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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
Volumes
Volume 1 Introduction and Overview
Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment
Volume 2B Engineering Surveys
Volume 2C Geological and Geotechnical Investigations
Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
Volume 4 Highway Design
Volume 5 Bridge Design
Volume 6 Public Buildings and Other Related Structures
Annex
A Estimating Scour
B Sediment Transport Concepts
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
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Figure 6-17 Example of Above Ground Detention System after Heavy Rain ........................................................ 6-28
Figure 6-18 Example Underground Storage System ....................................................................................................... 6-29
Figure 6-19 Example Underground Detention System using Permeable Pipes .................................................. 6-29
Figure 6-20 Example Underground Detention System ................................................................................................. 6-30
Figure 6-21 Basin Volume Estimation .................................................................................................................................. 6-33
Figure 6-22 Typical Spillway Design ...................................................................................................................................... 6-35
Figure 6-23 Centrifugal Pump ................................................................................................................................................... 6-38
Figure 6-24 Positive Displacement Pump ............................................................................................................................ 6-39
Figure 6-25 Estimated Required Pump Storage from Inflow Hydrograph ............................................................ 6-40
Figure 6-26 Typical Wet-Pit Pumping Station .................................................................................................................... 6-41
Figure 6-27 Typical Dry-Pit Configuration .......................................................................................................................... 6-42
Figure 7-1 Example of Sea Wall .................................................................................................................................................7-4
Figure 7-2 Example of Rock Sea Wall/ Revetment ...........................................................................................................7-4
Figure 7-3 Typical Revetment Section ...................................................................................................................................7-5
Figure 7-4 Overview of Parameters for Wave Runup .....................................................................................................7-8
Figure 7-5 Types of Waves ..........................................................................................................................................................7-8
Figure 7-6 Example of Toe Protection Options ............................................................................................................... 7-11
Figure 7-7 Example Scour Protection using Toe extending to Depth of Anticipated Scour in Moderate
Scour Environments ............................................................................................................................................. 7-12
Figure 7-8 Example Scour Protection using Toe extending to Depth of Anticipated Scour in Severe Scour
Environments .......................................................................................................................................................... 7-12
Figure 7-9 Example Sea Wall - Constructed to appear like a natural bluff ......................................................... 7-13
Figure 7-10 Example Detached Breakwaters .................................................................................................................... 7-13
Figure 7-11 Example of Groynes as Shoreline Protection ............................................................................................. 7-14
Figure 8-1 Rainfall Distribution in the Philippines ...........................................................................................................8-2
Figure 8-2 Distribution System Classification ....................................................................................................................8-8
Figure 4-13 Definition Sketch - Triangular Section.......................................................................................................... 4-24
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Abbreviations
Abbreviation Definition
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Abbreviation Definition
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Glossary
Acronym Definition
Abutment Structure at the two ends of a bridge used for transferring the loads from the bridge superstructure to
the foundation bed and giving lateral support to the embankment.
Afflux The upstream rise of water level above the normal surface of water in a channel caused by an
obstruction in the waterway, such as a bridge or weir or by regulation. The increased amount of water
which occurs upstream from a structure (dam) or obstruction in a stream channel, due to the existence
of such obstruction and the raising of the water level to considerable distance upstream.
Alluvial Soil or earth material which has been deposited by running water.
Alluvial Fan (alias Gravel A fan shaped deposit formed where a stream emerges from an entrenched valley into a plain or flat.
Wash)
Alluvial Stream Stream flowing mainly in self-transported alluvial deposits.
Annual Risk of The chance or probability of a natural hazard event (usually a rainfall or flooding event) occurring
Exceedance annually and is usually expressed as a percentage.
Apron A floor or lining of concrete, timber, or other resistant material at the toe of a dam, bottom of a spillway,
chute, etc. to protect the foundation from erosion and falling water or turbulent flow.
As-Built Plan A scaled drawing that shows a project and infrastructure components after completion of construction
Avulsion A sudden cutting off of land by floods, currents, or change in course of a body of water.
Backwater The rise of water level that occurs immediately upstream from a structure (eg.dam) or obstructions in a
river to a considerable distance brought about by the presence of structure.
Bed Load Material moving on or near the stream bed by rolling, sliding, and sometimes making brief excursions
into the flow of new diameters above the bed.
Berm A horizontal strip or shelf built into an embankment or cut, to break the continuity of an otherwise long
slope.
Bioengineering The use of mechanical elements in combination with biological elements (e.g.plants) particularly for
control of erosion and prevention of slope failures.
Borrow Site An excavation source ouside the project area that is used to supply soils for earthwork construction (i.e.
gravel pit).
Borrow Materials Filling materials acquired from a Borrow Site.
Bridge A structure carrying a road over a road, waterway or other feature, with a clear span over 3.0 meters
along the centreline between the inside faces of supports. A bridge may have an independent deck
supported on separate piers and abutments, or may have a deck constructed integral with supports.
Catchment Area
(alias Catchment Basin,
Watershed, Drainage The area from which a lake, stream or waterway receives surface water which originates as
Area, Drainage Basin, precipitation.
River Basin)
Climate Change A long-term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods of time that range from
decades to millions of years.
Coarse-grained Soils Soils with more than 50% by weight of grains retained on the number 200 sieve (0.075 mm).
Cohesionless Soils Granular soils (sand and gravel type) with values of cohesion close to zero.
Cohesive Soils Clay type soils with angles of internal friction close to zero.
Cross Section View generated by slicing an object at an angle perpendicular to its longer axis.
(alias Cross Section Plan)
Culvert A structure in the form of a pipe or box, below road level, for conveying storm water runoff .
Cutoff A wall or diaphragm of concrete or steel, or a trench filled with puddled clay or impervious earth.
Debris Any uprooted trees and other materials carried by the water in the creek or river.
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Density The ratio of the total mass to the total volume of material.
Design Life Period assumed in the design for which the infrastructure is required to perform its function without
replacement or major structural repair.
Detached Breakwaters A structure parallel, or close to parallel, to the coast, build inside or outside the surf zone.
Digital Photogrammetry The art of using computers to obtain the measurements of objects in a photograph. It typically involves
(alias Photogrammetry) analyzing one or more existing photographs or videos with photogrammetric software to determine spatial
relationships.
Ditch An artificial open channel or waterway constructed through earth or rock, for the purpose of carrying
water.
Drawdown The magnitude of the lowering of a water table, usually near a well being pumped.
Dredging Removal from beneath water and raising through water of soil rock and debris.
Energy Grade Line A line joining the elevation of energy heads of a stream; a line drawn above the hydraulic grade line a
distance equivalent to the velocity head of the flowing water at each cross section along a stream or
channel reach or through a conduit.
Factor of Safety The ratio of a limiting value of a quantity or quality to the design value of that quantity or quality.
Flood Control Detention or diversion of water for the purpose of reducing discharge for downstream inundation.
Force A push or a pull in a given direction on a body that changes or tends to change its state or rest. (or its
state of motion).
Free Water Water that is free to move underground through a soil mass under the influence of gravity.
(alias Phreatic Water,
Gravitational Water)
Gabion A basket or cage filled with earth or rocks and used especially in building a support or abutment.
Grain Size Distribution A curve drawn on a log scale to represent the distribution of particle sizes in a soil.
Curve
Gravity Walls Retaining walls which depend upon their selfweight to provide stability against overturning and sliding;
usually made of a high bulk structure
Grouted Riprap When the stones in the rip-rap are fastened together by grout of mortar.
Groin A wall, crib, row of piles, stone, jetty or other barrier projecting outward from the shore or bank into a
(alias Groyne) stream or other body of water, for the purpose of protecting the shores or bank from erosion, arresting
sand movement along the shore, concentrating the low flow of a stream into a smaller channel, etc.
Hydraulic Grade Line Line connecting the points to which the liquid would rise in piezometer tubes if inserted at various
places along any pipe. It is the measure of the pressure head plus the elevation of the pipe at these
various points.
Hydrofracturing A well stimulation process used to maximize the extraction of underground resources.
Land-use Map Maps that reflect the land resources and types of land use in the national economy.
Levee An embankment, generally constructed on or parallel to the banks of a stream, lake or other body of
(alias Dike) water for the purpose of protecting the land side from inundation by flood water, or to confine the
stream flow to its regular channel.
Light Detection and A remote sensing technology that measures distance by illuminating a target with a laser and analyzing
Ranging (LiDAR) the reflected light. Although thought by some to be an acronym of Light Detection And Ranging, the term
lidar was actually created as a portmanteau of "light" and "radar".
Lining A protective covering over all, or over a portion of the perimeter of a conduit, canal, or reservoir, to
prevent seepage losses, to withstand pressure, or to resist erosion.
Longitudinal Section View generated by slicing an object at an angle parallel to its longer axis
Manhole An opening through which a person may enter or leave a sewer, conduit, or other closed structure for
inspection cleaning, and other maintenance operations, closed by a removable cover.
Matchline A line on a design drawing that projects a location or distance from one portion of the drawing to another
portion of the drawing.
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Mean Sea Level The average height of the sea for all stages of the tide. Mean sea level is obtained by averaging
observed hourly heights of the sea on the open coast or in adjacent waters having free access to the
sea, the average being taken over a considerable period of time.
Navigational Pertaining to, or used in, conducting ships or other vessels on the water from one place to another.
Open Channel Any conduit in which water flows with a free surface. Channel in which the stream is not completely
enclosed by solid boundaries and therefore has a free surface subjected only to atmospheric pressure.
Ordinary Water Level The height of water in the river under normal condition.
Parcellary Survey A survey to determine and establish the legal boundary of real properties.
Pier A structure usually of concrete or stone masonry, which is used to transmit loads from the bridge
superstructure to the foundation soil and provide intermediate supports between the abutments.
Pile A slender member that is driven (hammered), drilled or jetted into the ground. Piles are usually
constructed of timber, steel or pre-stressed reinforced concrete.
Piping The movement of soil particles as a result of unbalanced seepage forces produced by percolating
water.
Profile Series of elevation along a line.
Reinforced Concrete A composite material which utilizes the concrete in resisting compression forces and some other
materials, usually steel bars or wires, to resist the tension forces.
Retaining Wall A structure usually made of stone masonry, concrete or reinforced concrete that provides lateral
support for a mass of soil.
Riprap Rock or other material used to armor shorelines, streambeds, bridge abutments, piling and other
shoreline structures against scour and water erosion.
River Training A group of engineering works built along a river or a section thereof in order to direct or lead the flow to
a prescribed channel, with or without the construction of embankments.
Rubble Concrete Concrete in which large stones are added to the freshly placed concrete while it is still soft and plastic.
Sand Particles that pass through a number 4 sieve (4.75 mm), and retained on a number 200 sieve (0.075
mm).
Scour Lowering of stream-bed or undermining of foundations by erosive action of flowing water.
Scoured Depth Total depth of water from surface to a scoured bed level.
Depth of Scour The depth of materials removed below the set datum.
Sheet Piles A long vertical earth retention and excavation support, steel, vinyl or reinforced concrete, driven into the
ground with interlocking edges to form a continuous wall to resist water or earth pressure.
Stilling Basin A depression in a channel or reservoir deep enough to reduce the velocity or turbulence of the flow.
Artificial Submerged An alternative method of shoreline stabilization and beach erosion control, using a man-made
Reefs underwater structure to mitigate the wave induced erosion.
Time of Concentration The period of time for the stormwater or rainwater to flow from the most distant point to the point under
consideration.
Topographic Plan A graphic representation of horizontal and vertical positions of an area which uses contour lines to
show mountains, valleys, and plains.
Topographic Survey Collection of data to represent horizontal and vertical positions of an area, including features such as
(alias Ground Survey) roads, bridges and bodies of water with contours, elevations and coordinates.
Tributary A stream or other body of water, surface or underground, which contributes its water, either
continuously or intermittently, to another and larger stream or body of water.
Vertical Alignment The position or the layout of the highway on the ground which includes level and gradients.
Wave Height The height of the wave from the wave top, called the wave crest to the bottom of the wave,
called the wave trough.
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Wave Runup The maximum vertical extent of wave uprush on a beach or structure above the still water level (SWL).
