Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Example: If a = (2, 3), 6a = (12, 18). If a = (1, -1), then -4a = (-4, 4).
Graphical Illustration:
Consider the mechanics for our intuitive foundations. It is well known that if two
forces act on a particle (a proton, for example) to produce some resultant motion,
the same motion can be produced by applying a single force. This single force can,
in a real sense, be considered to be the stun of the original two forces. The rule
which we use in obtaining magnitude and direction of a single force which replaces
the original two forces is rather interesting:
Examples: (i) Set of real numbers with usual addition and multiplication is a field.
(ii) The set of all complex numbers is also a field with respect to the addition and
multiplication of complex numbers.
Vector Spaces
A set is usually specified either by listing all of its elements inside a pair of braces
or by stating the property that determines whether or not an object x belongs to the
set. We might write S = {x1, x2, , xn}.
Notations: Some of the more important set notations are given below:
: The set of all natural numbers = {n n is a natural number} = {1, 2, 3, };
: The set of all integers = {x x is an integer} = {, -1, 0, 1, 2, };
: The set of all rational numbers = {p/q p, q where q 0};
: The set of all real numbers = {x x is a real number};
: The set of all complex numbers = {z z is a complex number}.
For example, .
Operations on Sets:
(iv) The set that contains no members is called the empty set and it is denoted by
. Empty set is a subset of every set.
Example: Let be the universal set and suppose that A = {x 0 < x 3} and
B = {x 2 x < 4}. Then
A B = {x 2 x 3};
A B = {x 0 < x < 4};
A \ B = {x 0 < x < 2};
A1 = {x x 0 or x > 3}.
Note: The operations of union and intersection can be defined for three or more
sets in the similar way.
A B C = {x / x A or x B or x C} and
A B C = {x / x A, x B, x C }
A
iI
i = {a / a Ai for some i I}.
A collection {Ai}i I of sets is said to be mutually disjoint if Ai Aj = for all
i I, j I such that i j.
Example:
(i) Write Ai = {i, i+1, i+2, } for each i N, the set of natural numbers. Then
it is easy to observe that Ai = N and Ai = .
iN iI
Definition: Let A and B are two sets. We define their symmetric difference as the
set A B = (A-B) (B-A). Sometimes it is denoted by A B.
Definition: (i) If S and T are two sets, then the set {(s, t) / s S and t
T} is called the Cartesian product of S and T
(here (a, b) = (s, t) a = s and b = t). The Cartesian product of S and T
is denoted by S T.
Thus S T = {(s, t) / s S and t T}.
Note that if S and T are two sets, then S T and T S may not be equal.
(ii) If S1, S2, .., Sn are n sets, then the Cartesian product is defined as
S1 S2 Sn = {(s1, s2, , sn) / si Si for 1 i n}.
Here the elements of S1 S2 Sn are called ordered n-tuples. For any two
n-tuples, we have (s1, s2, , sn) = (t1, t2, , tn) si = ti, 1 i n.
The set {f(s) / s S} is a subset of T and it is called the image of S under f (or
image of f). We denote the fact: f is a function from S to T by f : S T.
Example: Let R be the set of real numbers. Define f(x) = x2 for every x R.
This represents a function f = {(x, x2) x R}.
Example: Let f: N N be a function such that f(x) = x (mod 3). That is f(x) is
the remainder obtained when x is divided by 3. Then the domain of f is N and the
range of f is {0, 1, 2}.
Definition: f: S T is said to be
(i) one-one function (or injective function) if it satisfies the following condition:
f(s1) = f(s2) s1 = s2.
(ii) onto function (or surjective function) if it satisfies the following condition: t
T there corresponds an element s in S such that f(s) = t.
Here + is addition either in the field or in the vector space, as appropriate; and 0 is
the additive identity in either. Juxtaposition indicates either scalar multiplication or
the multiplication operation in the field.
Note: We use F for field, also the elements of F are called scalars and the elements
of V are called vectors.
(iii) A sum vector is a vector having unity as a value for each component; it will
be written as 1.
(iv) Let a and b be two n-component vectors. Then a and b are equal if and only
if ai = bi for each i.
(v) The scalar product of two n-component vectors a, b is defined to be the scalar
n
a1b1 + a2b2 + + anbn = a b
i 1
i i
Definition: The norm (or Euclidean norm) of an n-component vector a = (a1, a2,
, an) is denoted and defined by a = <a, a> = a12 a22 ... an2 .
Define addition and multiplication by scalar in En as, for any (a1, a2, , an), (b1, b2,
, bn) En,
(a1, a2, , an) + (b1, b2, , bn) = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2, , an + bn) En, and
for any scalar , (a1, a2, , an) = (a1, a2, , an) En.
