standards. A num- This device was conceived to filter violent
ber of channels even practice voluntary content but can also be applied to other
censorship by cutting some movie scenes types of content. Invented in Canada, it is
that they consider too violent or indecent. actually in use in that country and in the
Others modify their programmes to give United States. Following up on the Directive
them a family-oriented dimension. Such an Television Without Borders, the European
attitude shows the reactivity of the industry Union has considered introducing the v-chip
and its capacity for adaptation to the social into its territory. Studies commissioned by
environment. the European Union, however, point to the
fact that this solution would be of little inter-
In the everyday practice of parents, warn- est. It seems that its performance needs to
ing systems have become instruments for be assessed in the countries that already
decision-making. Some families refer auto- use it (Canada for instance).
154
Faq: Frequently
Asked questions
It is to be noted that the v-chip can be used attention to our children, and not push
as a stopgap measure or an avoidance them towards the television. Above all, bal-
mechanism (legitimated by technological ance and good sense must prevail. All in all,
factors) by politicians and decision-makers it is probably better to follow that popular
to maintain the status quo. The v-chip may saying according to which If you have to
lead to two perverse effects, both of them live by the sea, it is better to teach your
worrying. On the one hand, it can remove children to swim, rather than building a wall
responsibility from parents who will defer around the house. The rule established by
to the technology and will stop paying the American Academy is the wall around
attention to their childrens use of televi- the television. Promoting critical skills might
sion. On the other hand, it can rid opera- be a better solution and moving away
tors of their guilt feelings as they will feel from the beach yet another one (though it
freer to broadcast anything. The v-chip may seem desirable to live with media the
calls for initiative and availability on the part way it can be desirable to live by the sea!).
of parents, which is precisely what so often
is lacking in day-to-day life. Moreover, some Isnt censorship one of the major risks
research indicators suggest that, in prac- taken when systems of regulation or
tice, the parents who use this device tend co-regulation are set up?
to be over-relaxed and that the ones who
prove to be more vigilant are precisely Freedom of expression and of the press
those who, without the v-chip, are already is a fundamental right, that needs to be
quite zealous as to the media consumption recalled consistently. In the past, censor-
of their children. ship was an attribute of the State, today
commercial censorship has become a
Should one support a growing problem. In any case, any tres-
recommendation that would prevent passing on the rights and responsibilities of
children under two from watching the journalists by other actors needs to be
television, as the American Academy carefully monitored. This doesnt mean that
on Paediatrics has suggested? the freedom of expression of the users
must be silenced. The freedom to express
This suggests a kind of parental self-regula- indignation and criticism, be it positive or
tion. This kind of approach has the advan- negative, also needs to be defended. Hence
tage of raising awareness to the problem of maintaining independent media that reflect
isolation, and even abandonment, of many multiple and diversified points of views
children and, consequently, to how impor- requires our urgent attention.
tant it is, or might be, for these children to
have an effective interaction with their par- To avoid censorship, all the opportunities
ents. The same Academy, together with the for communication and cooperation between
childrens medical, psychology and psychia- the media and the general public should be
try academies, bluntly asserted that there negotiated and facilitated. Any solution or
is a causal relation between violence on TV policy should aim at explaining itself and
and the increase in violent behaviours in should elicit support for the implementation
society. It recommended that parents do of the principles of freedom and independ-
not permit children to have a TV set in the ence of journalism and communication,
bedroom. while reminding everybody of the ethical
dimensions and the social responsibilities of
It is difficult to adopt such positions as uni- the media. Such a solution allows the gen-
versal rules, but they underline the differ- eral public to become familiar with the
ence between a world under ideal control responsibilities of media and also with their
and the one we actually live in. It is proba- inner constraints (time, resources, need
bly more productive to consider such posi- for revenue, shareholder pressure).
tions as the expression of shared concerns Important issues for democratic participa-
that might have different answers, depend- tion are at stake, but the participation itself
ing on the situation. They are, first and may help dispel peoples distrust, and even
foremost, a warning sign that we must pay prevent a general denunciation, of the 155
media EDucation
media, whose loyalty and independence evaluation of media education has no reli-
they feel has run amuck. able criteria yet.
formal approach to navigation skills and will computer science, so that the use of edu-
lead to new roles for teachersas resource cational software can become widespread
persons and mediatorswhich implies a as the scepticism about their pedagogical
reviewed conception of his or her authority quality subsides. When these conditions
in the classroom. are not met, the result is a feeling of waste
and failure that is perceived in many coun-
Basic training is not very strong, and con- tries, as audiovisual and digital equipments
tinuous or lifelong training is not much bet- are under-used, owing to the crucial lack of
ter in the current situation. Self-training (in support by untrained teachers and to the
software for design and production of mul- absence of technical maintenance staff.
timedia materials with a specific theme or
method) is not fully recognized or validated, What benefit is there in producing
though it is extremely time and energy con- images or media texts by and for
suming. For the moment, in most coun- oneself? Isnt it a way of getting rid of
tries, confirmed teachers dont receive a the problem?
basic initiation in web navigation, site
design, on-line course building, or other The French researcher Jacques Gonnet
basic functions. They are not even trained likes to tell this story: in 1924, an ordinary
to evaluate the quality of the existing sites school teacher, Clestin Freinet, decided to
and other tools at their disposal. bring into his classroom a printing press;
When used best, the new technologies for he wanted to create a newspaper. He bet
communication tend to promote modes of on the notion that the children would find
access that can be synchronous or asyn- an interest in it and discover many things
chronous, on-line or off-line. These are not by themselves. The students discovered
always compatible with established tradi- block letters, asked themselves questions
tional school schedules. Technologies and about spelling, worried about their readers,
schools seem to operate along the lines of and many other publishing concerns. Thus
disjointed time frames. They also seem to Freinet gave birth to a very important
operate from disjointed spaces. On-line nav- movement in the schools, which has since
igation allows students to escape the con- then evolved into a variety of differentiated
fined area of the classroom. Meanwhile, pedagogies, which include access to the
within the classroom itself, the computer production tools.
can foster affinities among peers, a com-
munication relationship that doesnt exist in The Freinet Modern School movement
the classical master-student relationship. teaches us the importance of fostering the
Interaction can thus be choreographed dif- students self-reliance, enquiry-based learn-
ferently, as the audiovisual and navigational ing and the inductive method. Authentic
codes bring about proximity functions, learning by using real life experiences of
learning patterns and expectations that production needs to be encouraged, with
provide an alternative to the authority of a young people as much as with adults,
single adult accredited from the top. because the trial and error process allows
them to test things as insiders. Any
This kind of knowledge acquisition, that is process that can place the learners in situ-
evolving and tailored to individual needs, ation and enhance their understanding of
that implies an active participation of the production and their capacities for decod-
student within a logic of media appropria- ing and raising questions is crucial.
tion must not be set against traditional
knowledge acquisition based on hierarchi- Some excesses in the use of the Freinet
cal, stabilized notions, and a logic of repro- movement have lead people to believe that
duction. The school systems must allow the the media and new technologies promote
teachers to play upon these dual time inductive methods as if this pedagogy
frames and dual spaces. It is also neces- depended on the machines alone. In fact
sary for private sector producers and pub- induction may be taught by other means.
lishers to work in partnership with teachers The feeling that differentiated pedagogies
and other specialists of sound, images and are technology-dependent may have a 157
media EDucation
158
Glossary of selected terms
for media education
Glossary
of selected terms
for media education
159
media education
Access. A basic right of the citizens and one of the Auteur. The person who creates a media text.
rights of children, often linked to participation. In The notion alludes to a French critical position
media education, students are encouraged to which considers that an individual, usually the
determine whose voice is listened to, whose is director, is responsible for the program or for
excluded and for what reasons. See civil society; the film which he or she made. In other analyses,
vertical integration. the producer or a corporate collective is respon-
sible for the program. Auteur theory allows iden-
Activities. In media education, creative activities tification of personal styles but masks the whole
(for example, taking photographs) are distin- production process around media texts. See pro-
guished from analytical activities (for example, duction.
the study of adverts or news). Among the exer-
cises for students, there can be discussions led Authenticity. In the current media system of
in small groups or with the whole class, role play- mechanical and digital reproduction of master
ing and simulations, textual analysis, essay-writ- texts, it emphasizes what is original and there-
ing and media production, with a hands-on fore cannot or should not be reproduced or
approach. See media education. copied. It is also a quality that can be detected
by textual analysis, to highlight what deserves to
Advertising. The persuasive messages intended be believed in or what is in conformity with truth
to sell products or ideas. Advertising is the eco- if not reality (witness accounts, historical narra-
nomic base of most commercial media, because tives, truthfulness). See realism.
the sponsors finance the production of programs
or shows with the money they pay for the broad- Block-booking. This kind of marketing strategy
casting of their spots and ads. See production; forces small media distributors or broadcasters
public service announcements. to purchase a whole bouquet of productions with-
out choice as to the details of its content.