Weep Hole An opening provided during construction in retaining walls, aprons, canal linings, foundation, etc., to
permit drainage of water collecting behind and beneath such structures to reduce hydrostatic head.
Weir A low dam built across a river to raise the level of water upstream or regulate its flow.
Wetlands Those areas that are inundated and saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration
(alias Swamp, Marshes, sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation
Bogs) typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions.
Wingwall A vertical wall located at both ends of the coping of the abutment or at both extreme wall of a reinforced
concrete box culvert.
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1 General Provisions
1.1 Scope and Application
This guideline aims to provide the Department of Public Works and Highways
(DPWH) Engineers (including concerned Local Government Units and Government
Consultants) with the basic knowledge and essential tools in undertaking design of
water engineering projects specifically for flood control, water supply, coastal
facilities and drainage infrastructures.
This guideline provides an overview of some of the key issues, considerations and
items to be incorporated into design. As with the Guide, this is not meant to be an
exclusive list of design criteria or a manual for the design of these infrastructures.
Therefore, it is important that the designs of these infrastructures are undertaken
by suitably qualified engineers with experience in undertaking this work.
The design of Sabo Engineering structures is not covered by this Guide. For the
design of Sabo Engineering structures, reference should be made to the Flood
Control and Sabo Engineering Center (FCSEC) Guideline.
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of these methods. This chapter is intended on being a key reference chapter for
flood control, drainage, highway drainage and bridge design.
Section 4 Hydraulic Analysis. This section provides an overview of basic
hydraulic principles, as well as background on different river processes. As
with the hydrological chapter, this chapter is intended on being a key reference
chapter for flood control, drainage, highway drainage and bridge design. This
section also provides general guidance on likely impacts of various geohazards
on hydraulics.
Section 5 Flood Control & Regulating Structures. This section provides
guidance on flood control and regulating structures, including:
- Dikes/ Levees
- Spur Dikes
- Revetments
- Small Dams
- Groundsills
- Culverts
- Detention Basins
- Overland Flowpaths
- Pumping Stations
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1.5 References
Flood Control & Sabo Engineering Center, June 2010, Technical Standards and
Guidelines for Planning of Flood Control Structures, Japan International Cooperation
Agency, Philippines.
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2 Data Requirements
2.1 Survey
All survey should be collected based on the methods and requirements identified
in Volume 2.
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It is important to understand the date that the aerial photography was taken, as
changes may have occurred in the catchment since that time.
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Pick the stones beneath the sampling interval point and arrange it in a straight
line (Figure 2-2), from smallest to biggest. Select the stone size from the 12th
smallest interval from the arrangement. This is the equivalent 60% of the
riverbed material samples and the corresponding representative riverbed
diameter (dr).
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This sample can be measured using a ruler, and dr can be computed using the
formula:
Equation 2-1
1
= (1 1 1 ) 3
Equation 2-2
13 + 23 + + 3
( ) = 3 . 100
13 + 23 + + 20
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where:
d1, d2, di ... = stone diameter
Lay the improvised screen on the exposed ground making sure that representative
riverbed materials are contained within the 1 m2 area (Figure 2-5).
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Pick gravels just beneath of each intersection of strings of the improvised screen
and arrange it in a straight line (Figure 2-6), from smallest to biggest. Select the
60% smallest sample from the arrangement. Say, the 15th sample in the 20 cm
spacing strings (within 5 x 5 = 25 samples) or the 60th sample in 10 cm spacing
strings (within 10 x 10 = 100 samples).
Measure the dimensions of the selected grain and calculate the representative
grain diameter of the site. Calculation procedure is same as the One-Dimensional
Sampling Method.
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Equation 2-3
where:
P2007 = population in 2007
P2000 = population in 2000
GR = annual growth rate (multiply by 100 to get percent growth rate)
n = number of years between the two census, in this case n = 7
The projected population is then estimated with the same basic population
equation on a year to year projection starting from initial year population. After
determining the projected population, the next step is to determine the actual
population to be served. The primary factors in assessing the served population
are socio-economic conditions of potential service area, level of acceptance of
residents for proposed water system, availability of and abundance/scarcity of
alternative water sources and potential development program in the municipality.
Detailed discussion can be found in the Rural Water Supply Design Manual (WPP,
2012).
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2.4 References
Flood Control & Sabo Engineering Center, June 2010, Technical Standards and
Guidelines for Planning of Flood Control Structures, Japan International
Cooperation Agency, Philippines.
Republic of the Philippines Department of Health (2007) [PNSDW]. Philippines
National Standards for Drinking Water 2007, Administration Order 2007-0012.
WPP (Water Partnership Program), 2012, Rural Water Supply Volume 1, Design
Manual, The World Bank Office, Manila, Philippines.
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3 Hydrology
3.1 Introduction
This section of Volume 3 provides a broad outline of hydrological techniques. It
outlines the following steps in the hydrological analysis process:
Catchment delineation
Design rainfall analysis
Choice and use of hydrological analysis techniques
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Provide sufficient resolution for models other than the Rational Method
(Section 3.4.1).
The level of detail that the catchment is delineated into sub-catchments is highly
dependent on the particular project and study area. For large river basins, sub-
catchments may be in the order of 100 km2 to 200 km2, while for drainage studies
catchments could be less than 1ha.
More details on the procedure for delineation of catchment areas is provided in
FCSEC (2010).
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Equation 3-1
0.31 ]
= [0.1(0.386)
where:
I = basin mean rainfall (mm)
Io = point rainfall (mm)
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to the flow at the outlet point or point under consideration. The Rational Formula
is provided in Equation 3-2.
The Rational Formula is applicable to a rural or forested catchment area smaller
than 20 km2.
For urban catchments, caution should be applied in the application of the Rational
Formula for catchments greater than 5 km2. In urban catchments, the impacts of
local obstructions, hydraulic controls and localized storages can result in
significant impacts on the peak flow estimate.
Equation 3-2
=
3.6
where:
QP = maximum flood discharge (m3/s)
c = dimensionless runoff coefficient
I = rainfall intensity within the time of flood concentration (mm/hr)
A = catchment)area (km2)
The key assumptions associated with the Rational Formula Method are:
The computed peak rate of runoff at the outlet point is a function of the average
rainfall rate during the time of concentration, i.e., the peak discharge does not
result from a more intense storm of shorter duration, during which only a
portion of the watershed is contributing to the runoff at the outlet.
The time of concentration is the time for the runoff to become established and
flow from the most remote part of the drainage area to the outlet point.
Rainfall intensity is constant throughout the rainfall duration.
A general overview of the decision of what runoff analysis to adopt is outlined
Figure 3-2.
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Delineate
Catchment Area
Delineate Sub-
Catchments
urban Rural
Is the catchment
urban or rural
N N
Is Catchment Is Catchment
Area < 5km2? Area < 20km2?
Y Y
Y Are storage Y
issues
important?
*Other hydrological analysis method may include the Unit Hydrograph or other computer based methods
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Kirpich's Formula
Kirpichs formula is applicable for agricultural catchments. It is described below
in Equation 3-3. An alternative form is presented in Equation 3-4.
Equation 3-3
0.01950.77
=
0.385
Equation 3-4
1.15
=
51 0.385
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where:
tc = time of concentration (minutes)
L = length of watercourse (m)
S = average basin slope (S=H/L)
H = difference in elevation (m)
Kravens Formula
This methodology divides the time of concentration into an inlet time and a flow
time. It is applicable for rural catchments.
The time of concentration (tc) for the catchment area is obtained from Equation
3-5.
Equation 3-5
= +
where:
ti = inlet time = time it takes for flow from the remotest point to the
inlet point or farthest point of river channel
tf = flow time = time it takes from the inlet point or farthest point of
the river channel to the outlet point or point under consideration
= L/ V
L = length of river channel from its outlet point to its farthest point
(m)
V = flow velocity (m/s)
Inlet Time
Inlet time is computed as follows.
Find the inlet point. If the estimated inlet catchment area is over 2 km2, the inlet
time is t = 30 min
When the catchment area (A) of the farthest point of the channel is clearly
judged to be less than 2 km2, compute the inlet time (min.) from A (km2) in
Equation 3-6
Equation 3-6
30
=
2
Flow Time
Flow time is computed from Kraven's Formula (Table 3-2), which gives relations
between slope of water course and flow velocity as shown below. The gradient
represents the average gradient for the water channel.
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It is noted that the above procedure of computing the direct runoff hydrograph
from individual incremental hydrographs is time consuming. To facilitate the
computation, the matrix form is applied and is expressed as:
Q=RxU
where:
R1 0 0 0 U1 Q1
R2 R1 0 0 U2 Q2
R= R3 R2 0 0 U= U3 Q= Q3
.
Ri Ri-1 R1 Uj Qk
The direct hydrograph (Q) has k values, k = i + j 1
i = number of rainfall excess (R) values
j = number of unit hydrograph (U) values.
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larger than that of the bigger rivers. The specific discharge curve explains this
(refer to Figure 3.4 Specific Discharge Curve, where the specific discharge is the
ordinate and the size of the catchment area as the abscissa). From this curve,
design discharge is roughly calculated even without any runoff analysis. The
reliability of the design discharge estimated by runoff methods can be easily
assessed by comparing it with specific discharge method.
The method is best suited to rural catchments, or catchments with a lower
proportion of urbanization.
Equation 3-7
=
where:
q= specific discharge (m3/s/km2)
Q= design discharge (m3/s)
A= catchment area (km2)
Table 3-5 indicates constants of the Creager type specific curve for the following
equation.
Equation 3-8
0.048 1)
= (
where:
c= constant (Table 3-5)
A= catchment area (km2)
Return Period
Region
2-year 5-year 10-year 25-year 50-year 100-year
Luzon 15.66 17.48 18.91 21.51 23.83 25.37
Visayas 6.12 7.77 9.36 11.81 14.52 1747
Mindanao 8.02 9.15 1006 11.60 12.80 14.00
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3.4.6.2 Baseflow
Base flow is sustained runoff of prior rainfall that was stored temporarily in the
river basin. The base flow can be assumed to be constant during the flood. When a
stream flow gauging station is located in or near the target river basin, the mean
daily discharge of one day before the floods is used as the base flow. When there
are no data available, 0.05 m3/s/km2 can be used for the base flow (FCSEC, 2010).
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It is noted that many of the problems that occur with computer models are not in
the development of the program itself, but rather in the application of the software.
Typical issues include:
Incorrectly specified input data.
Errors in the input data.
Application of the model beyond the scope for which it was intended.
Incorrect schematization of the model or representation of the study area.
Incorrect interpretation of the model results.
Refer to Section 4.13 for more details.
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The HEC-HMS models that compute runoff volumes are listed in Table 3-6. These
models address questions about the volume of precipitation that falls on the
watershed: How much infiltrates on pervious surfaces? How much runs off
previous surfaces? How much runoff of the impervious surfaces? When does it
runoff?
Model Categorization
The HEC-HMS models of direct runoff are listed in Table 3-7. These models
describe what happens as water that has not infiltrated or been stored on the
watershed moves over or just beneath the watershed surface.
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Model Categorization
Table 3-8 lists the HEC-HMS models of baseflow. These simulate the slow
subsurface drainage of water from the system into the channels.
Model Categorization
For modelling channel flow with HEC-HMS are listed in Table 3-9. These are the
so called routing models, simulate one-dimensional open channel flow.
Model Categorization
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precipitation data are useful for calibration and verification of model parameters,
for real-time forecasting and for evaluating the performance of proposed designs
or regulations. Data from the second and third categories commonly referred to
as hypothetical or design storms are useful if performance must be tested with
events that are outside the range of observations or if the risk of flooding must be
described. Similarly, the evapotranspiration data used may be observed values
from a historical record or they may be hypothetical values.
Details of specifying and analyzing historical or hypotheticalstorm precipitation
and evapotranspiration with HEC-HMS are referred to HEC-HMS Technical
Reference Manual.
Rational Formula Rainfall intensities adopted for the assessment, including either the
background on the calculation or the information provided by PAGASA,
showing clearly the coordinates or location of the rain gauge
Details of the time of concentration calculation, including:
Why the method of calculating the time of concentration was adopted
Key parameters assumed for the calculation (such as flow length L) and
details of their calculation
Calculated time of concentration value
Unit Hydrograph Details on key transformation parameters
Details on any routing or lagging that is applied, and why this was adopted
SCS Unit As above
Hydrograph Curve Number (CN) and why this was adopted. Provide suitable references
and information on land-uses.