Therefore En is a vector space (over R).
a1 a2
Example: Let M2 2 = / ai is a real number . Then M22 is a vector space over
3 4
a a
the set of real numbers, with respect to the addition of matrices and the multiplications
of a matrix by a scalar.
Example: Let the field K be the set R of real numbers, and let the vector space V
be the Euclidean space R3. Consider the three unit vectors e1 := (1,0,0), e2 :=
(0,1,0) and e3 = (0,0,1). Then any vector in R3 is a linear combination of e1, e2
and e3.
Example: Let a = (2, 3, 4, 7), b = (0, 0, 0, 1), c = (1, 0, 1, 0). Then the vector d =
(5, 3, 7, 9) is a linear combination of the vectors a, b, c as follows.
a a
Example: The set S22= / a is a real number is a subspace of M22.
a a
x + y = (1, 1, 0) + (1, 1, 0)
Problem: If S is any subset of a vector space V, then show that L(S) is a subspace
of V.
Solution: Let v, w L(S) and , F.
Since v, w L(S), we have that
v = 1v1 + ... + nvn and w = 1w1 +...+mwm
for some vi S, i F for 1 i n and wj S, j F for 1 j m.
Now
v + w = (1v1 + ... + nvn) + (1w1 + ... + mwm)
= 1v1 + 2v2 + ... + nvn + 1w1 + 2w2 + ... + mwm, which
is a linear combination of elements from S.
Hence v + w L(S). This shows that L(S) is a subspace of V.
Properties of linear span: If S and T are subsets of a vector space V then
(i) S T L(S) L(T),
(ii) L(S T) = L(S) + L(T),
(iii) L(L(S)) = L(S).
Definitions: (i) The vector space V is said to be finite-dimensional (over F) if
there is a finite subset S in V such that L(S) = V.
(ii) The vectors vi V for 1 i n, are linearly dependent over F if there exists
elements ai F, 1 i n, not all of them equal to zero, such that a1v1 + a2v2 + ...
+ anvn = 0. If the vectors vi, 1 i n are not linearly dependent over F then they
are said to be linearly independent over F.
Example: Consider R, the set of real numbers and take V = R. Then R is a vector
space over R.
Examples: Consider R, the set of real numbers and take V = R2, then
(i) V is vector space over the field R.
(ii) Consider S = {(1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1)} R2. Then the linear span of S is
L(S) = {1(1, 0) + 2(1, 1) + 3(0, 1) / i R, 1 i 3}
= {(1 + 2, 2 + 3) / i R, 1 i 3} R2.
If (x, y) R2 then write 1 = x, 2 = 0, 3 = y then
(x, y) = (1 + 2, 2 + 3) L(S). Hence L(S) = R2 = V.
This shows that R2 is finite dimensional.
(iii) Write v1 = (1, 0), v2 = (2, 2), v3 = (0, 1), v4 = (3, 3). Then
1v1 + 2 v2 + 3v3 + 4v4 = 0 where 1 = 2, 2 = -1, 3 = 2, 4 = 0.
Thus there exists scalars 1, 2, 3, 4 not all of them equal to zero such that
1v1 + 2 v2 + 3v3 + 4v4 = 0.
Hence {vi / 1 i 4} is a linearly dependent set.
(iv) Suppose v1 = (1, 0), v2 = (0, 1). Suppose 1v1 + 2v2 = 0 for some 1, 2 R.
Then
1(1, 0) + 2(0, 1) = 0 = (0, 0)
(1, 2) = (0, 0)
1 = 0 = 2.
Hence the vectors v1, v2 are linearly independent.
Lemma: Let V be a vector space over F. If v1, v2, ..., vn V are linearly
independent, then every element in their linear span has a unique representation in
the form 1v1 + 2v2 + ... + nvn with i F, 1 i n.
Proof: Let S = {vi / 1 i n}. Consider L(S). Let v L(S). Then
v = 1v1 + ... + nvn
for some i F, vi S, 1 i n (by the definition of L(S)).
Uniqueness: Suppose v = 1v1 + ... +nvn = 1v1 + ... + nvn for some i, i F,
1in
(1v1 + ... + nvn) (1v1 + ... + nvn) = 0
(1 - 1)v1 + ... + (n - n)vn = 0
1 - 1 = 0 2 - 2 = 0, ..., n - n = 0 (since vi, 1 i n are linearly
independent)
1 = 1, 2 = 2, ..., n = n.
Hence every element in the linear span can be expressed as in a unique way as a
linear combination of vi, 1 i n
Theorem: If vi V, 1 i n, then either they are linearly independent or some v k
is a linear combination of the preceding ones v1, v2, ..., vk-1.
Proof: If vi, 1 i n are linearly independent then there is nothing to prove.
Suppose that vi, 1 i n are not linearly independent (that is, linearly dependent).
Then there exist scalars i, 1 i n not all zero, such that
1v1 + 2v2 + ... + nvn = 0.