Alienation. The feeling of separation from the Through block-booking a producer can sell a
others or from ones own nature, due to the lack combination of big successes and of poor quality
of control over ones social conditions (economic, programs. See vertical integration.
cultural, political). It is also any process, some-
times media-driven, that can cause the separa- Blockbuster. The holy grail of commercial cine-
tion from self. The skinny fashion model ideal can ma. Producers hope their product will break box
interfere with a normally built womans image of office record. To achieve this result they invest
herself and her cultural and sexual roles. In psy- heavily in promotional, marketing and merchan-
choanalysis, alienation refers to a split subjecti- dizing strategies. Blockbusters tend to share
vity, due to the fact that the person doesnt feel in certain characteristics: spectacular effects,
total control of his or her actions because of uncon- roller-coaster action, and violence. They can ben-
scious or stifled desires. See psychoanalysis. efit from a longer shelf-life by being integrated in
secondary or derived markets (videotape,
Analogical process. The use of a physical DVD). They participate in the globalisation phe-
process to describe or record data on a contin- nomenon, aiming at large profits on a limited
uous scale as they are collected. Analogical sig- amount of products. In theory the production of
nals will record movement in its variability, in lev- a blockbuster allows Hollywood companies to
els of speed and light (for example in real time), finance less heavily budgeted material. In prac-
giving a feeling of physical reality to the observer. tice, it can produce colossal failures and a small-
The digital process, where the data are gathered er number of films produced per year. See pro-
in discreet units, to be recomposed later, has a duction; merchandizing; by-products.
contrary effect. See digital technology.
Blogs. Coined from two words, web and log.
Animation technique. A process by which inani- Refers to on-line diaries in the public sphere, on
mate objects or images seem to come to life. This personal, institutional or thematic sites. The
effect is achieved by a series of manipulations of meaning relates to the navigation metaphor
the objects or of the drawings recorded and rapid- characteristic of the Internet but also to the
ly projected so that the brain interprets them as in notion of monitoring progress so as to improve
movement, thanks to the persistence of vision. performance and storage. The rise of the blogos-
phere has been noticeable since September 11,
Appropriation. An activity of the public which 2001 and has demonstrated the interactive
consists in interpreting the messages of the dynamic capacities of the digital media.
media for their personal and differentiated use.
It implies a strategy of active reception. It is part Brand. Distinctive name, often expressed as a
of the uses and gratifications school of media logo, that is used to mark the products of a com-
reception theory, usually seen in opposition to pany. Applying the brand to a successful product
the effects school, that considers the public as in advertising and marketing can build the brand
passive. See uses; effects. image of the company with the public.
Audience. The group of consumers for whom a Bricolage. A cultural practice that consists in
media text was produced as well as other groups modifying the meaning or the original intent of
which can be exposed to it. It tends to be meas- media texts or merchandized products to make
ured statistically, by taking into account the num- them ones own by giving them a new reading or
bers of persons watching or listening to a partic- a distorted, and even oppositional, use. In the
160 ular media during a given time slot. See public. classroom or at home, it can be turned into a
Glossary of selected terms
for media education
task whose technique is improvised, using low Classificatory system. Classifies programs
cost materials at hand (paper, video). See before their distribution or broadcasting accord-
appropriation; commodification. ing to their contents, by indicating, if need be,
the presence of violence, pornography or other
Broadcasting. Over-the-air transmission of radio types of messages likely to hurt the sensibility of
and audiovisual contents across broad spectrums of young people. It can be associated or not with
electro-magnetic waves, to reach wide audiences. scheduling rules, and even to bans on broadcast-
ing. See regulation.
Cable. The tele-broadcasting of audiovisual con-
tents by coaxial cable or optical fibre. By exten- Code of ethics. See ethics guidelines.
sion, the audiovisual system which permits the
reception of any type of program by subscription Code. The conventions and the intrinsic charac-
and by selection of a bouquet of channels. See teristics of various forms of media languages
television; production. involved in the construction of a given message.
They imply a shared social practice, which allows
Call-in program. A show format allowing users the public to decipher the message encoded by
to express themselves and to give voice to their the author or the producer. In media education,
questions and their contradictory comments. It learning to recognize and decipher codes sensi-
increases the feeling of participation among the tizes learners to the need to find the verbal equiv-
members of the public. See MAS. alents of sound and image effects that are used
in any media text. See constraints; language;
Case study. Educational strategy which encour- grammar; semiotics.
ages learners to explore in depth a media topic
of their choice. Independent research and inquiry Commodification. The process reflecting the
have an important role to play in media educa- transformation of social relations into mar-
tion. Learners can focus on production, market- ketable goods or relations with exchange value.
ing and the consumption of a given text. They Notions as close to personal identity as gender
can study a specific issue through several media, and sexuality can be commodified, that is to say
like a political election or an important sports that they can be inserted into a relation implying
event, concentrating on the diffusion process. a monetary value. In other words, media can
They can consider the public involved by elaborat- cause a person to alienate a part of him or her-
ing questionnaires and taking field notes or con- self. See alienation; market.
ducting interviews. See analytical strategies;
pedagogy. Communication. A dynamic relation which takes
place in the exchange between a transmitter of
Censorship. In its strictest sense, an a priori con- signals and a receiver of these signals, by means
demnation of a media text or of an opinion, pre- of technical tools and of semiotic resources
venting its publication or broadcast. Censorship (images, sound, written language). By extension,
can also refer to an a posteriori decision, after all the media techniques used to transmit a mes-
publication or broadcasting. Self-censorship is sage, to inform public opinion or to maintain the
considered as a limitation to expression that pro- reputation of a company or corporation. See
fessionals exert on themselves; it can relate to information; medias.
self-regulation. See self-regulation; regulation;
co-regulation. Community Media Centres. Places of public
access for the members of a given community.
Characterization. The development of charac- They provide some media vehicles and
ters in a narrative. The characters can be either resources, as well as the technical support of
well development (round) or un developed and tutors and trainers. They aim at re-enforcing the
stereotyped (flat). See narrative; story. education of the people while responding to local
needs. See co-regulation ; tele-centres.
Choices. In textual analysis, they can either be
paradigmatic (a selection among a series of equiv- Commutation test. In media education, it con-
alent elements) or syntagmatic (the grouping of sists in asking learners to imagine how the
various elements to form sequences or combina- meaning of a text would change if one of its ele-
tions). See language ; grammar ; key-concepts. ments were modifiedfor example, if the produc-
ers had used a different person, another piece of
Church/cult. See religious organizations. music, or another iconography.
Civil society. Associations composing civil socie- Competence. The integration by a person of the
ty tend to be either consumer or professional grammar and the lexicon of a language, which
groups that have added the media and commu- allows him or her, virtually, to produce an indefi-
nication to their general agenda. It can include nite number of correct occurrences and to
groups specifically focused on media and com- understand those of other people. Competence
munication like viewers associations. Civil socie- is effectively measured in the persons perform-
ty organizations do not want to be confused with ance of communication acts. Media education
vested political powers or the dominant commer- aims at making the learners acquire a general
cial powers. Their legitimacy rests on a demand competence, whose object is not just confined to
for direct participation in the democratic process, the printed word but also to the other symbolic
of which the media are perceived as an essential systems made of images and sounds. See media 161
part. See regulation; co-regulation. education; performance.
media education
Complaints Bureau. An entity located either in a ducers and broadcasters. It may result in the
media company or the national authority for drafting of recommendations related to some
media regulation. It receives the criticisms of the cultural or political value or content, to editorial
public and whose task consists in referring them strategies, and to specific formats in conformity
to the programme managers and news editors. with the expectations of a given community. See
Its existence is connected to the right to correct co-regulation.
information, to the respect of the public image of
a person, and to the possibility of rectifying or Content analysis. Involves the quantitative analy-
replying to information. See regulation. sis of a relatively important corpus of materials,
identifying the recurrence of predetermined
Comprehension. In media education, the mas- codes or categories. For example, learners can
tery of a set of key-concepts. This approach estimate the respective proportions of image
has several clear advantages. It does not specify and text that can be found in a variety of news-
particular objects of study (a standardized can- papers, or the quantity of space dedicated to
non of texts included in a school program for advertisement. They can also count the num-
example) and can thus adjust to the interests ber of men and women who appear in ads or
and the passions of the learners. It does not tally the types of social roles they play. Content
specify either a set body of knowledge, which analysis can be time-consuming in the classroom
would quickly become obsolete. See media edu- but it allows the students to test their hypothe-
cation. ses and to identify major trends that appear in a
large sample. See textual analysis; repertoire of
Computer processing. All the techniques for col- pedagogical strategies.
lecting, storing, treating and distributing data
automatically treated by programs or software Contents. Messages which are produced by the
via computers and servers. See digital technolo- media texts, and are then sent to widely or nar-
gy; internet. rowly-targeted publics. Content analysis is a spe-
cific method which tends to take numerous texts
Conditions of contract. Document establishing and to analyse them with quantitative criteria, so
the modalities of execution and completion of as to provide a statistical evaluation in the end.
products for public markets, with description of See message; content analysis.
the expectations and schedule of due dates, as
well as the public service obligations expected Context. Making apparent the links which unite
from the media institutions. It is generally estab- particular forms of media language with two
lished by the media regulation authority, in its other key-concepts in media education, namely,
capacity to manage public airwaves and band- production and the public. It is possible by focus-
width. See regulation. ing on the opening and final sequences of a
media text, which provide indications on produc-
Connotation. In semiotics, the social, historic tion and on the targeted public.
and ideological values which are added to the lit-
eral meaning of a text, sometimes through the Convergence. A tendency to combine technolo-
experience of the spectator or the listener. See gies visible among companies as they merge
denotation; semiology. with each other to produce a multimedia system.