General For all computer based hydrological models:
Hydrological The software that was used and the version number of that software
Models Key runoff generating parameters. These may include:
Catchment slopes and areas;
Horton roughness parameters or similar
Rainfall loss models, such as curve numbers or initial/ continuing losses
The type of routing model (e.g. Muskingum-Cunge) that was adopted and
why
Details of any storages (such as dams) included in the model
Comparison of the rainfall volume (total rainfall that fell within the design
rainfall event) with the runoff volume generated in the model
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Component Description
3.7 References
DID (Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Malaysian Government), 2012. Urban
Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia, 2nd Edition, Government of
Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
Flood Control & Sabo Engineering Center, June 2010, Technical Standards and
Guidelines for Planning of Flood Control Structures, Japan International
Cooperation Agency, Philippines.
Ministry of Public Works and Highways, 1984, Design Guidelines Criteria and
Standards for Public Works and Highways, Philippine Government, Manila.
United States Department of Agriculture, 2012. National Engineering Handbook
Part 630 Hydrology Chapter 15, Natural Resource Conservation Service, May.
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4 Hydraulic Analysis
4.1 Introduction
The hydraulic analysis chapter provides an overview of the core hydraulic
principles that will underlie the subsequent chapters in this volume. It provides
background on some general hydraulic principles. It is recommended to refer to
appropriate hydraulic manuals and textbooks where appropriate. Some
references to these have been provided in this chapter.
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The longitudinal profile of the river system tends to flatten through time by
degradation in the upper reaches and aggradation in the lower reaches (Figure 4-
2). In most natural systems this process is slow enough to be of little engineering
concern. However, where the river system or catchment has been interfered with
historically, profile flattening may proceed at noticeable rates. In some
channelization projects, response of this type has been dramatic.
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Non-alluvial channels have highly developed meanders in solid rock valleys and
may have degrading beds. Many mountain rivers are classified as non-alluvial.
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Meandering >1.5
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side to the other. The current oscillation usually results in the formation of pools
on the outside of bends while alternate bars, resulting from deposition, form on
the inside of the bends.
In alluvial channels, straight stream may only be a temporary condition
particularly in sandy channel rivers that are prone to erosion/deposition of mobile
sediments. Aerial photography and topographic maps may reveal former locations
of the channel and potential directions of further movement.
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Meandering streams can experience processes such as avulsion and meander cut-
off where the stream experiences a wholesale shift in alignment. This commonly
occurs when the channel breaks its banks in alluvial rivers with expansive
floodplains. The out of bank flows rework the floodplain and short circuit
meanders, creating oxbow lakes, or occupy secondary flowpaths. After a cutoff is
formed, the stream gradient is steeper; the stream tends to adjust in response to
the increase in stream power.
Prediction of the rate and direction of the meander movement can be difficult. A
review and comparison of historical mapping and aerial photographs can assist,
together with local knowledge and observations. Complex morphological
modeling, requiring detailed physical and hydrological data, can also be
undertaken to predict the movement.
Meandering streams and rivers with bridge crossing present challenges as the
rivers are highly rich in mobile sediment and unpredictable channel planform.
Likewise, highway embankments which may form part of flood mitigation scheme
do present the same and similar challenges. Careful consideration is required
when works are proposed in the vicinity of type of rivers as they may be flood
prone.
4.5.1.1 Energy
As shown in Figure 4-5, the total energy at a given location in an open channel is
expressed as the sum of the potential energy head (elevation), pressure head, and
kinetic energy head (velocity head). The total energy at a given channel cross
section can be represented as:
Equation 4-1
2
= + +
2
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where:
Et = total energy, m
Z = elevation above a given datum, m
y = flow depth, m
V = mean velocity, m/s
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
Written between an upstream cross section designated 1 and a downstream cross
section designated 2, the energy equation becomes:
Equation 4-2
12 22
1 + 1 + = 2 + 2 + +
2 2
where:
hL = head or energy loss between section 1 and 2, m
The energy equation states that the total energy head at an upstream cross section
is equal to the total energy head at a downstream section plus the energy head loss
between the two sections.
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Equation 4-3
2
= + ( )
2
where:
y = depth, m
= velocity distribution coefficient
V = mean velocity, m/s
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
The velocity distribution coefficient is taken to have a value of one for turbulent
flow in prismatic channels but may be significantly different for natural channels.
Equation 4-4
2 3
=
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where:
= velocity distribution coefficient
3
Q = total discharge, m /s
2
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s
2
A = cross-sectional area of flow, m
T = channel top width at the water surface, m
Equation 4-5
=
( )
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where:
= velocity distribution coefficient
V = mean velocity = Q/A, m/s
2
g = acceleration of gravity, 9.81 m/s
d = hydraulic depth = A/T ,m
= channel slope angle, m/m
This expression for Froude number applies to any open channel or channel
subsection with uniform or gradually varied flow. For rectangular channels, the
hydraulic depth is equal to the flow depth.
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Unsteady Flow
Unsteady Uniform Flow (rare)
Unsteady Non-uniform Flow
- Gradually Varied Unsteady Flow
The steady, uniform flow case and the steady, non-uniform flow case are the most
fundamental types of flow treated in most hydraulic conditions.
Equation 4-6
1 23 1/2
=
where:
V = velocity, m/s
n = Mannings roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
S = slope of the energy grade line, m/m (For steady uniform flow, S
= channel slope, m/m)
The selection of Mannings n is generally based on observation; however,
considerable experience is essential in selecting appropriate n values. Typical
ranges of n values for various types of channels and floodplains is given in Table
4-2, Table 4-3, Table 4-4 and Table 4-5.
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Table 4-2 Values of Mannings Roughness Coefficient 'n' (Uniform Flow) - Natural Channels
Table 4-3 Values of Mannings Roughness Coefficient 'n' (Uniform Flow) - Floodplains
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Table 4-4 Values of Mannings Roughness Coefficient 'n' (Uniform Flow) Man-made
Channels & Ditches
Table 4-5 Values of Mannings Roughness Coefficient 'n' (Uniform Flow) - Pipes
If the normal depth computed from Mannings equation is greater than critical
depth, the slope is classified as a mild slope while a steep slope is classified as one
where the normal depth is less than critical depth. Thus, uniform flow is subcritical
on a mild slope and supercritical on a steep slope.
Strictly speaking, uniform flow conditions seldom, if ever, occur in nature because
channel sections change from point to point. For practical purposes in most
hydraulic engineering problems, however, the Manning equation can be applied to
most streamflow problems by making judicious assumptions. When the
requirements for uniform flow are met, the depth (yn) and the velocity (Vn) are said
to be normal and the slopes of the water surface and channel are parallel. For
practical purposes, in open channel design, minor undulations in streambed or
minor deviations from the mean (average) cross-section can be ignored as long as
the mean slope of the channel can be represented as a straight line.
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General
For the gradually varied flow condition, the depth of flow must be established
through a water surface profile analysis. The basic principles in water surface
profile analysis are where:
Water surface approaches the uniform depth line asymptotically
Water surface approaches the critical depth line at a finite angle
Subcritical flow is controlled from a downstream location
Supercritical flow is controlled from an upstream location
There are twelve (12) possible water surface profiles (see Figure 4-9) depending
on the particular flow conditions. A complete discussion of water surface profile
analysis is contained in most open channel hydraulics textbooks, such as Chow
(1959) and Henderson (1966).
Methods of Analysis
Two methods of performing a water surface profile analysis are:
The Direct Step method
The Standard Step method
Both methods make use of the energy equation to compute the water surface
profile. The direct step method can be used to analyse straight prismatic channel
sections only. The standard step method is applicable to non-prismatic and non-
straight channel alignments.
For a complete discussion of both refer to Open-Channel Hydraulics (Chow, 1959)
or numerous other textbooks on open channel hydraulics.
The analysis of water surface profile problems is best performed by computer.
Available computer models are discussed in Section 4.10.
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Due to the additional wetted perimeter and increased friction that occurs in a
gravity full pipe, a partially full pipe will actually carry greater flow. For a circular
conduit the peak flow occurs at 93% of the height of the pipe, and the average
velocity flowing one-half full is the same as gravity full flow.
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Gravity full flow condition is usually assumed for purposes of storm drain design,
as it provides a margin of safety over designing for pressure flow. However, it may
not always be possible or suitable to avoid pressure flow.
The Manning's equation combined with the continuity equation for circular
section flowing full can be rewritten as:
Equation 4-7
53 12
=
where:
Q = discharge, m3/s
n = Manning's coefficient
D = pipe diameter, m
S = slope, m/m
Ku = 0.312
This equation allows for a direct computation of the required pipe diameter. Note
that the computed diameter must be increased in size to a larger nominal
dimension in order to carry the design discharge without creating pressure flow.
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Figure 4-10 Hydraulic Gradeline and Energy Grade Line for Piped Drainage Systems
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Uniform flow conditions are typically assumed so that the friction slope can be
calculated from either Manning's equation, or the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
Rewriting Manning's equation for Sf:
Equation 4-8
2
= ( 23 )
The Darcy-Weisbach equation for open-channel flow:
Equation 4-9
2
=
4 2
and for pressure flow in circular conduit:
Equation 4-10
2
=
2
where:
Q = flow
n = Mannings roughness coefficient
A = area
R = hydraulic radius = Area/Perimeter
V = velocity (m/s)
D = diameter (m)
L = length (m)
f = pipe friction factor
hf = head loss due to friction
Manning's equation is more commonly used by practicing engineers, even though
the Darcy-Weisbach equation is a theoretically better equation since it is
dimensionally correct and applicable for any fluid over a wide range of conditions.
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However, the possibilities for greater accuracy with the Darcy-Weisbach equation
are limited by determination of the Darcy f and a generally more complicated
application than the Manning's equation. Typical Manning's n values for closed-
conduit flow are given in Table 4-5.
No matter which formula is used, judgment is required in selecting roughness
coefficients. Roughness coefficients are primarily defined by the type of pipe
material. However, many other factors can modify the value based on pipe
material. Other important factors include the type of joint used, poor alignment
and grade due to settlement or lateral soil movement, sediment deposits and flow
from laterals disturbing flow in the mainline.
Equation 4-11
2
=
2
Some representative values of K are provided in Table 4-6.
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Pipe network analysis involves the detailed and careful scrutiny of the fluid flow
through a hydraulic network containing several interconnected branches and
loops. In the design of a distribution system, a pipe network analysis must be done
to determine the flow rates and pressure drops in the individual sections of the
network, giving the basis for selecting pipe diameters.
The basic principles governing network hydraulics are:
Conservation of mass the fluid mass entering any pipe system will be equal
to the mass leaving the system. In network analysis, outflows are lumped in
nodes. A related principle is that at each junction (node), the algebraic sum of
the quantities of water entering and leaving the node is zero.
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Flow conditions in a culvert may occur as open-channel flow, gravity full flow or
pressure flow, or in some cases a combination of these conditions. A complete
theoretical analysis of the hydraulics of culvert flow is time-consuming and
difficult. Flow conditions depend on a complex interaction of a variety of factors
created by upstream and downstream conditions, barrel characteristics and inlet
geometry.
For purposes of design, standard procedures and nomographs have been
developed to simplify the analysis of culvert flow. These procedures are detailed
in the Hydraulic Design Series Number 5 Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts
(FHWA, 2005).
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The resulting equation in terms of cross slope and spread on the pavement is:
Equation 4-12
53 12 83
=
where:
K = 0.016
Q = flow rate (m3/s)
T = width of flow (spread), (m)
Sx = cross slope, (m/m)
S = longitudinal slope, (m/m)
Table 4-2 shows typical values of the Mannings roughness for various gutter or
pavement materials.
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existing or proposed local drainage plan and should be compatible with the local
storm drain system.
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4.9.1 Weirs
Weirs may be classified as broad, roof shaped, round or sharp crested. The
discharge is estimated using weir formula of Poleny as expressed as:
Equation 4-13
= 0.66(2)0.5 0.66
where:
Q = discharge (m3/s)
c = correction factor for submerged overfall
= weir coefficient
B = weir crest width, m
g = acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m/s2
hu = weir head, m.