Since all the i are not zero, there exists largest k such that k 0. Then
k+1 = 0, ... , n = 0 and so 1v1 + 2v2 + ... + kvk = 0
kvk =-1v1 - 2v2 - ... - k-1vk-1
vk = k-1(-1v1 - 2v2 -...- k-1vk-1) = -k-11v1 - ... - k-1k-1vk-1 and
k-1i F for each 1 i k-1.
Hence vk is a linear combination of vi, 1 i k-1.
Definition: A subset S of a vector space V is called a basis of V if
(i) S consists of linearly independent elements (that is, any finite number of
elements in S is a linearly independent), and
(ii) S spans V (that is, V = L(S)).
Note: A subset B of a vector space is a basis if and only if any of the following
equivalent conditions are met:
Examples:
(i) Consider R2, the vector space of all coordinates (a, b) where both a and b are
real
numbers. Then a very natural and simple basis is simply the vectors e1 = (1,0) and
e2 = (0,1): suppose that v = (a, b) is a vector in R2, then v = a (1,0) + b (0,1).
(ii) The set of vectors {(1, 1), (1, 2)} form a basis of R2.
Verification: Part (i): First we prove that {(1, 1), (1, 2)} is a linearly independent
set.
Suppose that there are numbers a, b such that: a(1, 1) + b(-1, 2) = (0, 0).
Part (ii): In this part we show that {(1, 1), (1, 2)} generates R2. Let (a, b) R2.
Now we show that there exists two numbers x and y such that
x y = a and x + 2y = b
Observation:
(i) Since (-1, 2) is clearly not a multiple of (1, 1) and since (1, 1) is not the zero
vector, these two vectors are linearly independent. Since the dimension of R2 is 2,
the two vectors already form a basis of R2 without needing any extension.
(ii) The standard basis (also called natural basis or canonical basis) of the n-
dimensional Euclidean space Rn is the basis obtained by taking the n basis vectors,
(e1, e2, , en) where ei is the vector with a 1 in the ith coordinate and 0 elsewhere.
In many ways, it is the "obvious" basis.
Example: The set of all n unit vectors e1, e2, , en form a basis for Rn.
Next to show that {e1, e2, , en} spans Rn. Let x = (x1, x2, ..., xn) Rn. Then x
can be represented as a linear combination of {e1, e2, , en} in the following way.
Therefore the set {e1, e2, , en} spans Rn and hence a basis.
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Example: Prove that the set B = , , , is a basis for M22.
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
a b
Let M22. Then
c d
a b 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
=a + b + c + d .
c d 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Example: Test whether the set of vectors {(1,1,0), (1,0,-2), (1,1,1)} form basis for
R3. If so express (1, 2, 3) in terms of basis vectors.
Therefore the given set of vectors is a maximal linearly independent set in R3 (as
these are three linearly independent vectors in R3). Hence they form a basis for R3.
Now (1, 2, 3) = 1 (1, 1, 0) + 1 (1, 1, 1) + (-1) (1, 0, -2).
Example: Test whether the set B = {(2, 1, 0), (3, 0, 1), (5, 2, 2)} forms a basis for
R3.
b = 1a1 + 2a2 + + nar and b = 1a1 + 2a2 + +nar where s and s are
scalars.
1 - 1 = 2 -2 = r - r = 0.
This means 1 = 1, 2 = 2, , r = r = 0.
Remark: If V is a finite dimensional vector space over F, then any two bases of V
have that same number of elements.
Problem: Define minimal spanning set of vectors. Prove that a minimal spanning
set of vectors forms a basis.
Solution:
Let S = {v1, v2, ..., vn} be a minimal spanning set. This means L(S) = V.
In order to prove S is a basis, it suffices to prove S is linearly independent.
In a contrary way, suppose that S is not linearly independent.
Then there exists vj (for some j, 1 j n) is a linear combination of its preceding
ones. That is.,
vj = 1v1 + 2v2 +...+ j-1 vj-1 for some i F, 1 i (j 1).
Clearly L({v1, v2, ..., vj-1, vj+1, ..., vn}) L({vi / 1 i n}) = L(S).
On the other hand, take x L(S).
Then x = 1v1 + 2v2 + ... + nvn for some i F, 1 i n
x = 1v1 + ... + j 1vj-1 + j(1v1 + 2v2 +...+ j-1vj-1) + j+1vj+1 + ... + nvn
x = (1 + j1)v1 + ... + (j-1 + jj-1)vj-1 + j+1vj+1 + ... + nvn
L({v1, v2, ..., vj-1, vj+1, ..., vn}).
Therefore, L({v1, v2, ..., vj-1, vj+1, ..., vn}) = L(S) = V, which is a contradiction to the
fact that n is minimum with S spans V. Therefore S is linearly independent.