It results in products that perform many tasks
Constraints. Requirements given by the man- (computer, fax, telephone) to produce a multime-
agement of a particular media or specified in the dia system. In the technical sense, convergence
conditions of contract of media companies. In can be also interpreted as a general tendency
textual analysis, the possibilities which are inher- toward digitization, to the detriment of paper or
ent to each media are not only determined by analogical systems. See vertical integration; pro-
their intrinsic characteristics: they also depend duction; technology.
on the context of production and on the targeted
public. See code; context; production. Copyright. Refers to the laws which require
compensation for the use of the intellectual prop-
Constructivism. A critical position which consid- erty and information published by artists, journal-
ers that facts and events do not exist by them- ists and media producers. Certain exceptions
selves but are the result of a social framing, with are accepted, according to countries, such as
implications connected to ideology, to economics fair use or the right to quote a brief extract
and to the balance of power in politics and lan- without asking for permission. Copyright rules
guage-use. Systems of representation, notably must be taken into account in case of use or of
those conveyed by the media, have no meaning broadcasting of any media text in the classroom
separate from human interpretation. Such sys- or in any non-commercial setting.
tems help people make sense of the world
around them. See phenomenology. Co-regulation. Either a regulation of self-regula-
tion, or a negotiation among multi-stakeholders.
Consultative councils (for programming). Multi- In a context of governance, it implies a more
stakeholder platforms, that incorporate the pres- active dialogue between the State, the industrial
ence of users or experts coming from education sector and the other actors of society, namely,
and from paediatrics. They can refer to state of among others, parental groups, consumers
the art research and concrete situations, with movements, family and teachers associations,
debates that do not confine themselves to the research organisms. See regulation; MAS.
162
decision-makers only but which often include pro-
Glossary of selected terms
for media education
Corpus (of knowledge). A set of facts or of con- Cultural good. A product whose commercial
tents which must be learnt and which is the value is inferior to its symbolic value. Information
basis for the more complex elaboration of analy- and media are supposed to be cultural goods,
sis, as well as criticism and interpretation of whose status is not the same as the status of
media texts. See media education; curriculum. commercial goods and services as they con-
tribute to the sense of identity of a society or a
Course sequence. A series of units of work that community. See civil society; cultural diversity.
extend over several lessons including a variety of
activities for the class, and aiming at setting up Cultural imperialism. The way lifestyles are
the key-concepts of media education. It should exported by a hegemonic country to other terri-
offer analytical and creative activities and be fol- tories, by means of cultural goods and media
lowed up by an evaluation. See media education; texts. The United States are often considered to
key-concept. be in a position of cultural hegemony and thus
imperialistic because of their massive export of
Coverage. The way media deal with an event or popular programs and the strict control they
report it. It can strive for objectivity criteria or, on keep on production and diffusion in the domestic
the contrary, be criticized for an excess of bias market. See globalisation; vertical integration;
or subjectivity. cultural diversity.
Credits. Can appear at the opening or the end of Curriculum. The body of knowledge to be taught
a media text. They contain information on the in a cycle of studies covering a given subject. In
persons who produced the text, on the compa- media education, the curriculum introduces key-
nies which own it or which distribute it, on the concepts (production, representation, language
various tasks which were mobilized for making it. and public) in an integrated way, each key-con-
Tracking down this information can allow the cept being, at least potentially, an access point
learners to pay attention to the financial inter- to the others. See media education.
ests (and sometimes the ideological ones) that
lie beneath the text. See production. Cyberspace. The representation of space as
defined by computers and virtual technologies,
Critical Position. See formalism; post-mod- especially on the Internet. It is a geography of
ernism; psychoanalysis; realism; semiotics; networks that is made possible by servers, web-
structuralism; phenomenology. sites and hypertext links. It creates a digitalized
environment allowing the transit of information
Criticism (or Critique). A considered position and data as well as the various types of commu-
about the meaning of messages and their value, nication between people and computers. See
that aims at bringing to the foreground explicit and navigation; Internet.
implicit contents. It is also an attitude in reception
in which the viewer or listener distances himself or Cyborg. Coined from two words, cybernetics and
herself from the simple consumption of media organism. Refers to the moving frontier of
texts, in order to analyze the results consequent human-machine relations mediated by technolo-
upon their uses. See reading; reception. gy. This machine anthropomorphism permits
technological systems to experience mental
Cross Cutting. The alternating of shots from two states and, conversely, human beings to accept
sequences, to make the transition between two the idea of prostheses being inserted in their
scenes or two audio sources. It can create the bodies. This virtual entity underlines the depend-
impression of simultaneity of two actions or, on ence of contemporary societies on media and new
the contrary, allow for a change of place, mood technologies, and as such is often represented in
or atmosphere. See grammar. media texts, especially in science-fiction.
Cultivation. The way people are socialized to Debate. In media and public opinion, the expres-
media by the media. Cultivation can vary from sion of contradictory and minority opinions, asso-
person to person, from group to group, and ciated to pluralistic views in the news. In media
throughout the life of an individual. It implies that education, debate entails an analytical activity,
media consumption habits have an impact on the where the learners are offered a series of judg-
interpretation of messages, besides considera- ments on a program or a subject, with positive
tions about the social milieu and the education and negative reviews. They are then asked to
levels of the users. See effects. evaluate these propositions. See activities;
course sequence.
Cultural diversity. An outcome of the debate on
cultural exception which posits that the works Deciphering. The process of deconstructing a
of the mind, and in particular film and television media text, sometimes undertaken by the pro-
productions, are not similar to other products ducers and the broadcasters themselves. In
and thus should not be marketed in the same media education, the analytical activity where the
way as any basic consumable, because they are pupils read a series of judgments expressed on
part of the identity and the patrimony of a given a program, in order to discuss them, proceed to
country. An international convention, under the an evaluation, and even produce a synthesis of the
aegis of UNESCO, was ratified in 2006, making points of view. See course sequence; activities.
the expression of cultural diversity into a State
right. See cultural goods; commodification; glob- Decoding. The process of interpreting texts and 163
alization. cultural goods according to the codes shared in
media education
a given culture. Factors such as the technologi- mary market (cinema houses) as well as on the
cal mediation, the context of reception, the pro- secondary markets (tapes and DVDs). See verti-
duction conditions and the social situations of the cal integration; market.
members of the public inform this process and
account for the fact that the message will not Docudrama. Coined from two words, documen-
necessarily be decoded as expected by the tary and dramatization. Refers to a particular
author or the producer. See code; production; form of audiovisual storytelling. It is a media text
reception. which combines elements of fiction and elements
extracted from real news or historical facts. See
Deconstruction. A process by which a media genre; realism.
text is subjected to a variety of decisions during
its conception, for a specific public. It is also a Documentary. A more or less full-length film pre-
process in reception which consists in criticizing senting authentic documents, with educational
the modes of production of this message as well and didactic purposes. Its content can either be
as the possible postures of reception. See read- balanced, including different points of view, or
ing; reception; postmodernism. subjective, offering the point of view and the
impressions of the director.
Demographic profile. All the recognizable char-
acteristics of media consumers such as age, Double encryption. Scrambling and locking tech-
sex, education and income. it is a part of market- nological system, that prevents the signal to be
ing strategies for segmenting and targeting vari- seen in clear. See MAS.
ous publics. See marketing ; merchandizing.
Dramatic tension. In narrative structure, the
Denotation. In semiotics, the literal and evident combination of conflicts that drive the rising
value of a media text. See connotation; semiology. action. The moment of a story when the conflict
reaches its climax, and the balance of the action
Device. The technical constituents of cinema or is disrupted also marks the moment of highest
other media conveying the idea that they influ- tension.
ence the psychological perception of the public.
Can contribute or not to an impression of reality, Editing (Montage). Choices made by the direc-
and even bring about the immersion of the view- tors, on the various techniques to be used, on
er in the text. See realism. the positioning of the camera, on the selection of
images and sounds. Linear editing obeys precise
Digital technology. As opposed to the analogical rules that relate to smooth transitions between
process, the use of an electric or electronic what is in the frame and off the frame. Non-con-
intermittent code (on/off, present/absent) to tinuous editing combines shots to suggest feel-
describe or record a dynamic phenomenon like ings and ideas rather than literal time and space.
movement and light. It guarantees the exact repro- See cross-cutting; mise-en-scne ; narration.
duction of data entered data, with a decrease in
variability. This entails a loss in the sensation of Editorial. An article which emanates from the
realism for the observer, when compared to an staff of a newspaper underlining the point of view
analogical process. See analogical process. adopted by them or their management, on an
issue of general order or of particular interest. It
Director. The person in charge of the global is unlike other articles that strictly report the
supervision of an audiovisual text or a film. He or facts and aim at objectivity.
she manages the mise-en-scne and makes the
decisions in editing and montage. See produc- Educational objectives. Preparing learners for
tion; producer. analysing the media. They promote the use of
deductive and inductive approaches, to ensure
Discourse. That which is not a part of the narra- that they use the material at their disposal to
tive and the story in a media text but requires reach their own conclusions. Such objectives
clarification, notably in terms of explicit and assume that learners have to be encouraged to
implicit meaning. Refers to the production of think systematically about complex questions,
knowledge which defines and also limits a subject without forcing them to adhere to any predefined
and what can be said about it. It applies to wide position. One such objective is to encourage
bodies of social knowledge, such as the discourse debates that relate to the everyday life of learn-
on technology, on economics, etc. Discourse ers and users or to their life as citizens. See
analysis is a specific method that tends to take media education.
specific texts and evaluate them by using qualita-
tive criteria. See message; content analysis. Educational television. The activities and servic-
es that transmit programs in which educational
Dissolve. A visual transition between two shots, values are more important than entertainment
in which the second shot is superimposed on the values. In some countries, whole channels are
first one which gradually fades. Helps create an dedicated to the broadcasting of such programs,
atmosphere and conveys the feeling of time pass- in others, special slots are dedicated to them with-
ing. See grammar; production; interpretation. in the framework of public service obligations.