Weir coefficient depends upon the crest form of the weir. Table 4-7 exhibits the
correction factor.
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Crest Form
Rounded 0.75
Figure 4-14 shows the weir coefficient c for submerged overfall. Whether an
overfall is free or submerged depends upon the height of the tail water level in
relation to the position of the weir crest as shown in Figure 4-15.
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4.9.2 Sluiceways
In case a barrier is placed in a stream in which the flow takes place through a
geometrically fixed opening located under the upstream water level the flow is
analyzed by orifice formula. Once the orifice is considered as square or rectangular
section then it is known as sluiceway. The sluiceway as shown in Figure 4-16
serves to regulate the outflow from the upstream section.
Equation 4-14
= (2)0.5
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where:
K = correction factor for submerged discharge; for free discharge k =
1 (See Figure 4-17)
= discharge coefficient. The coefficient takes the jet contraction
into account. For vertical sluiceways, = 0.55 to 0.60.
a = height of outflow opening, m
B = width of outflow opening, m
h = impounding height in front of the sluice or dam
g = acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m/s2
The correction for the degree of submergence is presented in Figure 4-18 and
Figure 4-19.
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GeoHazard Description
Subsidence Regional subsidence tends to be more of an issue in coastal areas, where the global landform elevations
changes relative to ocean levels. Where subsidence occurs in a coastal area, it may be necessary to
account for this in the design. This is because the landform may settle over time relative to ocean levels,
and reduce the flood immunity or coastal protection offered by a structure.
A flood control or coastal protection measure should incorporate the expected subsidence or settlement
over the design life.
This identification of the potential for subsidence will be identified with the best available information at
the time under Volume 2A: GeoHazard Assessment. The designer will need to undertake further
investigations and assessments to identify the scale of the subsidence and mitigating actions to
overcome this.
Seismic Similar issues may result from changes in landform from seismic activity. However, the key difference is
that seismic may result in less uniform changes in landform, and therefore can have an impact on flood
levels and flood behavior.
The PGA (Volume 2A: GeoHazard Assessment) will identify the potential level of risk. The designer will
then need to incorporate this within the design. This should also be included in hydraulic analysis and
subsequent design of infrastructure.
Storm Surge Particularly for rivers and drainage structures close to the ocean, storm surge has the potential to
influence the capacity and flood levels in these systems. The likely occurrence of storm surge with a
catchment flood can be difficult to estimate. A suggested approach is provided in Section 4.11.1.
Storm surge will also influence the design of coastal structures. This is further discussed in Section 7.
Sediment and Factors such as landslides and volcanic lahar, which result in increased sediment runoff and movement
Debris Flow of debris, should also be considered. These have the potential to reduce the capacity of dams, block
hydraulic structures such as bridges and change the path of rivers.
For mitigation measures, reference should be made to guidance of FCSEC for Sabo Engineering.
Floating Debris Floating debris includes both anthropogenic (e.g. rubbish) and natural sources (e.g. trees). These have
the potential to obstruct culverts, bridges and other hydraulic structures.
In catchments where a significant level of debris is likely, then additional blockage factors should be
applied in the design of structures, or suitable debris control structures should be planned upstream.
Some general guidance on blockage of culverts is provided in Section 6.5.6, while for the design of
Bridges reference should be made to Volume 5 ; Bridge Design.
Increased Increase development in a catchment can impact on the runoff, by increasing the impervious area. Both
Development and the existing and likely future catchment conditions should be considered when undertaking hydrological
Settlements analysis. Similarly, the level of demand for water supply systems should consider the changes in
development.
Development may also impact on the capacity of floodplains and drainage channels, where development
impinges upon the flow area. This may happen through both formal and informal settlement. The impact
that this has on the capacity of the floodplain or drainage area should be considered.
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1D Models
Series of linked channels with Relatively fast to run (run time Requires cross-sections to be
discrete cross-sections at typically < 1 hour) input to model, extracted either
regular intervals from field survey or DEM
Can be time consuming to
Output at each cross-section build, but relatively quick to Can be time consuming to build,
can include water level, depth modify but relatively quick to modify
and velocity (averages) Result files are relatively small Requires more interpolation and
interpretation of results
2D models
Detailed grid or mesh-based Less interpolation of results Requires detailed grid/mesh to be
topography with element required and more readily interpolated from aerial and/or
resolutions for an urban linked to GIS field survey based DEM (plus
environment typically ranging roughness mapping over study
from 1m to 10m. For more Modeller is not required to area)
extensive floodplain identify flowpaths in advance
environments, element Can be time consuming to build
resolution can typically range Can model complex flowpaths modifications often not as easy
from 10m to 100m. Floodplain storage is implicitly as for 1D
defined
Output at each grid/mesh Relatively slow to run (run times
element can include water level, Inputs and outputs defined typically range from hours to
depth and velocity. spatially in GIS type days)
environments, results in better Result files are relatively large
data continuity and more (up to GB per simulation)
readily
accessible/understandable Can in some cases instil
results for community/ overconfidence in the result that
stakeholders may not be justified if the
underlying data are inadequate
4.13.4 Utilities
In addition to the above, model types, there are also numerous utilities that are
available. These types of utilities include:
Culvert calculation utilities.
Bridge calculation utilities.
Simple pipe capacity analysis.
Rip rap, scour and other related utilities.
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Table 4-11 Overview of Different Software for Flood and Drainage Analysis
Hydraulics
Software Hydrology Applicability
Drainage Flood 1D or
Estimation 1D/2D
XP-RAFTS Y N N N/A Primarily a hydrological model. Modelling of
reservoirs possible and simple hydraulic structures
possible.
XP-SWMM Y Y (some Y 1D/2D This model actually has a similar hydrological
pipe and modelling engine as XP-RAFTS, and also includes
drainage hydraulics. It has integrated hydrology and
design) hydraulics.
Note that there are also design alternatives that are
available for this software (available from xp
solutions)
XPDRAINAGE Y Y N 1D Sustainable Drainage Design
DHI (MIKE) Y Y (more Y 1D/2D DHI produces a number of components under the
analysis MIKE banner, which include drainage (pit and pipe)
than design) modelling software, channel and 2D modelling
software.
HEC-RAS N N Y 1D only HEC-RAS (and associated software) is freely
available, so it tends to get used extensively. Very
good for bridge and culvert assessments, but it is
not as good at defining complex floodplains
HEC-HMS Y N N N Hydrological analysis only.
SOBEK Y Y (more Y 1D/2D Deltares (formerly WL|Delft Hydraulics) distributes
analysis this software. Similar in complexity to DHI.
than design)
Tuflow N Y (more Y 1D/2D Distributed by BMT WBM. Similar to MIKE and
analysis) SOBEK in complexity.
DRAINS Y Y (more N 1D This is primarily a drainage design software for
design analysis of HGL etc. Relatively simple, but good
oriented) for modelling of pit and pipe infrastructure. Very
good functionality in terms of optimizing designs
etc.
Primarily setup for Australian applications however.
WinDES Y Y N 1D Similar to DRAINS.
RORB Y N N N/A Hydrological analysis only.
WBNM Y N N N/A Hydrological analysis only.
12D and other Y Y (design N 1D Many of the CAD packages, 12d etc. have
CAD based (although orientated) drainage design incorporated into them. Good for
design simple) simple, straight forward design of drainage
software systems.
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Component Description
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
4.17 References
Arizona Master Watershed Steward (AMWS), 2007. Accessed 16 September 2013,
http://ag.arizona.edu/watershedsteward/resources/module/Stream/stream_pr
oc_page5.htm
Chow, V.T., 1959, Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York.
Engineers Australia, 2012. Project 15 Two Dimensional Modelling in Urban and
Rural Floodplains, Australian Rainfall and Runoff Revision Projects, Draft,
November, Australia.
Federal Highway Administration, 2008, Introduction to Highway Hydraulics,
Hydraulic Design Series No. 4, U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Washington.
Federal Highway Administration [FHWA], 2005. Hydraulic Design of Highway
Culverts, Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, Revised Version (May, 2005), U.S.
Department of Transportation, Washington.
Federal Highway Administration, 2001, River Engineering for Highway
Encroachment, Hydraulic Design Series No. 6, U.S. Dept. of Transportation,
Washington.
Geocaching, 2009. Menomonee River: Straight, Sinuous or Meandering?, accessed
16 September 2013,
http://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC1TGAY_menomonee-river-straight-
sinuous-or-meandering?guid=b89306b0-083e-427e-94be-f4b0367b47fd
Henderson, F.M., 1966, Open Channel Flow, Macmillan Co, New York.
Institution of Engineers, Australia, 1977. Australian Rainfall and Runoff Flood
Estimation and Design, Canberra, ACT.
JICA/DPWH, 2010, Technical Standards and Guidelines for Design of Flood Control
Structures.
JICA/DPWH, 2010, Technical Standards and Guidelines for Planning of Flood
Control Structures.
Kinori, B.Z., 1970, Manual of Surface Drainage Engineering Vol. 1, Elsevier
Publishing Co., Amsterdam.
Kinori, B.Z., Mevorach, J, 1984, Manual of Surface Drainage Engineering, Vol. 2:
Stream Flow Engineering and Flood Protection (Developments in Civil
Engineering).
Lauterjung, H., Schmidt, G., 1989, Planning of Intake Structures, Deutsches Zenturm
fur Entwicklungstechnologien (GATE).
Melville, B. W., Coleman, S. E. (2000) Bridge Scour. Water Resources Publications,
Highlands Ranch, Colorado.
Ministry of Public Works and Highways, 1984, Design Guidelines Criteria and
Standards for Public Works and Highways, Volume II.
Ohio Department of Natural Resources [DNR], undated. Ohio Stream Management
Guide, Guide No. 3 Natural Stream Processes.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
Philippine Port Authority [PPA] (2009). Engineering Standards for Port and
Harbor Structures, March.
Texas Department of Transportation, 2009, Hydraulic Design Manual.
Thorne C R, Hey R D , Newson M D 1999, Applied Fluvial Geomorphology for River
Engineering and Management.
US Army Corps of Engineer, 1994, Channel Stability Assessment for Flood Control
Projects, Em 1110-2-1418, US Dept. of Army.
US Army Corps of Engineers [HEC-RAS], 2008, HEC-RAS River Analysis System,
Hydraulic Reference Manual Version 4.0, The Hydrologic Engineering Center,
Davis, CA.
Utah Department of Transportation, 2004, Manual of Instruction Roadway
Drainage.
Virginia Department of Transportation, 2002, Drainage Manual,
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5 Flood Control
5.1 Introduction
This chapter of the guideline focuses on the design of flood control structures. It
is largely derived from the Technical Standards and Guidelines for Design of Flood
Control Structures (FCSEC [1], 2010) with updates and revisions. These revisions
are based on currently international practice as well as a review of the usability of
the guideline.
Many of the structures identified in this chapter require multi-disciplinary
approaches to engineering. Depending on the size of the flood control structure,
the failure of one of these structures may result in significant impacts to property
and risk to life. Therefore, it is important that the design of this infrastructure be
undertaken by suitably qualified engineers with experience in undertaking this
work.
This guideline on flood control structures provides an overview of some of the key
issues, considerations and items to be incorporated into design. As with the entire
Guide, this is not meant to be an exclusive list of design criteria or a manual for the
design of these infrastructures.
The infrastructure covered in this chapter includes:
Dikes (levees)
Spur Dikes
Revetments
Ground Sill
Small Dams
Sluiceway and Conduits for Embankments/Dikes
Overtopping Embankments
Planning is required for the implementation of this infrastructure. It is generally
recommended that a catchment or floodplain wide approach be adopted for
planning, as outlined in Technical Standards and Guidelines for Planning of Flood
Control Structures (FCSEC [2], 2010).
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For protection of existing assets, then the design flood may be a level that is
achievable considering available space and constraints in installing protection
measures.
Where a revetment or spur dike is adopted, then the aim may be to alleviate
more frequent erosion problems rather than from larger events.
In the absence of a risk assessment or master plan, Table 5-1 provides design
floods that can be adopted for different river sizes.