Problem: Define a maximal linearly independent set. Prove that a maximal
linearly independent set is a basis.
Solution:
Maximal linearly independent set : A subset S of a vector space V is said to be a
maximal linearly independent set if (i) S is a linearly independent set, and (ii) S
{v} is linearly dependent for any v V \ S.
Let S = {v1, v2, ..., vn} be a maximal linearly independent set. In order to prove S is
a basis, it suffices to prove S spans V.
Take v V. Suppose 1v1 + 2v2 +...+ nvn + v = 0.
If = 0, then since v1, v2, ..., vn are linearly independent, we get i = 0 for all 1 i
n.
This means v, v1, v2, ..., vn are (which are n + 1, in number) linearly independent, a
contradiction to the maximality of n.
Therefore, 0. Now v = (-1v1) + (-2v2) +...+ (-nvn).
This implies v = (-1-1)v1 + (-2-1)v2 +...+ (n-1)vn.
Therefore S spans V. Hence S is a basis.
Problem 2: Whether the vectors {a1= (4, 2, 1), a2 = (2, -6, -5), a 3 = (1, -2, 3)}
are linearly independent?
41 + 22 + 3 = 0
21 62 23 = 0
1 52 + 33 = 0
The above system will have trivial solution 1 = 2 = 3 = 0 if and only if |A|
4 2 1
0, where A is the coefficient matrix [2 6 2]
1 5 3
4 2 1
We observe that || = |2 6 2| = 132 0. Hence 1 = 2 = 3 = 0.
1 5 3
Thus the given vectors are linearly independent.
Note:
Problem 5 Verify whether or not, the set of vectors {(1, 2, 3), (1, 1, 1) , (1, 0, 1)}
is linearly independent?
Ans: The set of vectors {(1, 2, 3), (1, 1, 1) , (1, 0, 1)} is linearly independent.
Problem: Show that if a set of vectors are linearly independent then every subset
is also linearly independent.
3. Which of the following set of vectors forms a basis for E3 ? Express (3,1,2) as
linear combination of basis vectors.
Exercises
1. Prove that the set A 2, 1,0 , 3,5,1 , 1,1, 2 forms a basis for 3
and
Exercises
1. Prove that the set of vectors
B 3 5 ,0, 4 5 , 4 5 ,0, 3 5 ,(0,1,0) is an orthonormal set in 3
.
ILLUSTRATION:
2 2 1
1. Let = {1 , 2 , 3 }be an orthonormal basis for R3 where 1 = ( , , ) ,
3 3 3
2 1 1 1 2 2
2 = ( , , ) , 3 = ( , , ). Write vector = (3,4,5) as a linear
3 3 3 3 3 3
combination of vectors in S.
Sol. = 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3
1 = 1 , 2 = 2 , & 3 = 3 lead to 1 = 1 , 2 = 0 , 3 = 7
= 1 + 73
GRAM-SCHMIDT PROCESS:
a
Let u 1
1 a
1
Let v a a . u u
2 2 2 1 1
r 1
In general, vr ar ar . ui ui
v vr
u 2 and ur
2 v i 1 vr
2
ui .u j 0, i j; i, j 1,..., n
Therefore u ,..., u
1 n
forms an orthonormal basis.
(1,1,1)
Sol. Let
1 = (1,1,1),
1 =
3
2 1 2 1
2 2 2 1 1
v a a . u u = (1, 0, 1) ( ) (1,1,1) = ( , , )
3 3 3 3
2
= (1,2,1)
6
4 2
3 3
3 1 1
3 2 2 3
v a a . u u a . u u = (1,2,3) (1,1,1) (1,2, 1)
6
= (2,0,2)
(1,0,1)
3 =
2
Therefore, {1 , 2 , 3 } is an orthonormal basis for R3.
(1,1,1)
Solution: Let
1 = (1,1,1), 1 =
3
v a a . u u = (2, 1,2) (1,1,1) = (1, 2, 1)
2 2 2 1 1
(1, 2, 1)
2 =
6
v a a . u u a . u u = (1,0,1)
3 3 3 1 1 3 2 2
(1,0, 1)
3 =
2
(3,0,4)
Solution: Let
1 = (3, 0 ,4), 1 =
5
v a a . u u (-4, 0, 3).
2 2 2 1 1
(4,0,3)
2 =
5
v a a . u u a . u u 0,9,0
3 3 3 1 1 3 2 2
u 0,1, 0
3
Problems
i. If the components of the vector v are not integers then the length of v is not an
integer.
1 1 1
4. Let = ( , 0, ) , = (, , ). For what values of a, b is {, } an
2 2 2
orthonormal set?
5. Which of the following are orthonormal sets?
1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1
a) ( , , ) , ( , , ) , ( , , ) b) (0,2,2,1), (1,1, 2,2), (0, 2,1,2)
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3