Distribution. Allocation of films to movie the- Educator. A professional who received a specif-
atres, and by extension, all the work of promo- ic pedagogical training, often linked to a special-
164
tion and broadcasting of media texts on the pri- ized subject matter, in charge of the education of
Glossary of selected terms
for media education
children or teenagers. By extension, any magical or ritual powers that allow him or her to
resource person taking part in the reference cir- compensate for a psychological loss or lack. In
cle close to young people (librarians, teachers, the case of media, the poster of a movie or of a
college counsellors, parents). star can give the fan a feeling of possession or
proximity that cannot be fulfilled otherwise. See
Effects. A critical position which posits that commodification.
media representations change the way the pub-
lic understands specific social groups or social Fiction. A creation stemming from the imagina-
issues such as stereotyping and racism, even if tion of an author, as against a reproduction of
it remains very difficult to separate this influence reality. It draws on a certain number of semiotic
from that exercised by the other institutions, resources (sounds, images, etc.) and on media
such as the school or the family. See ideology; whose specific codes are mastered to give life to
cultivation; reception; representation. imaginary worlds. See story; narrative.
Ethics Committees (or liaison committees). Film. The process of production used to record
Partly composed of members from outside the images and sounds in cinema. By extension, the
media sphere (teachers, therapists, community spectacle created by the storytelling elaborated
leaders,..), they foster debate on the respect for by these images and sounds, even if the medium
the public, the democratic debate, the respect and the aesthetic forms produced through it do
for human dignity, childrens welfare and the not share the same properties.
responsibility of the media in the socialization of
young people. See self-regulation; MAS. Filter. A technical device that allows certain
unwanted elements in a program or a show to
Ethics guidelines/standards of good practise. be eliminated on the basis of classifications and
Focus on questions of objectivity, equity, protec- cryptograms. Sometimes, the persons or the
tion of sources, independence, conflicts of inter- entities (writers, broadcasters, channel own-
ests, political clientele or nepotism, etc. Some ers ) that have the power to select or to reject
charters produce guidelines that include the a media text. Electronic filters exist on the inter-
rights of viewers and users as well as the duties net as well, such as search engines.
of professionals. They complement the values of
freedom of expression. See MAS. Flow. In broadcasting, and also on Internet, pro-
grams that are short-lived because their con-
Event. A fact that is important enough to a given tents are perishable, for example talk-shows or
society that it needs to be reported in the media TV news. In spite of interruptions created by the
and be the focus of important coverage (in print advertisement breaks, they tend to give the pub-
or broadcasting media). lic an impression of continuity or of immersion.
Flow programs are opposed to stock programs,
Exhibitionism. The perversion of the pleasure like series or movies, that can be broadcast sev-
derived from being looked at. It can also be eral times and circulated on other media. See
applied to media texts which tend to show the production; programming; stock.
body of the actors (notably the feminine body) to
arouse voyeuristic instincts in their consumers. Formalism. The theory which describes the for-
See scopophilia; voyeurism; pornography. mal aspects of a text, be it in literature or media.
It can combine this perspective with an approach
Family. The group of close relatives living under of the activity of reading in reception which feeds
the same roof. By extension, it also includes per- on cognition and on sensual perception (contrary
sons who share some kind of relationship (by to psychoanalysis). The members of the public
adoption, by brotherhood, by cousinhood, by are perceived as active, with a capacity for mak-
remarriage...). In media education, it refers to ing hypotheses as the text develops, by using
the social entity which includes the children and their prior experience as viewers or their own per-
their care-givers in the household. sonal experiences and their expectations about
genre and format. See structuralism; realism.
Fan. Derived from fanatic. The admirer, often
young, of a star or of a program, who expresses Frame. The way an image is composed, in rela-
his or her enthusiasm by specific patterns of tion to its edges but also to the process by which
behaviour and choices of social interaction, such these edges are decided upon and to the objects
as can be found on fan sites connected to a tel- that are chosen inside and outside such bound-
evision show or to a famous actor or actress. aries. See mise-en-scne ; montage.
Fetishism. Exaggerated admiration for an object Game (or play). Physical or mental activity which
that substitutes possession of that object for a is related to entertainment and pleasure. In the
relation, often sexual, with the person or object media, play can be organized as an activity with
or idea represented by that object. The fetishist rules defining winners and losers, gain or loss. 165
tends to confer on this person or this object The members of the public are increasingly con-
media education
sidered in their role as players, and not only con- and type, symbols, photographs and geometrical
sumers or citizens. In education, play is one of figures), used to convey specific pieces of infor-
the most important dimensions of learning, espe- mation to the public.
cially with simulations and role-playing, as they
allow the learners to experiment vicariously with Habitus. See lifestyle.
media texts without going out of the classroom.
See media education; repertoire of strategies. Hardware. The physical devices that make up
computers, other data processing systems or
Gaze. A term used to account for the centrality broadcasting systems (both central units and
of acts of looking and being looked at, in the peripherals). It allows the interface between
dynamics of desire as they are staged by media messages stored in the software and in the vir-
texts. It can be connected to fantasy and to the tual digital realm to have some human readable
mirror phase, in psychoanalysis or, in sociology, form on screen or paper that can be conveyed
to relations of power of panoptic total surveil- from a sender to a receiver. See software; com-
lance. The relationships between persons within puter processing.
a network of power are governed by the acts of
looking as a means to negotiate and to impose a Human Rights. Defined by the Universal
vision in a given institution or society. Admitting Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, they are
them into this network of power is a way of dis- natural and inviolable rights. Among these are
ciplining peoples behaviour. The media, as insti- freedom of expression as well as the access to
tutions, can be analyzed as trying to induce nor- information and knowledge, by all the members
malized behaviour among professionals as much of society including women and young people, all
as among the members of their publics. See pro- around the world.
duction; reading; publics; reception; mirror
phase. Hybridization. Applied to the notion of genre,
stresses the process by which the contemporary
Genre. The classification of the contents accord- media use classic conventions but remix them to
ing to conventions and recognizable formulas make new categories, with fluctuating borders
that lead to the production of specific types of such as the docudrama, or more recently reali-
texts. Series, docudramas and gangster movies ty-programming. See genre.
are all genres. The genre of a text induces the
viewer to build a set of expectations about its Hypertext. A format for presenting computer
contents, aesthetics and plot. See code; produc- texts which allows the user to move between one
tion. text and another through links. It facilitates the
users navigation in the depth of documents pro-
Global Culture. See globalization. posed to them on the networks. See internet.
Globalization. A new relationship between the Icon. In semiotics, the sign which establishes the
local, national and international financial, labour closest resemblance between reality and its rep-
and wholesale markets which induces economic, resentation, as the portrait of a person for
social and cultural changes. The global media example. See index; symbol; semiotics.
companies dominate the market and offer a
common international culture, based on individu- Iconography. A system of recurring visual motifs
alism and consumerism. This domination pro- which allow the viewers to understand various
duces inequalities in access to information and levels of meaning concerning plot, setting and
media technologies. It can lead to strategies of character. It helps them to build their own set of
resistance and decentralization. See cultural expectations. See genre; graphic design.
imperialism; vertical integration.
Identification. A complex process that can take
Governance. A form of government which aims various forms. The first identification can be
at establishing new bases for the democratic made with the camera apparatus itself, as a way
exercise of power, proceeding by directives and of seeing through the camera eye. Mostly identi-
recommendations rather than by penalties. It fication involves the characters or the actors of
implies the interaction of multiple actors, at a media text as the viewers are immersed in the
local, national and regional, even international action and the situation described by the media
levels. See co-regulation. text. Identification can also partly account for
some of the pleasure derived from media con-
Grammar. An organization of rules and selec- sumption. See narrative; interpretation; pleasure.
tions to generate coherent messages. Media
languages allow the creation of texts by operat- Ideology. The set of beliefs and values shared by
ing on two sets of rules. Paradigmatic choices the members of a given community at a certain
imply a selection among a series of equivalent point in time. It accounts for the fact that these
elements. Syntagmatic combinations permit the beliefs and values seem to be natural and
grouping of various elements to form sequences inevitable, especially when they have a dominant
or combinations. Such rules help create the dif- and hegemonic dimension. However they can be
ferent genres of media formats that can be mod- disputed by minorities in the population and other
ified, hybridized, etc. See key-concept; language. sets of beliefs and values can compete with them
and resist their hegemony. Media texts may con-
Graphic design. The technique of representation tribute to the construction and diffusion of beliefs
166
with visual elements (such as pictograms, fonts and values. In media education, it is important to
Glossary of selected terms
for media education
take into account ideology when interpreting a Inter-Governmental Organizations (IGOs). Inter-
text, to identify the meaning of the message. See state organized entities, belonging to the United
influence; representation. Nations system. They are thematic (health or
agriculture, for example). UNICEF and UNESCO
Index. In semiotics, the sign which relates most are those that monitor media, culture and edu-
to the imagination as it establishes a distorted cation with a special focus on children and youth.
resemblance, often linked to contiguity, between They elaborate recommendations and produce
reality and its representation, while keeping nev- annual reports reflecting the state of the world.
ertheless a causal link or a physical connection. See co-regulation.