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5.3 Dike/Embankment/Levee
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The new dike shall be designed to protect the affected flood prone areas. In
consideration of the stability of the structure, the dike alignment shall avoid
unstable peat and muck, weak subsoil, and loose sand foundation to prevent
settlement.
5.3.1.3 Materials
Dikes generally consist of soil and sand. The advantages of using earth materials
are:
Economical because of the availability of materials.
It will last for a long period of time.
It could be easily mixed with the ground materials.
It follows the ground deformation/settlement of foundation.
If the scale of flood control plan is increased in the future, it is easier to improve.
If the dike is damaged by flood, earthquake or other inevitable disasters, it is
easy to restore.
For environmental consideration.
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For levees around lakes and swamps or at the high tide areas where the design
discharge is not fixed, the height of the dike shall not be less than the value to be
obtained by allowing for wind driven waves. A minimum freeboard in these
situations should be 0.6 m.
For the backwater effect in a tributary, the height of the dike in the transition
stretch shall not be lower than that of the main river or even higher at the
confluence in order to prevent inundation in the subject areas. In general, the
dikes height of the main river at the confluence point is projected following its
design flood level. Note that the alternative is to undertake more complex
hydraulic analysis of the combined flows between the main river and the tributary,
as discussed in Section 4.11.
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For backwater effect on the affected tributary, the crest width of the dike shall be
designed such that it is not narrower than the dike crest width of the main river.
The levee shall be provided with a maintenance/access road for river maintenance
and emergency flood prevention activity during the occurrence of a flood. The
width of the maintenance/access road shall be 3 m or more. It shall be constructed
near the existing peripheral and/or river side road with entrance facing the
downstream side. A built-in stairway is also necessary and should be built strong
enough to withstand the expected external forces acting on it.
The dike shall be provided with a maintenance road for patrolling the river during
emergency flood prevention activities as well as routine maintenance. The
maintenance road shall be 3.0 m or more. The crest of the dike may be used for the
maintenance road.
A maintenance road is no longer necessary when a permanent road is to be built
and the difference in height between the dike crest and the landside is below 0.6
m.
Figure 5-5 Plan and Perspective of Dike Showing the Location of Access Road
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5.3.2.4 Slopes
The slope of the embankment can be dependent on a number of factors such as the
soil type, access arrangements, construction methods and maintenance
arrangement. Typically, the soil type is one of the driving factors in determining
slope.
The slopes should consider:
The side slopes should be gentler on both landside and riverside of the
embankment than 1V:2H for low embankments (<6.0 m) and 1V:3H for high
embankments (>6.0 m).
A minimum side slope of 1V:4H is typically adopted for embankments
consisting of sand and shall be protected by providing a total cover of 300mm
thick of a good soil and sodding.
On the landward side, steeper slopes can be achieved with crib walls or
concrete walls where space may be restricted.
A slope gentler than 1V:4H to 1V:5H should be adopted if maintenance and
mowing of the surface is required.
A steeper slope may be adopted on the riverside where this is protected by a
revetment (refer to design of revetments in Section 5-5).
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5.3.2.5 Berms
Berms are provided for stability, repair and maintenance purposes.
On the riverbank side, when the crest height from the river bed is more than 6
m, berms shall be provided at every 3 to 5 m. These should have a width of 1
m or more.
On the landward side, when the crest height from the existing ground is more
than 4 m, berms shall be provided at every 2 to 3 m in height with a width of 1
m or more.
A masonry dike may have a minimum berm width of 1 m when necessary, for
stability purposes.
Berms should include swale drains that run parallel to the slope, and aim to reduce
the velocity of water running down the slope. These are discussed in more detail
in Volume 4: Highway Design.
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5.3.2.8 Vegetation
The preferred vegetation for levees is grasses. Trees and shrubs should not be
planted on or near batters as they increase the potential of risk of failure of the
levee due to cracking, piping failure or falling over.
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5.3.3.7 Stripping
The correct stripping of topsoil from the levee site is critical to ensuring the
necessary bonding of the bank with the underlying material. Stripping should be
carried out down to clay. Where clay is not within the sub-soil, then alternative
measures will be required. This is discussed in USBR Design of Small Dams (1987).
Where topsoil is shallow a minimum stripping depth of 300 mm should be adopted
to ensure all surface roots and vegetation are removed. If a core/key trench is not
being incorporated in the levee, the foundation clay must be ripped and re-
compacted to remove any further roots from the bank and ensure a good bond.
(Victoria NRE, 2002)
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features must also provide sufficient floe capacity to safely control seepage
through potential cracks in the embankment impervious zone.
Contacts of seepage control features with the foundation, abutments,
embedded structures, etc., designed to prevent the occurrence of piping and/or
hydrofracturing of embankment and/or foundation materials. If conduits or
pipes exist through the embankment, they should be inspected to ensure that
they are functional or have been properly sealed.
Grouting, cut-off trenches, and impervious blankets.
Construction records for foundation shaping, treatment and grouting at the
contact between the impervious core and foundation.
For existing embankments, all seepage records complied during the existence
of the structure should be reviewed for significant trends or abnormal changes.
5.3.4.1 Floodwall
If land acquisition or available space is a major consideration for dike in an urban
area or in areas close to important facilities, a floodwall may be an alternative.
Specific considerations for the floodwall are:
The floodwall should not impair scenic views from properties.
A desirable height for a floodwall should be less than 0.8 m.
Structural stability of the floodwall will need to be considered.
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Existing
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Figure 5-13 Example of Spur dikes used to protect outer River Bank
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Overflow type the main purpose is to reduce the river flow velocity. This type
of spur dike can be considered as a series of spur dikes.
Non-overflow type its main purpose is to change the river flow direction
away from the riverbank.
Impermeable spurs provide more positive flow control but cause more scour at
the toe of the spur and, when submerged, cause erosion of the streambank. High
permeability spurs are suitable for use where only small reductions in flow
velocities are necessary as on mild bends but can be used for more positive flow
control where it can be assumed that clogging with small debris will occur and bed
load transport is large. Permeable spurs may be susceptible to damage from large
debris.
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Typically used on wide, shallow rivers, rather than narrow deep channels.
May not be appropriate where the variation in water level from low flow to
flood level is large.
Can be useful for navigational rivers, where they can assist in defining the
navigational channel.
5.4.4.3 Orientation
Permeable retarders are designed to provide flood retardance near the
streambank, and this is typically achieved regardless of orientation. Therefore, for
construction cost purposes, the cheapest alternative is to typically construct the
permeable retarder spur dike perpendicular to the bank.
As identified in HEC23 (2009), there is no clear consensus of orientation of
impermeable/ semi-permeable spurs. Spur orientation at approximately 0
degrees (perpendicular)has the effect of forcing the main flow current (thalweg)
farther from the concave bank than spurs oriented in an upstream or downstream
direction. Therefore, more positive flow control is achieved with spurs oriented
approximately normal to the channel bank (HEC23, 2009).
As per HEC23 (2009), it is recommended that the spur furthest upstream be angled
downstream to provide a smoother transition of the flow lines near the bank and
to minimize scour at the nose of the leading spur. Ideally, this first spur dike should
be located upstream of the most severe scouring area, to ensure that it remains
during larger flows. Subsequent spurs downstream should generally all be set
normal to the bank line to minimize construction costs.
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5.4.4.4 Height
The height of impermeable spur dikes should not exceed the top of the banks.
Otherwise, erosion can occur at the overbank end of the spur dike. Where it does
not exceed this, the following shall also apply:
The height of a non-overflow type spur dike should be at the level of the design
flood.
The height of overflow type spur dike shall be the maximum of:
- 10% to 40% of the distance reckoned from the average riverbed to the
design flood level.
- 0.5 to 1.0 m above the ordinary water level during rainy season.
Permeable spurs, and in particular those constructed of light wire fence, should be
designed to a height that will allow heavy debris to pass over the top.
5.4.4.6 Slopes
A spur dike should slope from the bank to the river, to prevent overtopping
occurring at a low point on the spur dike. The longitudinal slope of the
spurdike should be 1V:20H to 1V:100H toward the center of the river.
The side slopes shall depend on the quality of the subsoil, groundwater
flow and the type of structure. Slopes are typically between 1V: 1H and 1V:2H
on the upstream side and 1V: 1H and 1V:2H on the downstream side.
5.4.4.7 Length
Spur dikes should have lengths up to 10% to 15%of the width of the river or
channel but not to exceed 100 m.
The river flow capacity should be examined when the length of the spur dike is
more than 10% of the river width (distance of left to right bank); or when the spur
dike is to be constructed in a narrow river, since this could affect the opposite bank
and considerably reduce the river flow capacity.
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5.4.4.8 Spacing
The spacing of spur dikes is related to the length of the spur dike, the angle of the
spur dike, permeability and the degree of curvature of the bend.
As a general rule of thumb, the spacing for semi-impermeable (up to 35%
permeable) or impermeable spur dikes should be less than 2 times its effective
length at flow attack zones and 2 to 4 times at straight sections of channel.
The effective length is the length from the desired bankline to the tip of a spur.
Where it is proposed to protect the bankline it its existing position, then the
effective length will be the same as the length of the spur. Where the spur dikes
are expected to result in an increase in the bankline, then the effective length is the
length from the planned bankline to the end of the spur. This is demonstrated by
L in Figure 5-7.
Permeable spurs should be spaced closer together. Based on the procedures
identified in HEC23, for a 75% permeable spur, the spacing should be approximate
70% of that for an impermeable spur.
A more detailed procedure for determining the spacing of spur dikes is provided
in HEC23, in Design Guidance 2.12, Section 2.2.7.
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performs as designed, retardance and diversion of the flow within the length of the
structure may make it unnecessary to extend the facing material the full depth of
anticipated scour except at the nose.
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5.5 Revetments
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Equation 5-1
=
where:
Vdes = design velocity
Vavg = cross section average velocity
= velocity adjustment factor, which can be determined based on:
where:
RC = radius of bend
W = width of river/ channel
The velocity adjustment factor for natural channels is also provided in Figure 5-
24.
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1.8
1.7
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Rc/W
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Indicative
Maximum
Slope (V:H) Remarks
Design Velocity
(m/s)
1. Sodded Riverbank with Pile 2.0 Milder than 1:2 Not applicable for places near roads and houses
Fence Diameter and length of wooden pile shall be
determined considering past construction records.
Note that this is not a common technique used for
revetments.
2. Dry Boulder Riprap 3.0 to 4.0 Milder than 1:2 Diameter of boulder shall be determined using
Table 5-7.
Height of generally less than 3 to 5 m.
3. Grouted Riprap (Spread 5.0 Milder than 1:1.5 Use Class A boulders for grouted riprap and loose
Type) boulder apron.
4. Grouted Riprap (Wall Type) 5.0 1:1.5 to 1:0.5 Use class A boulder for grouted riprap.
5. Gabion (Mattress or Spread 5.0 Milder than 1:1.5 Not advisable in rivers affected by saline water
Type) intrusion.
Not applicable in rivers where diameter of boulders
present is greater than 20 cm.
6. Gabion (Pile-up type) 6.5 1:1.5 to 1:0.5 Not advisable in rivers affected by saline water
Gabion Wall intrusion.
Not applicable in rivers where diameter of boulders
present is greater than 20 cm.
7. Rubble Concrete (spread Milder than 1:1.5
type)
8. Rubble Concrete (Wall
Type)
9. Reinforced Concrete Minimum thickness of 20cm
10. Gravity Wall
11. Sheet Pile Vertical In cases where ordinary water level is very high.
12. Vegetation and Reinforced Milder than 1:4 Typically for the upper section of the protection, where
Grass/ TRM the velocities of flow are lower. Should be located
above the ordinary water level to ensure only irregular
inundation. Refer to Section 5.5.3.7.
Figure 5-25 Sodding with Grass or Some Other Plans (Natural Type)
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Equation 5-2
50 = 3
where:
D50 = median particle size of the rip rap in meters.
y = design flow depth in meters. This is typically taken at the base of
the toe of the revetment.
F = Froude Number (refer Section 4.5.1.9). Note that the velocity to
be adopted is the design velocity, as discussed in Section 5.5.2.
g = acceleration due to gravity
C = coefficient selected from Table 5-6. Note that a safety factor of
1.5 can be generally adopted, unless there are specific
uncertainties in flow estimation or site conditions.