For instance, smoke is an index of fire or a pho-
tograph is an index of its subject. See icon; sym- Internet. A network of computer networks which
bol; semiotics. functions by file transfer between a variety of
servers and personal computers. It uses a
Industrial sector. In broadcasting and telecom- series of protocols for addressing and exchang-
munications, refers to the institutions and the ing files that allows different pieces of software
companies which are involved in the technical to receive packages of data and to communicate
production and the commercial distribution of a between them. More and more, Internet tends
media text. See vertical integration; market. to be a multimedia platform that can receive all
kinds of media texts. See media.
Influence. See effects; cultivation; uses.
Interpretation. The process by which the mem-
Information literacy. The use of all the pedagog- bers of the public decode or deconstruct, individ-
ical and educational tools that are appropriate to ually or collectively, the sense of messages and
ensure that every person navigating on the digi- the meanings of a media text. See representa-
tal networks can be informed and can inform tion; key-concept; meaning.
about himself or herself. It implies, on the one
hand, to be able to find data, sort them out and Intertextuality. In broadcasting, alludes to
evaluate them and, on the other hand, to pro- quotes or references of one text within other
duce data and publish them. It is a part of media texts, in an aesthetic, ironic or playful fashion. In
education. See media education. media education, intertextuality is a strategy for
textual analysis that consists in encouraging the
Information. Fact, message or opinion brought learners to think of other texts (or other genres)
to the attention of the public by means of words, to which the text under study can refer to. See
sounds and images. It can also refer to the action textual analysis; repertoire of strategies.
of forming public opinion by reporting events or to
the decision-making process. In computer pro- Journalism. The profession whose main func-
cessing, information can be an element transmit- tions consist in monitoring the environment, col-
ted by a combination of digital signals, packaged lecting information and reporting the news to
as data. See communication; Internet. inform the public so that it can develop an opin-
ion. Journalism exists in all media: print, broad-
Inlay. The electronic technique which inserts one casting, or the cyber-press. It includes a certain
image into another one, inside a definite outline number of tasks, such as reporter, editor, colum-
or border. nist, editorialist See media.
Innovation. In the context of commercial produc- Key-Concepts. In media education, these encom-
tion, refers to the different assembly stages of a pass production, languages, representations and
product or a media text before being massively publics. They supply a theoretical framework
exploited: from the experimental invention to the which can be applied to all media alike, old and
development of a prototype to the final distribu- new. See media education.
tion according to the norms and standards of
the industrial sector. Often, innovation is charac- Label. Marker or tag that appears on the jacket
terized by the hybridization of genres or the for- of a product or is shown on the screen. Inclu-
mulaic spin-offs from a successful genre or text. sion, omission and design of such labelling often
See production. rely on voluntary decisions of producers and
broadcasters. See MAS.
Interaction. Inter-personal relations that use the
machine to establish person-to-person communi- Labelling system. Classifying device enabling
cation. See interactivity. media monitoring. Can be either voluntary, or
imposed by the regulatory authority in concert
Interactivity. Person-to-machine communication with the publishers and the producers. See self-
by way of the screen, giving access to the capac- regulation; MAS.
ities of the computer system for calculations,
games, connections, etc. See interaction. Language. Every media possesses its own lan-
guage, or a combination of languages (visual,
Interface. That portion of the design of the com- sound, and written) which is used to communi-
puter software which establishes the interactivity cate meanings. To produce a meaningful state-
with the users or between machines. It allows ment in these media languages, it is necessary
them to make choices, to select tasks and to to make paradigmatic choices (a choice among a
navigate the system by using visual rather than series of equivalent elements) and syntagmatic 167
textual elements. See Internet. combinations (the grouping of various elements
media education
to form sequences or combinations). There are Mass Culture. Refers to popular culture as it
some linguistic rules that can create specific has appeared since industrial production was
combinations that are easily identifiable. Such linked to mass communications for mass con-
rules can also be broken to produce stylistic sumerism. It is characterized by an ever-increas-
effects. See grammar; reading. ing urbanization and the consumption of cultural
goods and media services. It often conveys a
Layout. All the elements which surround a media negative connotation, as the massive distribution
text, and integrate it into the programming of a of messages is equated with cultural homoge-
given channel (jingle, credits, anchor). These nization, conformity and diminished quality. It has
are often used to introduce programs of foreign been criticized for reducing differences among
origin and are particularly obvious in childrens various groups of publics within the mass. It is
programming. The layout is an important part of often contrasted with high culture. See quality.
the communication strategy of the media to
impress an identity onto the public. See produc- Mass Media. Refers to those media which make
tion. mass culture possible producing messages to
create popular representations of facts or per-
Learning. Supposes both deductive and inductive sons. The most important ones are television,
approaches. It posits that the learners already radio, cinema and the press. The new media
possess a large knowledge on the media, that related to computer processing and to digital
needs to be tapped and verbalized. The relation- networks, such as the Internet, video games and
ship which unites existing knowledge and newly multimedia telephony, have the potential to
acquired knowledge, as well as the implications become mass media, even though their capaci-
of this relationship for learning are essential. ties for feedback and for participation are dis-
They are valid for lifelong learning and adults can tinct from those of older mass media. See com-
benefit from them as well. See media education. munication ; information ; popular culture.
Lifestyle. The models which direct and structure Mastery. The goal of media education. Validates
the preferences, the tastes and the choices of the students knowledge and capacity to recom-
the public. They are a product, largely (but not bine media reading and writing skills in a
exclusively), of the milieu, the education level, the meaningful way. See media education.
social class, etc. They are not natural abilities
(like disposition or character) but situational Meaning. The search for significance in written,
capacities (related to education, class and con- verbal, sound or visual signs. In media education,
text). it implies an active involvement and exploration
by learners in interpretative tasks, taking into
Locking system. A technical system for encod- account the contents and contexts of media
ing messages, useful to parents who would like texts. See language; polysemy.
to receive scrambled programs so as to forbid
their children access to shows or sites which do Media Accountability System (MAS). Expres-
not correspond to their age. See self-regulation; sion which refers to all tools developed by media
MAS. professionals for internal management and for
relations with the public. They clarify the value
Logo. The symbol used to represent a company, system on which the profession is based, as
a brand or an individual. some of these tools relate to self-regulation,
applied and elaborated by professionals them-
Market. In the media, the sum of all the supply selves, to express their ethics. Such an effort
and demand concerning cultural goods and the acknowledges some sense of their social respon-
attendant services. By extension, a media mar- sibility. See self-regulation.
ket encompasses the conditions for production
and sales in a specific geographical area. In Media critique. A television show that examines
some countries, the market has monopolistic critically the content of other shows, mostly
tendencies and encourages vertical integration, news, often introducing a variety of points of
in other countries it can be subjected to regula- view, including those of media professionals. In
tion by means of anti-trust laws. See vertical its own contents, such a show analyzes tech-
integration; globalization; production. niques of inquiry and reporting. It can sometimes
condemn programs that show little respect for
Marketing. Actions that analyze the media mar- the ethics of journalism. See MAS.
ket and that stimulate or at arouse consumer
demand. Marketing techniques are varied, rang- Media education. The process of training and
ing from merchandizing to advertising, sampling learning about media, by acquiring a general
and providing after-sales services. competence in the production and reception
techniques of the industry. It is not limited to the
Mass broadcasting. Media which broadcast printed text but also encompasses other symbol-
messages from a central entity to a multiplicity of ic systems (images and sounds). It endows the
points. This process allows an easy invoicing of learner with the capacity to analyze media texts
the services offered. Television and radio are (written, audiovisual and digital productions) so
thus supposed to reach a mass audience. as to understand their meaning and evaluate
Narrowcasting does the opposite, seeking a spe- their values. This process which includes inter-
cific audience. See media; production. pretation and appropriation actively combines
168
critical and creative methods. It allows young
Glossary of selected terms
for media education
people to build their own analysis and pass to maintain the attention of the spectator on the
informed judgments as media consumers. It also plot or the main character. It must not be con-
gives them the capacity to become media pro- fused with the editing process, as this composi-
ducers themselves. tion takes place before the media text is record-
ed. See editing.
Media library. Collection of data carried by the
various media vehicles. By extension, the place Motivation. The justifications of a sequence or a
where this collection is available for consultation program. They can be aesthetic and based on
and put at the disposal of the public, often in style, realistic for the sake of authenticity, narra-
association with the school or municipal library. tive meeting the needs of the story, or intertex-
tual playing with genre conventions. In media
Media monitoring entities. Structured bodies, education, an awareness of motivation helps
well-established in many places that allow grass- learners look for different meanings in a text and
roots associations to monitor the media and, propose their own interpretation of the mes-
through reports, to sensitize the public. They can sages under analysis. See narration; formalism.
stimulate and diffuse research, foster dialogue
among media owners, state decision-makers and Multimedia. Digital technology that integrates on
researchers. They play an active role in keeping the same vehicle a variety of media resources,
tabs on the media and the regulatory and self- such as sound, text, still or moving images and
regulatory entities. See co-regulation. the possibility of interactivity.