For ease of use, Table 5-7 provides the D50 for different velocities and depths of
flow, based on a revetment slope of 1V:2H.
Minimum specifications for riprap are provided in Section 9.
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Contraction and expansion joints to minimize the risk of cracking and seepage
and potential undermining. Vertical expansion joints should run normal to the
bank slope. Joints should be constructed careful to ensure that no protrusions
into the flow are present, as these may result in the undermining of the
structure. Expansion joints should be provided with a waterstop, smooth dowels,
sponge rubber filler, and sealant.
Allowance for scour, by either extending the wall below the maximum scour
depth (refer to Section 5.5.5) or in combination with a sheet pile wall
Special consideration for uplift forces will be needed if the revetment is in a
hydraulic jump zone. This will require specialist engineering input
The maximum average flow velocity of 4 5 m/s is recommended for concrete
revetments.
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The sheet pile wall should extend to below the maximum scouring depth, as
identified in Section 5.5.5. Toe protection is not suitable for sheet pile walls.
The depth of the sheet pile required should also be based on stability.
Weep holes must be provided, as described in Section 5.5.9.1.
Equation 5-3
1
=
( )3
where:
M = mass of concrete unit for slope protection (kg)
M1 = mass of the concrete unit based on Figure 5-46 (kg)
= slope angle of the revetment
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5.5.4.2 Slope
After the determination of height of the slope covering work, the slope shall be
planned based on the following:
The slope of the revetment will generally be the same as those of a dike (refer
to Section 5.3) at 1V:2H (vertical and horizontal, respectively) or milder. In the
case when the slope of revetment should be steeper than a dike, the slope
should aim to be as gentle as possible for stability purposes and should aim to
align with the natural slope of the adjacent bank.
In case of rapid flow stretches wherein floodwater contains a large quantity of
boulders or gravels, the slope shall not be necessarily gentle but shall be milder
than 1V:0.5H.
In case of joint portion with a rock-strewn slope, the slope of revetment shall
be gradually changed to smoothly connect with the natural slope.
For the retaining wall type revetment (reinforced concrete, gravity wall, rubble
concrete etc.), a maximum slope of 1V:0.3H shall be observed considering
stability and the resulting residual hydraulic pressure.
5.5.4.3 Berms
If the height of revetment is more than 5.0 m, a berm must be provided in order
to separate the revetments into segments. This should be identified
considering site conditions as well.
A berm is provided for stability, maintenance and construction. The berm
should be at least 1 m in width. Where it is provided for a dike, then the width
will need to be 1 m.
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5.5.4.5 Thickness
The thickness of revetment is generally based on the flow velocity, sediment
runoff, topography, geological conditions, scouring and degradation, soil and
groundwater pressure at the back of revetment and other factors. Minimum
thickness should be 300 mm for all types of revetment, except for reinforced
concrete type.
Further details on the design of the protection measures are provided in Section
5.5.3.
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Riprap Type
The diameter (D50) of the boulder to be used should be based on Table 5-8. These
values are based the simplified equation that is presented in Section 6.5.7.2. It
assumes a specific gravity of 2.6.
Maintenance is required to ensure that significant movement of rock over time is
rectified.
Minimum specifications for riprap are provided in Section 5.9.
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Gabion Type
This type shall not be used for rivers with saline water intrusion and for rivers with
riverbed and banks consisting of boulders. The gabions shall be connected to each
other. Gabions and gabion mattresses should be designed in accordance with
manufacturer specifications. Indicative velocity limits for preliminary sizing are
provided in Table 5.9. Note that the critical velocity is the velocity where the
mattress reaches the limit of deformation. Mattresses and gabions should be
designed in accordance with the critical velocity.
Table 5-9 Indicative Velocity Limits for Gabions and Gabion Mattress
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100000
10000
Weight of Blocks (kg)
1000
100
10
1
1 10
Design Velocity (m/s)
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Equation 5-4
= +
where:
Ln = width in front of revetment (at least 2 m)
An alternative to the above approach is the adoption of the mounded toe approach
or falling apron. For a flexible rip rap solution, the toe above the maximum
anticipated scour level, but with a flexible toe protection that can respond to scour
and thereby protect the revetment from being undermined. This is typically
achieve through rip rap, as solutions like gabion mattresses may be less flexible
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rate of subsidence of floodwater in the river is usually greater than the recession
of groundwater level behind the revetment without drainage pipes/weep holes. If
the disparity between the subsiding floodwater and groundwater stages is
significantly high, residual hydraulic pressure exists at the back of the revetment
(refer to Figure 5-51). Weep holes shall be provided in the revetment using 50~75
mm diameter PVC drainpipes, placed in stagger horizontal direction and spaced 2
m center to center.
One of the main causes of caving in of soil particles behind the revetment is the
outflow of backfill fine materials through the joints of revetment and weep holes,
which eventually leads to the collapse of the revetment (refer to Figure 5-52).
Pervious materials consisting of crushed gravel or geo-textile filters are to be
placed between the revetment and original ground to prevent the outflow of the
bank materials through the weep holes. The lowest weep holes shall be installed
just above the ordinary water level.
Figure 5-51 Development of Residual Hydraulic Pressure without Drainage Pipes/ Weep
Holes
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Insufficient toe support resulting in gaps in protective blockwork (source : Mott MacDonald
http://www.geotechnics.mottmac.com/projects/portsmouthharbourrev/)
Movement/ Extraction of
Particle(s)/block(s) (e.g., dry boulder riprap) of revetment are
Particle/ Block Caused
detached by strong velocity flow.
by High Velocity Flow
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Erosion on Top of the When the floods overtops the revetment and flows back to the
Revetment river, the back portion of the top of revetment might be damaged.
Direct hit by big Logs, rocks and debris carried by strong river flow directly hit the
boulders, logs and/or revetment resulting in damages. For gabion style revetments, for
debris example, this may result in puncture of the basket or mattress.
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5.6 Groundsill
5.6.1 Definition
Groundsills (also termed check dams) are drop structures located within a
channel, commonly used downstream of culverts to prevent head cutting from
discharge flows and maintain a consistent streambed profile in the vicinity of the
culvert. A typical groundsill layout is shown in Figure 5-53.
5.6.2.2 Apron
The apron is provided immediately downstream of the groundsill drop structure
to prevent scouring of the downstream channel and undercutting of the groundsill
structure.
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The length and type of apron will be dependent on the flow conditions. A
discussion on the design of the apron is presented in FHA (2009).
5.6.3.1 Location
Groundsills are typically located downstream of culverts to prevent erosion for
discharge flows, or upstream of channel structures (such as bridge piers) to
stabilize the channel profile and reduce the risk of erosion of the structure
foundations.
While proximity to the channel structure they are used to manage is required, they
should ideally be placed in straight, constant sections of the channel in order to
operate most effectively. Locations on bends, or at changes in channel sections or
slopes should be avoided where possible.
5.6.3.2 Height
It is generally best to keep the height of the groundsill smaller. If a greater height
drop is needed, then it is better to separate the groundsill into a number of steps
spaced well apart.
Generally, a drop in the order of 2 m or less is recommended, as greater drops will
require more dissipation works on the downstream side. However, there will be
situations where this is unavoidable.
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5.6.3.3 Alignment
Groundsills should be constructed as straight structures perpendicular to the
channel wherever possible, as shown in illustration a, Figure 5-54. This alignment
is typically cheaper to construct, and causes fewer erosion and flooding issues
compared against the other alignments shown in Figure 5-54.
The alignment shown in illustration b results in channel flow being directed
against one of the river banks which increases the erosion risk and results in the
need for additional protection requirements.
The polygonal and circular groundsill plans shown in illustrations c and d
respectively, direct overtopping flows to the center of the channel. This increases
the erosion potential in the channel center and can quickly result in deep scouring
occurring if the protection provided is insufficient or experiences failure in a large
flood event.
5.6.3.4 Scour
The check dam must be designed structurally to withstand the forces of water and
soil assuming that a scour hole, is as deep as estimated from Annex A, in order to
ensure successful operation over the design life of the groundsill.
5.7.1 Definition
This Guide covers the design of small dams. The definition of a small dam is based
on the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) definition. These are any
dams that are less than 15 m in height, and which do not fit into the category of
large dams as defined by ICOLD (refer to Table 5-11).
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locations where high rainfall or scarce soils prevents an earthen dam being
constructed, or where concrete dams are too costly.
Concrete dams are constructed of concrete that may be reinforced as
required. Their durability makes them well suited to overflow dams. Concrete
spillways are also commonly constructed on earth or rock dams where high
flows may be experienced, in order to protect from dam failure.
5.7.4.1 Location
The location of the dam should be carefully selected to ensure that is it appropriate.
This is highly dependent on local conditions, but the following may serve as a
starting point in determining an appropriate location:
Dams should be located at existing local constrictions if possible. This will
reduce the amount of construction required to form the dam.
Proximity to existing development should be considered. It is not ideal to build
dams above existing development as it puts the development at risk in the case
of dam failure. If the dam is to supply fresh water, it may be desirable to locate
it remotely in order to help prevent contamination.
The impact of the dam on downstream flow conditions should be assessed. A
dam location may be unsuitable if it prevents existing downstream water uses,
such as extraction for irrigation, from continuing.
The extent of the reservoir should be assessed to ensure that it does not impact
existing communities or infrastructure. This may influence the height of the
dam wall adopted.
5.7.4.2 Material
A range of materials are available for the construction of small dams. Typical
materials are concrete, rock and earth. The selection of the dam material will be
influenced by the proposed use of the dam, as well local conditions.
Thought should also be given to what materials are available locally, and what
materials local contractors have a familiarity in working with. This will aid in
reducing construction costs, and ensuring the dam is correctly constructed.
5.7.4.3 Freeboard
Freeboard is provided on non-overtopping dams in order to prevent unintended
overtopping from occur that may result in the erosion and consequent failure of
the dam wall.
Freeboard requirements may be set as part of the design, such as limiting seepage
through core material. These freeboard conditions are set out in Design of Small
Dams (USBR, 1987) depending on a number of design parameters.
At a minimum, sufficient freeboard should be provided to prevent overtopping
from wave action on the reservoir. The height of waves is dependent on the wind
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speed, the wind duration and the length over which the wind is able the act.
Minimum freeboard is typically set assuming a wind speed of 80 km per hour.
Based on this wind speed, minimum freeboard requirements may be interpolated
from Table 5-12 based on the greatest distance of water across the reservoir.
<2 1
2 1.3
5 1.6
10 2
15 2.3
5.7.4.5 Easement
Easement requirement along the shores of a man-made lake or reservoir shall
conform to Articles 50 and 51 of the Water Code of the Philippines.
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typically close to the invert of the creek or channel, while for water supply,
these are dependent on likely water quality, reliability of supply etc.
Outlet protection works these are required to prevent scour at the discharge
point. There are numerous potential alternatives, and these will be a function
of site specific constraints.
Inlet controls controls on the inlet, such as gates and other regulating
structures.
Cut-offs or filters outlet works generally represent a weak point in the dam
structure, and may result in piping failure of the dam if not designed
appropriately. Concrete cut-offs or filters will likely be required to prevent this
from occurring.
Details on designing outlet works are provided in Design of Small Dams (USBR,
1987).
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5.7.4.8 Access
It is important that appropriate access is provided to all necessary regions of the
dam. Depending on the nature of the dam, this may require the provision of:
A sufficient top with to allow vehicular access (typically 3 m)
Sufficient access to be able to inspect the spillway crest and back slope
Sufficient access to be able to inspect any outlet pipes (if applicable)
An access track to the bottom of the dam spillway
An access track around the reservoir, or to key locations around the reservoir,
to allow for monitoring and inspections of the reservoir
5.7.4.9 Maintenance
To ensure that the dam continues to operate successfully and safely, a maintenance
plan should be developed for each structure.
The detail of the plan will be dependent on the size and purpose of the dam, as well
as the consequences of failure of the dam. Smaller dams may only require
occasional inspections. Larger dams, that have serious failure consequences,
would require a more detailed and frequent inspection and maintenance schedule.
A discussion on operation and maintenance considerations for various dam types
is provided in Design of Small Dams, Chapter 12 (USBR, 1987).
5.7.5 Easements
If easements are required along the shores of the reservoir, they are to conform to
Article 50 and Article 51 of the Water Code of the Philippines.
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The effect on the existing water usage regimes of nearby communities. The
dam has the potential to reduce available downstream water that may
presently be used for irrigation or water supply.
Implications for local heritage and archaeological sites.
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dike. Therefore, it may be necessary to incorporate a pump with the design of the
sluiceway. Pumps are discussed in more detail in Section 6.10.2.
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5.8.4.3 Capacity
For an irrigation sluiceway, the cross section area (or capacity) shall be large
enough to secure the design intake volume even during dry season or based on the
specific requirements of the project.
For a drainage sluiceway, the capacity shall be determined by analyzing the runoff
from the drainage basin connected to the sluiceway using the hydrological
principles outlined in Section 3. The capacity of the sluiceway should be based on
the design capacity for drainage, as identified in Section 6.2.
The minimum diameter of the sluiceway shall be 910 mm, in accordance with the
requirements for drainage as identified in Section 6.4.
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5.8.4.5 Gate
The type of gate or control structure adopted for the sluiceway will depend on the
application. There are many types of control structure. An overview of some of
the structures are provided in Table 5-13.
Each particular structure will result in specific head losses associated with it,
which will affect the capacity of the sluiceway. It is important to consult with the
manufacturer specifications to determine the appropriate losses to account for.
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(source : Tideflex.com.au)
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5.9.3 Cut-off
The use of a concrete cut-off wall at the downstream shoulder is recommended
when high velocities are expected at the shoulder. The purpose of this wall is to
prevent scour damage at the shoulder from progressing into the road pavement or
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crest of the structure. These walls are typically 0.50-0.75 m deep and 0.20-0.30 m
wide and are generally constructed of low strength mass concrete (DTMR, 2013).
5.9.4 Apron
Adequate downstream aprons are required. As a rough guide, based on DTMR
(2003) for a height of embankment equal or more than 2.0 m, the downstream
apron should extend at least 1.5 times the height of the embankment away from the
toe of the embankment. For an embankment height less than 2.0 m, the
downstream apron should extend at least the height of the embankment away from
the toe of the embankment. Greater details on stilling basin design are provided
in USBR (1987).
Type* Description
Type I The reinforcement selected should not only satisfy strength requirements, but also
prevent temperature and shrinkage cracks.
Where cut-off walls have been used without the downstream apron, failures have
occurred.
With a suitable width of downstream apron and weep holes, the Type 1 Floodway
is recommended as suitable for all crossings where other than grass protection is
required, cost permitting.
Type II This is an example of a reinforced concrete floodway where the tailwater depth is
uncertain but probably quite low (perhaps700 mm or more below the downstream
edge of the formation when the flood begins to overtop the road). Costs are
higher than Type 1 floodways.
Type IV The increased use of stone mattresses and gabions has given
confidence to this type of construction.
Type V This type of protection incorporating a bituminous seal is probably the lowest cost
of the types shown, but its use is limited. It should only be used only where:
Fill height is not higher than 900mm;
Tailwater at overtopping is not more than 300 mm below the crown of the
road; and
Time of submergence is low (only a few hours)
Type VII This alternative applies dry boulder riprap protection.
Note: Type III and Type VI are no longer recommended by DTMR (2010)
Source: DTMR, 2010
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5.11 References
CIRIA, CUR, CETMEF (2007). The Rock Manual. The Use of Rock in Hydraulic
Engineering (2nd edition). C683, CIRIA, London.
Department of Natural Resources and Environment [Victoria NRE] (2002). Levee
Design, Construction and Maintenance.
Department of Transport and Main Roads [DTMR] (2010). Bridge Scour Manual,
State of Queensland, March.
Department of Transport and Main Roads [DTMR] (2013). Bridge Scour Manual,
State of Queensland, March.
Flood Control & Sabo Engineering Center [1] (2010), Technical Standards and
Guidelines for Design of Flood Control Structures, Japan International Cooperation
Agency, Philippines.
Flood Control & Sabo Engineering Center [2] (2010), Technical Standards and
Guidelines for Planning of Flood Control Structures, Japan International
Cooperation Agency, Philippines.
Maynard S T (1978). Practical Rip Rap Design, US Army Engineers, Waterways
Experiment Station, Mississippi, June.
Papua New Guinea Department of Public Works [PNG DoW] (1987). River Training
Manual, prepared by The Binnie Group.
United States Department of the Interior: Bureau of Reclamation [USBR] (1987).
Design of Small Dams, Third Edition, Washington.
US Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration (2009)
[HEC23]. Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures: Experience,
Selection, and Design Guidance, 3rd Edition, Volume 1 and 2, Hydraulic Engineering
Circular 23, September, Publication Number: FHWA-NHI-09-112.
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6 Drainage
6.1 Introduction
This chapter provides guidelines on the design of drainage related infrastructure.
This infrastructure includes channels, pipes, pumps and basins.
Section 6.2 General Design Criteria provide overall general design criteria and
requirements that feed into the subsequent sections. The remainder of the chapter
includes:
Section 6.3 Open Drains & Channels
Section 6.4 Closed Conduit Network (Pipe Network)
Section 6.5 Culverts
Section 6.6 Inlet Manholes
Section 6.7 Manholes & Access Chambers
Section 6.8 Detention Basins
Section 6.9 Overland Flowpaths
Section 6.10 Pumping Stations
This chapter also forms a core reference chapter for elements in the DGCS volumes
on Bridge Design and Highways.
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- Concrete blocks
- Masonry blocks
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adjust the Mannings n value. For the types of flows dealt with in drainage design,
this is generally only required for flexible channels.
A procedure is identified in the following sections for rock lined and grass
channels. For other types of channel, it is recommended to refer to the
manufacturers specifications.
Table 6-3 Mannings Roughness of Rock Lined Channels with Shallow Flow
Equation 6-1
(90 )1/6
=
26(1 0.359 )
where:
m = [(R/d90)(d50/d90)]0.7
R = hydraulic radius of the flow over the rocks = Area/Perimeter (m)
d50 = mean rock size for which 50% of the rocks are smaller (m)
d90 = mean rock size for which 90% of the rocks are smaller (m)
In natural gravel-based streams the factor d50/d90 is typically in the range 0.2 to
0.5, while in constructed channels where imported graded rock is used, the ratio
is more likely to be in the range 0.5 to 0.8 (QUDM, 2013).
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Table 6-4 Mannings Roughness for Grassed Channels (50150 mm blade length)*
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structure to the soil/vegetation matrix that will both assist in the establishment of
vegetation and provide support to mature vegetation (FHWA, 2005).
There are many products on the market, and the designer should refer to the
manufacturer specifications to determine operating flow regimes and velocities
that are acceptable, as well as guidance on installation. As an indication, reinforced
grasses may have a permissible velocity in the order of 4 m/s, but this should be
confirmed by manufacturer specifications.
The performance of TRM is subject to vegetation cover, and therefore is subject to
some of the key considerations identified in Section 6.3.2.2.
Equation 6-2
50 = 0.04 2
where:
d50 = mean rock size for which 50% of the rocks are smaller (m)
V = average cross sectional velocity (m/s)
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A more refined version of the equation is provided below, which allows for
different types of rock and flow conditions:
Equation 6-3
1 2
50 =
2. . 2 ( 1)
where:
d50 = mean rock size for which 50% of the rocks are smaller (m)
V = average cross sectional velocity (m/s)
sr = specific gravity of rock
K1 = 1.0 for angular rock, 1.36 for rounded rock
K = 1.1 for low-turbulent deepwater flow, 1.0 for low-turbulent
shallow water flow, and 0.86 for highly turbulent flow
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Where the above cannot be achieved, or the depth is greater than 3 m, then a
safety barrier is required
Source: DID, 2012, Kinori, 1970, QUDM, 2013 & DPWH, 1984
6.3.4 Freeboard
Freeboard refers to the height from the top of the channel to the water surface at
the design capacity (refer to Figure 6-2). A freeboard is allowed to account for
effects like waves and water surface fluctuations, sedimentation and water surface
estimation errors.
A freeboard should be selected that is 15% of the depth of flow in the channel at
the design capacity, with a minimum of 100 mm.
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to confine these smaller flows to a smaller cross section (refer example in Figure
6-3).
Dry weather flows can be estimated by using the baseflow estimate discussed in
Section 3.
Figure 6-3 Example Low Flow Channel for Dry Weather Flows
6.3.7 Transitions
Changes from one channel cross section to another cross section should be
undertaken smoothly, with no sudden changes in cross section. An expansion rate
(Figure 6-4) of 1 on 4 is recommended as a minimum, while a contraction of 1 on
1 is recommended as a minimum.
Typical transition losses are shown in Table 6-8.
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6.3.8 Bends
The radius of any horizontal curve in a channel should be as large as possible, to
reduce super elevation and friction losses, as well as local erosion due to complex
flow. A horizontal curve should have a minimum radius of the centerline of the
channel of 3 times the width of the channel (PUB, 2011).
The superelevation around a bend may be calculated from Equation 6-4 (FHWA,
2001). The height of the channel on a bend should be designed to accommodate
the expected water elevation on the bend at the design capacity as identified in
Section 6.2.2, as well as freeboard as identified in Section 6.3.4.
Equation 6-4
2
=
where:
d = difference in water surface elevation between the inner and
outer banks of the channel in the bend (m)
V = average velocity (m/s)
T = surface width of the channel (m)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s)
Rc = radius to the centerline of the channel (m)
Conclusive values for head losses in open channels are not available. A
conservative estimate for bends between 90 and 180 degrees may be calculated
using:
Equation 6-5
2B 2
= ( ) ( )
2
where:
hb = channel bend head loss
B = channel width
V = average flow velocity
g = gravity
Rc = centerline radius of the bend
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The equation is applicable for bends between 90 and 180 degrees. For bends
between 0 and 90 degrees, linear interpolation is recommended.
6.3.9 Safety
The recommended inclusions for safety in channels are provided in Table 6-9.
6.4.4 Cover
Cover refers to the distance from the top of the pipe to the surface.
A minimum cover of 600 mm should typically be adopted.
For pipes under highways, or heavily trafficked areas, a cover of 900 mm should
be adopted.
A cover depth of 450 mm may be adopted on private property or under open space
that experiences only occasional traffic.
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6.4.5 Alignment
Pipes should run straight between pits wherever possible. Where curves in the
pipe are absolutely required, standard curved pipes from suppliers should be
adopted.
Deflecting joints to achieve curvature is not recommended.
6.4.6 Capacity
The capacity of a pipe flowing full, but not under pressure, should be calculated
using Mannings equation, as discussed in Section 4.5.
It is generally recommended to avoid pipes flowing under pressure in drainage
applications, although this may not always be possible.
6.5 Culverts
Culverts are a relatively short length of pipe or closed conduit used to convey
stormwater through an embankment or road, connected at each end to an open
channel.
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Computer design programs will automatically adjust the culvert flow conditions
based on the upstream and downstream water levels.
Culvert flow calculations are discussed in Section 4.7
Further details on calculating culvert flow are provided in the Urban Drainage
Manual (Federal Highways Administration, 2001).
6.5.5 Cover
The cover for a culvert depends on the concrete/ loading class. In general, a
minimum cover of 600 mm should typically be adopted. A cover depth of 300 mm
may be adopted on private property or under open space that experiences only
occasional traffic.
6.5.6 Blockage
Blockage of a culvert is possible through debris as well as siltation of the culvert.
The effect of potential blockage should be considered in the design of the capacity
of the culvert. While blockage of culverts tends to be associated with forested
catchments, where wooded debris may mobilize during floods, urban catchments
can also represent sources of debris through mobilization of man-made debris
such as cars, garbage and other objects.
To date, there have been no studies of blockages of culverts within the Philippines,
and in particular the likely blockages for different catchment types and land-uses.
In the absence of historical observations or studies, blockage factors as identified
in Table 6-10 should be adopted in determining the discharge capacity.
When assessing blockage, blockage of the handrails should also be considered for
overtopping flow.
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Figure 6-8 and Figure 6-9 provide guidance on the selection of mean rock size (d50)
and the length of the dissipater (L). Note that these design graphs assume a
specific gravity of 2.6. Refer to standard specification for riprap in Section 5.5.6.