News. Information that reports real facts, and extension, in media education, a means of evalu-
their objective representation, in the print media ation to ascertain the learners capacity for inter-
as well as in the electronic media. Fiction, an pretation or production of media texts. See com-
arrangement of invented facts, is not news. petence.
cae representing perversions and deviations like public, besides the plot and the narrative. These
sado-masochism, zoophilia, necrophilia, paedophil- elements can be the stars, the costumes and
ia, etc. See exhibitionism; voyeurism; scopophilia. accessories, the dcor and the technical perfec-
tion of the product as it is reproduced (sound
Post-modernism. A critical position that ques- quality, colour continuity). See pleasure; pro-
tions concepts such as authenticity, authorship duction.
or stylistic progression. Implies strategies of
reflexivity, parody, and discontinuity in the identifi- Production. The industrial process that creates
cation of the spectator to the hero. See decon- texts as well as the persons engaged in this
struction; parody; reading. process. It implies the recognition that media
texts are fabricated with a conscious purpose in
Post-structuralism. A critical position which mind. Most media texts are produced and dis-
criticizes structuralism, and lays the stress on tributed by groups of persons, who often work
the deconstruction of the meaning of a text, and for large companies, with commercial interests
on the demoting of the central status of the work and activities that are conducted on a local,
of art and of the main hero. See structuralism; national and global scale. See key-concepts.
formalism.
Professional Ethics Workshops. Places of
Practice. See uses. debate between professionals and users, notably
in the print media. They introduce the citizens to
Preparation. A method in media education that the work of the daily press and bring members
consists in preparing the children to understand of the public to discuss editorial choices, modes
the media culture which surrounds them, and of inquiry, and issues of objectivity and pluralism.
encourages them to participate in it actively. This See MAS.
approach emphasizes analytical and critical
understanding as well as focusing on media pro- Professional journal. Contributes to the self-
ductions that come from the work of the learn- criticism of the profession and stimulates the
ers themselves. It is contrasted with methods standards of practice of journalists. It can pub-
that emphasize protection. See media educa- lish examinations of news stories and can ana-
tion; protection. lyze their treatment. It can expose censored or
suppressed documents. It also addresses rela-
Presence. The opposite of representation and tional issues of the editorial board (discrimination
unlike human or technical mediation. Refers to in terms of gender, race) and, in certain
the immediacy of experience, and to the idea cases, denounces the conflicts of interest
that a person can be in direct contact with real- between the board and the management of the
ity, through the senses, unmediated by the social media company. See MAS.
contraptions of language, ideology, or the cultur-
al production of meaning. Presence can explain Professional practice. Following rules of proce-
the pleasure experienced in consuming media dure in letter and spirit either within a group or
texts that encourage immersion and emotional within a profession. The social phenomenon of
involvement. See representation; phenomology. media ethics is made visible in codes of conduct
and charters. See MAS.
Press Council. Meetings between the press and
some representative citizens, on a monthly or Professionals. In media, practitioners of the var-
fortnightly basis. Citizen complaints are exam- ious branches of the broadcasting and the com-
ined and solutions are carefully considered. puting industries, such as the journalists, the
These solutions are sometimes printed in the technicians, the advertisers, the producers, the
columns of the newspaper to which the press programmers, the software developers, etc.
council is attached. See MAS.
Programming. In media, the organization of the
Privacy. A right which implies the respect for the schedule of media products on the channels in
intimate life of the person, when news and jour- cinema, on radio and on television. Programming
nalism are concerned. See regulation. is fixed according to time slots and to the sup-
posed presence of a target audience. In data
Prize (award). Reward given to mark the recog- processing and computing, programming is also
nition of the profession for the quality of a media the codification of a series of operations forming
production. Prizes motivate and encourage cre- a program. See production.
ativity while garnering publicity for the recipient
and the awarding organization. See MAS. Promotion. Techniques for marketing and dis-
tributing a media text to the public. They use
Producer. The initial and final authority in the such vehicles as TV guides, video catalogues,
elaboration of a media text. Depending on the shop windows, advertising spots, film posters,
country, the producer can be just a person or a Web sites, trailers and press releases. These
company that provides the financial support for a commercial techniques use several media and a
production or the person who conceives a show variety of specialized companies are involved in
and manages to make it with the available finan- the process. See marketing; commodification.
cial and technical means. See production.
Propaganda. The broadcasting of political mes-
Production Values. The elements of a media text sages by means of the mass media to build pub- 171
which can attract and comfort the consuming lic opinion in support of a government, a party or
media education
a person. It gathers support by using methods oppositional, militant, participative, for example.
from journalism (quoting official sources, con- Studying the public requires to take into account
trasting points of view) but also subvert these how people are being targeted and measured,
methods with disinformation and brainwashing. and how they respond to the messages aimed at
them. In media education, it is necessary to
Protection of minors. Laws and rules that aim debate on these various conceptions of the pub-
at protecting the physical and moral integrity of lic and to think through the implications of the dif-
young under age people. They imply the attempt ferent postures available. See key-concept;
to create an appropriate context and to favour a reception; audience.
specific environment for the young, including the
right to ones own image or the right to privacy. Publishing. Production or reproduction of a writ-
Applications can range from encrypting images ten or audiovisual piece of work by a publisher or
for the protection of anonymity to requiring per- a media company. Computers increasingly facili-
mission before broadcasting news or fictions tate the processing of materials for publication
where children are portrayed. See regulation. and reproduction. See market.
Protection. A method in media education that Pyramidal structure. The typical structure of
unmasks the misleading messages and the false the narrative of news, presents the facts by
values sometimes conveyed by the media, and going from the least important points to the
encourages the learners to recognize, criticize most important ones. In the case of the invert-
and sometimes reject them. See media educa- ed pyramid, the least important facts come last,
tion; preparation. so that the editors can easily cut them if con-
straints of space occur. See news.
Psychoanalysis. A critical position that considers
systems of representation in the light of the role Quality. A value judgment, that estimates the
of the individuals unconscious and of repressed efficiency of a text as it convinces an audience of
processes which shape the actions, the feelings its statements or communicates its meaning.
and the motivations of a person. It relies heavily Can refer to a form of aesthetic pleasure as it
on language and on the various stages of the allows for several degrees of meaning and pro-
childs development, such as fetishism, the mir- duces emotional and cognitive enrichment. The
ror phase, voyeurism, pleasure, etc. See mirror references to high brow culture continue to influ-
phase; voyeurism. ence such judgments, as against attachment to
low brow culture, which is interpreted as a bid
Public Service Announcements. Media spots for popularity. See mass culture; pleasure;
that inform the public about questions of securi- reception; textual analysis.
ty, health, community services or the public
affairs. They are produced and scheduled as Reading. Exercise which implies the analysis and
commercials, but for non-commercial purposes. the evaluation of codes and production con-
straints of media texts. According to reception
Public service obligations. Duties imposed by studies, reading can be dominant-hegemonic
law for the right to broadcast. Applied in news (the public receives the message as planned by
through measures like the candidate access the producer), oppositional (the public does not
rule, the personal attack rule, the political edito- accept the initial message), or negotiated (the
rializing rule. In fiction, notably in advertisement, public modifies and adapts the message). See
and in youth programming, they are fulfilled with writing; production.
educational and documentary products. They
tend to be part of a channels licensing require- Readings in reception. Three stances, at least,
ments. They reflect the various rights and duties on the part of the public: the dominant-hegemon-
of the media before their publics. See regulation. ic reading, the oppositional reading, or the nego-
tiated reading. See reading; reception.
Public service. Refers to both a collective and
social utility, and to the entity that regulates it. In Realism. A critical position which refers to the
some countries, media were historically consid- place of representation between truth and
ered as public utilities. Public service obligations authenticity. Various degrees of realism are pres-
exist in the commercial media, like the obligation ent in media texts, from mimesis (which can be
to carry news. See regulation. enhanced by an analogical process) to natural-
ism and formalism. Poiesis, on the contrary,
Public sphere. A variety of spaces, real and refers to fantasy texts. In all cases, realism
imaginary, where the citizens can meet to dis- implies the presence of a system of codes and
cuss and form their opinion. It implies diversified conventions. In media education, a discussion of
means of distributing information and media con- realism stimulates thinking about the various cri-
cerned about the public interest, in a non-com- teria used to pass judgments on authenticity,
mercial perspective. See public service. truth, even objectivity. It allows learners to exam-
ine texts that clearly claim their imaginary dimen-
Public. Refers to all persons who can receive a sion, and texts that play with the distinction
media text. At different times and according to between fantasy and reality, or else texts that
different critical positions, various conceptions of assume a documentary style. See representa-
the public have been put forward: audience, citi- tions; ideology.
zen, consumer, player. The postures of the pub-
172
lic are also multiple: active, passive, critical,
Glossary of selected terms
for media education
Reception (studies). An analysis focused on the learners remember that the media offer a con-
public of a text rather than on its structure or in structed version of the world, by selecting and
its semiology. According to researchers, recep- combining events and characters. See key-con-
tion can be passive or active. The upholders of cepts; realism; mimesis.
media effects insist on the weight of representa-
tions and their cultivation in relation to the con- Reproduction. The act of providing a faithful
sumer habits of the public. The upholders of equivalent to an original work and of multiplying
uses and gratifications consider that there are copies of it by a technical process. This possibil-
several publics, and several reading postures ity is present in the analogical and digital media
and strategies, with differentiated uses accord- and can lend itself to merchandising as well. The
ing to the individuals. See incubation; reading; impact of mechanical reproduction is seen as
effects; uses. having the capacity of modifying the meaning of
the original, as in the case of Mona Lisa, as
Reflexivity. A practice which consists in making famous for its copies as for its place in the
the public aware of the means of production Louvre and the formal quality of its painted sur-
used to make a media text, by including them in face. See representation.
the narrative process itself. This can be achieved
by intertextuality, parody, humour, irony, etc. Resistance. Action of counteracting pressure or
Viewers learn to maintain some distance from fighting intimidation or violence. In the context of
the illusion of a media text, by recalling that they media reception, reading strategies of the pub-
are watching a construct that manipulates the lic, who can decide to avoid or to oppose domi-
conventions of realism in its representation. In nant or hegemonic messages. Parody or brico-
media education, reflexivity is a strategy that lage count among the most visible strategies of
allows learners to work on production issues. resistance, to subvert the commodification of
See postmodernism; realism; production. values and persons by the media. See bricolage;
parody; reading.
Regulation. Establishes a buffer of intermediary
agencies, with members coming from the state, Scenario. A working draft of the action-line, nar-
the industrial sector and, sometimes, grass- rative and dialogue planned for the production of
roots associations. Their mission is to keep a media text. In pedagogy, refers to a strategy
watch over broadcast standards, to discuss the that gives learners a series of still or moving
licensing of public airwaves and to make sure images which they have to select and organize in
that ethical codes and public service obligations order to reconstruct the editing of a cinematic or
of the channels are being respected, under con- photographic sequence. This activity allows them
ditions of transparency. See MAS. to explore ways in which montage can be used to
create an emotion or an atmosphere, and to
Regulatory authority. An administrative entity, study how several types of narratives can be built
whose mandate is to solve conflicts before or from the same material. See repertoire of
after legal decisions, using the authority of the strategies; narrative.
State. In the media, such authority supports the
principles of pluralism and cultural diversity and Scopophilia. The pleasure of the gaze and of the
maintains the balance between diverse opinions, act of looking, particularly when watching erotic
different rights and the expectations of different or sexual forms of entertainment. Its general
sectors, private or public. See regulation; MAS. character, devoid of perversion, keeps it distinct
from voyeurism. It is one of the main motivations
Religious organizations. They have played a cen- to watch a media text. See voyeurism; pleasure.
tral role in the promotion of media education
aside from the formal educational system. Their Scrambling. A technical system for coding pro-
motives are diverse. The theology of liberation grams. The media industry uses it to manage
has considered media as a means of providing viewer access to subscription or pay-per-view
popular education. At the other end of the spec- shows. Parents can use it to filter the programs
trum, the moral majority has fretted about the which they do not wish their children to see, on
spectacle of immorality offered by the media. the basis of a pre-established classification. See
See co-regulation. MAS.
Repertoire of teaching techniques. In media Script. The scenario of a media text, that
education, there are six techniques mostly, includes directions for technical editing as well as
though they are not exclusive of others: textual dialogues and interactions. It provides the
analysis, contextual analysis, case studies, trans- sequence for each stage of the plot. A script is
lations, simulations, and production. See media also a cognitive means of representing knowl-
education. edge based on narrative routines, that the spec-
tator or reader recognizes. See narration.
Representation. The portrayal of an absent or
abstract object, by means of semiotic resources Search engine. A tool for navigating the Internet,
(images, sounds, words). The media are a vehi- that allows users to find websites via keywords
cle for representation, as they relate to reality. and referencing systems. See filter.
Mimesis as distinct from simulation or from
poiesis giver representation its claims to reality, Segmentation. The production of a text meant
using signs (icons, indexes, symbols). In media for a limited audience and tailored to their specific 173
education, discussing representation makes the needs. See narrowcasting.
media education
Self-evaluation. An intellectual attitude encour- Sign. In linguistics, a unit of meaning made of the
aging students to think about their practice with relationship between a concrete part, the signifi-
media and the relationship between intent and er (word, image, object), and an abstract part,
result. They can thus realize fully the complexity the signified. In a given society, by convention most-
of the process for creating meaning with media. ly, signs represent a complex reality. The media
Instead of reducing production to a simple illus- participate in the production and in the distribu-
tration of a notion or a principle, this attitude can tion of signs, whose significance varies according
allow them to reach new levels of theoretical to the context. See semiotics; semiology.
understanding. It requires writing reports during
and at the end of the production process. See Signified. The abstract part of a unit of meaning,
pedagogy; repertoire of strategies. its conceptual dimension and its contents, which
can be denotative or connotative. For instance, an
Self-regulated monitoring entities. Voluntary ad for a video game can signify, according to the
associations of members of a media industry, context, either freedom or speed. See semiology.
such as the software producers or the advertis-
ers. They aim at producing recommendations Signifier. The concrete part of a unit of meaning,
valid across a variety of vehicles in their line of as materialized by such vehicles as words or
business. See MAS; self-regulation. images. For instance, an ad for a video game
can locate the game in an arcade or a theme
Self-regulation. Solutions to problems and rules park, to be a signifier for authenticity or gregari-
adopted by the media professionals themselves, ousness. See semiology.
often referred to as Media Accountability
Systems or MAS (such as ethical charters, Simulation. Action or process which makes what
standards codes, etc.). This process fosters is not real appear as reality. Within the media
trust with the public providing for transparency, framework, simulation allows the creation of
inside as well as outside the profession. It estab- total and complete universes, notably in the video
lishes the standards and the rules which commu- games. Simulation multiplies the difficulties in
nicators must respect in their work while assert- keeping clear borders between the original and
ing the importance of freedom of expression. its copy in the era of analogical and digital repro-
See MAS; regulation; co-regulation. duction. In the context of the classroom, simula-
tion takes place as role playing, a creative activi-
Semiology. The study of the signs and the rules ty where groups of learners imagine a situation
that combine them to produce meaning. Related to and define its main directions, which can go as
structuralism, with the idea that media texts func- far as to produce a media text. This activity trains
tion as a language, with writing and reading them to think about the way various publics are tar-
processes involved. Meaning emerges from the geted through various texts. It presents the addi-
interaction of the syntagmatic and paradigmatic tional advantage of providing them with hands-on
combinations, as well as the relationship between experience of some dimensions of media that are
signifier and signified. It is useful in media education otherwise difficult to tackle in class. See course
to introduce learners to textual analysis. See struc- sequence; repertoire of strategies.
turalism; interpretation; textual analysis; signs.
Socialization. The processes which surround the
Semiotic resources. All the forms of language: child and introduce him or her to acceptable
sound, image, text, music, body movements, rules and behaviours in a given society. Media
etc. They contribute to the creation of meaning intervene in this process as they propose selec-
and produce knowledge and representation. tive versions of the world, and not a direct
They activate cognitive structures in three dimen- access to it. They present ideas, images and rep-
sionsrational, emotional and spiritual. They resentations, fact-based or fictional, that inevitably
match signs with knowledge to show social phe- mould any vision of reality. See effects; uses.
nomena not in isolation but in a network of rela-
tions. See language; representation; semiotics. Software. All the procedures and the digital pro-
grams necessary to run a computer or a data
Semiotics. The study of the signs and their mean- processing system. It can be used for the sys-
ing, based on the idea that signs are more or less tems operation, for problem resolution (spread-
connected to reality. From icon to index to symbol, sheet, word processor) or for basic tasks (com-
the relation becomes more distant. Meaning piler, interpreter). The software developed for
emerges from the interaction of the various semi- schools is either plainly didactic or with its learn-
otic resources creating knowledge and representa- ing purpose embedded in play. See hardware;
tion (language, sound, image, text, music) with computer processing.
societys codes, values and representations. See
semiology; interpretations; semiotic resources; signs. Special effects. Film or digital processes that
simulate visual or sound elements to intensify the
Shot. Arrangement and composition of the mov- drama or suggest a realistic insertion of diverse
ing or still image, recorded continuously. The fanciful or even supernatural objects or persons.
great number of shots creates a visual gram- They are numerous in blockbuster movies and
mar: close-up, medium shot, semi-close-up, wide video games. Digitalization has made it possible
angle shot, panning shot, for example. They allow to blend them seamlessly with the other ele-
visual transitions. This grammar is made into ments of the background. See realism.
visual sequences in the mise-en-scne and the
174
editing process. See grammar; visual literacy.
Glossary of selected terms
for media education
Spectacle. A representation or a mise-en-scne Subjectivity. The mental state which gives prima-
which offers itself to the gaze. To call ours a cy to an individuals states of consciousness in
society of the spectacle refers to the notion the interpretation of a text. It implies that any
that representations dominate mass culture, be media text is analyzed through the individuals fil-
it high brow or low brow. All the social relations ter of values and specific beliefs. See objectivity.
seem to be mediated by images and sounds with-
out or within the entertainment industry or show Surveillance. The careful monitoring of a certain
business. See gaze; representation. person or of a certain space. The technologies of
the screen are used for purposes of distant and
Stereotypes. Social mechanism providing short- unobtrusive surveillance. It is one of the means
cuts for identifying other people, either negative- through which a community exerts social control
ly or positively, by the association of stable ele- over its members. See gaze.
ments about a nation, a social category, etc. In
media education, it is important to examine the Symbol. In semiotics, the most arbitrary sign, on
various functions of stereotypes, as they are the path between reality and representation. The
used by producers and members of the public, relation between the two is the result of cultural
and to be aware of the argument according to conventions, like the word channel to represent
which media either tend to ignore minorities or a media company, which bears no resemblance
cast them in a bad light. See ideology; represen- to any existing channel and is therefore not icon-
tation. ic nor does it have a real physical presence, an
essential quality of an index. See icon; index;
Stock. In broadcasting but also on Internet, it semiotics.
refers to long-lasting programs, with federative
contents that are not likely to become dated with Synergy. The dynamic and coordinated action of
the passing of time. Series and films last over various sectors of media and telecommunica-
time, whereas flow programmes do not. See tions industries. Allows media corporations to
production; scheduling; flow. use both strategies of vertical integration
between production, distribution, services, on
Story. The combination of plot and mise-en-scne, television, cable and other vehicles, and strate-
as events are arranged in sequence in the time gies of horizontal expansion, over all kinds of
and space of the media text. See narrative; plot. local and international territories. See market;
vertical integration.
Story-board. The editing plan, in the form of
drawings, visualizing the various shots in a film or Target. The clients aimed at by agencies special-
an audiovisual production. Organized in ized in marketing, which try to reach the specta-
sequences, it produces a first impression of the tors which correspond best to a certain media
final product. See scenario. message or product. Consumers are mostly tar-
geted on the basis of their demographic data,
Strategy. In the media, the operations chosen to their patterns of media use, zip codes and
implement the companys predefined policies. income levels. Client details are packaged and
The scheduling grid, for example, shows the way sold to sponsors who wish to place ads on the
a media institution tries to structure the time media that have been identified as the best vehi-
and the behaviour of the public. Other strategies cle for them. See market; advertisement;
for sales and communication are also used in publics.
merchandizing and marketing.
Targeting. Process that prepares the parame-
Structuralism. A critical position that applies the ters that determine the public for which a mes-
principles of linguistics to the analysis of texts. It sage or a text is addressed. In media education,
holds that discrete units function in relation the it consists in analyzing how the media aim at cer-
each other, to produce meaning. Meaning is tain publics and in decoding the parameters used
seen as constructed on binary oppositions, like to seduce them. See target; public.
presence/absence or good/evil, and also on
paradigmatic and syntagmatic combinations. In Technological determinism. The belief that
media analysis, it has been used to identify recur- machines are unavoidable and that technological
rent patterns and formulas in genres. See for- codes are all powerful, and do not depend on
malism; grammar. their social construction and their use. The
opposing view, technological relativism, holds
Style sheets. In journalism, standards, guide- that the human factor comes first and that the
lines and recommendations for representing role of machines must be set in the context of
information. See MAS. their social uses. In media education, this deter-
minism leads to a tendency to believe that the
Subculture. That culture fostered by different inductive methods promoted by new technologies
subsets of the public, that define themselves in are solely embedded in them whereas, in fact,
opposition or in resistance to both the dominant the stress laid on the personal research, the
elite culture and mass culture. The members of learners autonomy and the trial and error
these subcultures recognize each other by their process comes from a pedagogical strategy that
practices, their lifestyles, their bricolage of has evolved outside the technological realm.
media texts and fashion, as well as their subver-
sion of daily consumer objects. See fan; resist- Technology. The tools, machines and processes 175
ance; reading. necessary to produce a media text. The new
media education
communication technologies are machines which which refers to its price in a market constrained
can produce discourse (blogs for instance) while by supply and demand, and to labour value, eval-
being machines facilitating discourse (computers uated on the work necessary for its elaboration
as hardware, for example). In media education, and production. These notions often appear in
technology plays a large role in the construction advertising, where, for instance, an object like a
and the connotation of a text. See production; key- car can have a use value as a means of trans-
concepts; technological determinism; discourse. portation but also an exchange value as a luxury
item, as in the case of a red sports car, and
Tele-centres. A space where computers are labour value because of the hand-crafted leather
made accessible to communities, thus triggering seats for instance.
a process of education and training of children
and adults alike. See access; co-regulation. Uses. The various ways in which the public
appropriate the media in their daily life, with spe-
Television. An audiovisual device which uses the cific habits and practices. It implies an active atti-
spoken and written language, as well as the lan- tude toward reception, which can reach forms of
guage of still and moving images and broad- oppositional or negotiated reading. See public;
casts them widely. By extension, all the process- effects.
es, activities and services that transmit news
and entertainment to a large number of viewers. Value. Understood either in the moral or social
See media; vehicle. sense, as the template for making judgments or
adopting behaviour, or in the general anthropo-
Text. The programs, films, images, Web sites, logical sense of what constitutes the rules of life
etc., carried by the various means of communi- in a given society at a given time. In media edu-
cation. In their use of codes, they function in the cation, it is also the quality of a text that has
same way as language. They are constructs and effectively produced the desired effect.
their different parts can be broken down and
analyzed. See writing; reading. Vehicle (or medium). Refers to the medium
rather than the media, that is to say the materi-
Textual analysis. Differs from content analysis in al process used to record words, images and
that it produces in-depth scrutiny: it tends to sounds. Can be paper, analogical or digital. It does
focus on specific texts and examine them in not have the same properties as the aesthetic
detail. The chosen texts are often very short or forms to which it lends materiality. See media.
have limited reach. Such analysis generally
begins with a description, identifying elements Verisimilitude. The means of getting closer to
like the shots and the rhythm of editing. Then it truth and authenticity. It uses codes that are
reaches the stage of defining the meaning of the close to realism and adds to those codes a value
text, including connotations, associations and which the public can find in a message. This value
mood, as conveyed by the various associations leans more towards a sense of what feels accept-
between its elements. Finally learners move on able than towards what is real. See realism.
to a third stage, and they are encouraged to make
judgments on the text as a whole. These judg- Vertical integration. An industry practice. A
ments may relate to the values or ideologies they company buys up related companies and
have identified in the text. See media education. resources to control all the steps of production.
In the media, the tendency is to concentrate
Translation. An educational strategy essentially three functions within one corporation: produc-
interested in the differences which appear when tion studios, distribution networks and on-line
a given source text is transferred on a different services. This can increase market shares and
media or a different genre. This approach can be reduce competition. Recently, vertical integration
analytical as well as practical. Learners are has led to a wave of mega-mergers and the
asked to examine the treatment of a given issue reduction of the number of competitors. This has
in two different media, or for two different audi- affected the supply of programs and its diversity.
ences, such as the film adaptation of a novel or See production ; globalisation.
the transformation of a news item into a docud-
rama. This kind of activity shows how the intend- Video game. A recording of images and sounds
ed audience of a text can affect the ideological or that creates a virtual time and space, in which
moral message it carries. See repertoire of the movements and the choices of the players
strategies. are controlled electronically (mouse, joystick,
etc.), via a display screen. By extension, it refers
Transparency. An aesthetic quality characteris- to the contents itself, that allows the player to
tic of some media texts which aim at making immerse himself or herself into simulated uni-
invisible or natural the codes and the conven- verses with very precise rules. Video games can
tions of their production to achieve a strong be self-contained (DVDs) or evolving on-line.
degree of realism. It is often applied to Hollywood
productions, such as films or television series. Video-tape. A form of analogical recording that
See editing; realism; shots. makes it possible to duplicate audiovisual pro-
grams rapidly and cheaply. See reproduction;
Unit of work. See course sequence. vehicle.
Use value. The function originally attributed to an Viewing Committees. The deciding voice in
176
object. It is often contrasted to exchange value, terms of purchasing shows and in programming
Glossary of selected terms
for media education
them. Decision-makers responsible for the chan- interpret it so that the visual elements contribute
nels objectives or in charge of specific units of to the meaning of the whole. Included in media
programs are assisted by members coming from education, as either integrated in the whole exer-
the public (parents, psychologists, therapists). cise, or taken as a discrete aspect of it. See
See regulation. media education.
Violence. Power struggle or intimidation forcing Voyeurism. A form of perversion of the pleasure
somebody to act against his or her will, and in the act of looking. The spectator can some-
sometimes resulting in death. The media tend to times have the feeling of being forced into such
represent violence in various ways : physical or a position. See exhibitionism; scopophilia;
armed aggression, psychological or moral pres- pornography.
sure. Violent scenes are often present in action
movies and are the object of spectacular special Writing. An exercise which implies the appropri-
effects. The impact of represented violence on ation of the codes and the constraints of the pro-
children is subject to controversy: effects duction of media texts to generate personal,
research considers it as traumatic, uses and original texts. See production; code; reading.
gratifications considers it as harmless. See
effects; uses. Youth. A vague age group that varies according
to context, and tends to include several sub-
Virtual reality. An interactive system of simula- groups : toddlers (until 4), children (until 7), pre-
tion, by means of computer generated images. It teenagers (from 8 to 12) and teenagers (from
creates a time and space universe which is nei- 13 to 18 +). These groups tend to be presented
ther tangible nor physical and yet in which either as innocent victims of the media, or as
objects and persons can move as in the physical autonomous and critical members of the public.
and material time and space. It is often used in See publics.
video games to offer universes of coherent signs
on which players can act. See cyberspace; digi- Zoom shot. A camera movement and change of
tal technology; simulation. focal length that suggests a sense of rapid clos-
ing up or backing off that takes the audience by
Visual literacy. The methodical development of surprise.
the capacity to look at visual information and to
177
References, Resources
and Good Practices
References,
Resources
and Good Practices
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References, Resources
and Good Practices
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curricula in media
education Europe
Newsletters
Contributors
Modular curriculum.
The curriculum was elaborated by all the members of MENTOR, a Euro-Mediterranean project
financed initially by the European Union and by UNESCO. Its success was such that it lead to
the creation of an NGO, MENTOR (the international association for Media Education). Besides
many other contributors, major participants are: Evelyne Bvort (France), David Buckingham
(Great-Britain), Divina Frau-Meigs (France), Manuel Pinto (Portugal), Hara Prasad Padhy
(UNESCO), Samy Tayie (Egypt), Jos Manuel Tornero (Spain), Matteo Zacchetti (European
Union).
The section on the strategies of integration is from David Buckingham. An invitation to media
education. Institute of Education, London university.
188
UNESCO
Communication and Information Sector
1, rue Miollis
75352 Paris Cedex 15
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
European Commission
Mizar Multimedia