The minimum recommended width of the rock pad is defined as:
Immediately downstream of the outlet: the width of the outlet apron, or the
width of the outlet plus 0.6 m (if there is no apron).
At the downstream end of the rock pad: the above width plus 0.4 times the
length of the rock pad (L) as shown in Figure 6-10.
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If the width of the outlet channel is less than the recommended width of the rock
protection, then rock protection should extend up the banks to either the height of
the pipes obvert or to the design tailwater level.
Note that this type of protection is only applicable for slopes of less than 10%.
For information on designing alternative dissipation structures, refer to Hydraulic
Design of Energy Dissipaters for Culverts and Channels (FHWA, 2006).
Figure 6-8 Sizing of Dry Boulder Outlet Structures for Single Pipe or Box Culverts
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Figure 6-9 Sizing of Dry Boulder Outlet Structures for Multiple Pipe or Box Culverts
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Figure 6-13 Side Opening Pit (in kerb or gutter) Inflow Rating Curves
Equation 6-6
= 1.66. . 32
where:
Qg = inflow
BF = blockage factor
1.66 = weir coefficient
L = perimeter of the grate, disregarding any sides against vertical
edges (such as kerbs or walls)
h = height of the energy level above the weir crest (Equal to the water
level at low velocities)
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Equation 6-7
= . . (2. )12
where:
Qg = inflow
BF = blockage factor (refer Section 6.6.3)
Co = orifice coefficient = 0.67
Ag = clear opening area
h = average depth of water over grate
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s)
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Atmospheric Non-Atmospheric
Source: QUDM, 2013
6.6.3 Blockage
In determining the inflow capacity of inlets, an appropriate blockage rate should
be adopted.
For inlets located on-grade, a blockage of 20% should be adopted.
For inlets located in depressions and low points, a blockage of 50% should be
adopted.
6.7.2 Entry
In order to allow safe entry and exit from access points, all access chambers should
have a minimum inside diameter of 1.2 m, or 1.5 m for pipes larger than 2.1m. The
top of the access shaft may taper to 0.9 m, so long as the tapered zone does not
affect working at the base of the shaft.
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6.7.3 Access
Access down the access chamber may be either by steps or rungs embedded in the
chamber wall, or by a ladder that workers carry with them.
If steps or rungs are used, they should be made from a non-corrosive material and
be maintained appropriately. They should provide a secure grip to allow safe entry
and exit.
The use of ladders reduces risks from rust damages steps, and helps to prevent
unauthorized access. If ladders are used, the geometry of the access shaft must
allow for the safe usage of the ladder.
6.8.1 Purpose
Detention basins are used to reduce the peak outflow from a location. Urban
development results in increased impervious areas which causes faster catchment
responses and higher peak flow rates. Basins are often employed to return peak
flow rates and volumes to the pre-developed condition to prevent the
development resulting in adverse flood impacts downstream. They can assist in
meeting the requirements of Section 6.2.3.
Basins can also be used to reduce upgrade works that might be required for
stormwater drainage, and may be more economical than increasing pipe sizes or
channel dimensions.
Basins perform this through intercepting stormwater flows, and releasing the
stormwater volume in a controlled manner over a period of time.
There are many types of basins and configurations. In general, detention basins
may be either open air basins, located within parkland areas, road reserves etc., or
underground systems. A typical schematic of an open air basin is provided in
Figure 6-16 and Figure 6-17, while an underground system is shown in Figure 6-
18. Underground systems will generally require design in accordance with the
manufacturers specifications.
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Figure 6-17 Example of Above Ground Detention System after Heavy Rain
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Source: http://www.lakesuperiorstreams.org/stormwater/toolkit/underground.htm
6.8.2 Sizing
The size of the basin will be governed by the volume of flow generated from the
upstream catchment, and the amount of retardation required of the flow.
It is preferable to utilize a computer model to size the basin, in order to properly
simulate the hydraulic conditions at the outlet.
If an appropriate computer program is not available, the sizing can be undertaken
using manual flow routing based on the storage equation. This requires the
upstream hydrograph. The storage equation is:
Equation 6-8
( ++1 ) ( ++1 )
+1 = 2
2
+ .
where:
I = inflow rate
S = volume in storage
Q = outflow rate
T = routing time step
1,2 = start and finish times of the routing step.
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Step1:
(1 +2 ) (1 +2 )
2 = 2
2
+ 1.
1 (0+1) 1(0+0.5)
2 = 2
2
+ 0.
2 = 0.25
Step2:
(2 +3 ) (2 +3 )
3 = 2
2
+ 2.
1 (1+3) 1(0.5+0.8)
3 = 2
+ 0.25.
2
3 = 1.6
Step3:
(3 +4 ) (3 +4 )
4 = 2
2
+ 3.
1 (3+5) 1(0.58+1.5)
4 = 2
+ 1.6.
2
4 = 4.45
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0 I1 0 Q1 0 S1 0
1 I2 1 Q2 0.5 S2 0.25
2 I3 3 Q3 0.8 S3 1.6
3 I4 5 Q4 1.5 S4 4.45
4 I5 10 Q5 2.5 S5 9.95
5 I6 4 Q6 3.4 S6 14
6 I7 3 Q7 3 S7 14.3
7 I8 8 Q8 3 S8 16.8
8 I9 5 Q9 2.8 S9 20.4
9 I10 2 Q10 2.7 S10 21.15
10 I11 0 Q11 2 S11 19.8
11 I12 0 Q12 2 S12 17.8
12 I13 0 Q13 1.9 S13 15.85
13 I14 0 Q14 1.9 S14 13.95
14 I15 0 Q15 1.9 S15 12.05
15 I16 0 Q16 1.8 S16 10.2
16 I17 0 Q17 1.5 S17 8.55
17 I18 0 Q18 1.3 S18 7.15
18 I19 0 Q19 1.2 S19 5.9
19 I20 0 Q20 1 S20 4.8
20 I21 0 Q21 0.8 S21 3.9
21 I22 0 Q22 0.8 S22 3.1
22 I23 0 Q23 0.5 S23 2.45
23 I24 0 Q24 0.5 S24 1.95
24 I25 0 Q25 0.2 S25 1.6
25 I26 0 Q26 0.2 S26 1.4
Alternatively, the storage volume may be determined from the inflow and outflow
hydrographs, with the storage being equal to the difference in the hydrographs.
This option should be used only to determine an initial estimate, as it requires the
outflow hydrograph to be estimated. The approach is shown in Figure 6-21.
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An example of some of the models which can be utilized in the design and analysis
of detention basins are HEC HMS, xpswmm, HYDRAIN and xpstorm. The HEC HMS
is the widely use within the Philippines and a detailed description is provided in
Section 3.5.2. It is noted that this is not necessarily a recommendation of these
particular software, as many suitable software exist in the market.
6.8.3 Freeboard
Recommended freeboard requirements for basins are provided in Table 6-13.
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The intake to a detention basin outlet should be protected against expected debris
blockages and designed to minimize the safety risk to a person trapped against the
outlet structure, where public access to the basin is possible. The level of
protection will vary depending on the consequences of failure caused by blockage
of the intake and the potential frequency of blockage. Protection can be achieved
by the installation of a trash rack, bar screen and/or a fence.
Outlet pipes should have spigot and socket rubber-ring joints and lifting holes
should be securely sealed. Pipe and culvert bedding should be carefully specified
to minimize its permeability. Cut-off walls or seepage collars must be installed
where appropriate, to control seepage and prevent piping failure adjacent to the
outlet pipe.
Appropriate measures, such as internal sealing of pipe joints and lifting holes, and
bolting down of access chamber lids, should be applied to any existing downstream
systems which could be pressurized by the discharge from the outlet.
Alternatively, surcharge chambers may need to be incorporated into the outlet
pipe to limit the internal pressure.
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6.8.8 Embankment
Refer to Section 5.6.3.4.
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6.8.10 Maintenance
In order to ensure the continued successful operation of retention basins, a
maintenance plan should be prepared as part of the basin design. The plan should
address:
Inspections frequency typically monthly following construction, then
annually and following any major storm.
Mowing typically twice a year, but this should be reviewed based on local
needs.
Sediment, debris and litter removal typically twice a year. Particular
attention should be paid to the control device and any spillways, and
Repairs and Replacement drainage devices will deteriorate over time and will
require replacement when their operation becomes compromised.
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The design of the overland flowpath should control flow such that:
The product of flow depth and velocity (V*D) is less than or equal to 0.4 m2/s
The flowpath has sufficient capacity to meet the design discharge for major
drainage as identified in Section 6.2.2
If the flow is contained within an open channel, the freeboard is as per Section
6.2
6.10.1 Purpose
Pumping stations allow for the removal of stormwater from pipe systems that
cannot be drained through gravity. Pumping stations are complex and expensive,
both to construct and maintain, and their use is only recommended if other options
are proven to be unfeasible.
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In general, there are a large range of pumps available that are applicable to
different situations. It is important to select a pump that is appropriate for the
proposed use. A detailed guide to pump selection, and the relative merits of
different systems, is provided in Hec-24: Highway Stormwater Pump Station Design
(FHWA, 2001).
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The main advantage of the dry-pit station for storm water is the availability of a
dry area for personnel to perform routine and emergency pump and pipe
maintenance.
Since dry-pit stations are more expensive than wet-pit stations, wet-pit stations
are most often used. Dry-pit stations are more appropriate for handling sewage
because of the potential health hazards to maintenance personnel.
The station depth should be kept to a minimum. No more depth than that required
for pump submergence and clearance below the inlet invert is necessary, unless
foundation conditions dictate otherwise.
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6.10.7 Submergence
Submergence is the depth of water above the pump inlet necessary to prevent
cavitation and vortexing. It varies significantly with pump type and speed and
atmospheric pressure. This dimension is provided by the pump manufacturer and
is determined by laboratory testing (FHWA, 2001).
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6.13 References
Brentwood Industries Sub-Surface Stormwater Management,
(2012).
http://www.brentwoodprocess.com/stormwater.html , accessed : October 2nd, 2013.
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7 Coastal Structures
The design of coastal structures of different types is presented in detail in the
Philippine Port Authority (PPA) Engineering Standards for Port and Harbor
Structures Volume II (2009). PPA (2009) provides a comprehensive design
manual on the design of ports and harbors, which includes numerous coastal
structures and protection measures.
This Guide focuses on coastal structures that are relevant to projects undertaken
by DPWH. These are namely revetments and sea walls. A general discussion and
overview of the considerations is provided, with key referencing to PPA (2009) for
more detailed design information.
Coastal structures are a specialized field of design, and should be undertaken by
suitably qualified engineers with relevant experience in this discipline.
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constraints etc. The key aim for these types of applications is to maximize
protection for these existing assets within the constraints.
In some applications, it may also be necessary to increase the protection level. For
example, for the protection of a critical facility like a hospital or where an asset is
particularly susceptible to damage as a result of inundation.
The level of protection should be determined in consideration of the design waves
acting on the structure. The design wave should be estimated in accordance with
the procedures outlined in PPA (2009).
7.1.3 Tides
Tides are the periodic rise and fall of sea levels in response to the gravitational
attraction of the sun and moon. Table 7-2 provides some of the key terminology
used for reference to the tides.
Mean Sea Level (MSL) The average of the sea water surface for all stages of the tide over
a 19 year period
Mean Low Water (MLW) The average height of the low water heights over a 19 year period.
Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) The average height of the lowest water heights recorded for each
tidal day over a 19 year period.
Mean High Water (MHW) The average height of the high water heights over a 19 year period.
Mean Higher High Water The average height of the highest water heights of each tidal day
(MHHW) over a 19 year period.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
Revetments should be designed for the design still water level plus wave runup.
For the design of coastal protection structures, annual risk of exceedance is
required to be estimated. This can then be used to determine the appropriate
protection level, as identified in Section 7.1.2. The estimation of annual
exceedance levels can be estimated through historical or numerical simulations.
Historical analysis on long-term tide gauge data can provide water level-return
period information. Typically, determining the return period associated with these
tide station record involves application of log-Pearson Type III (or similar)
statistical methods. Either graphical or analytical statistical approaches can be
used. However, such analyses are typically restricted to locations near one of the
long-term tide stations, and these are rarely close enough to a study area. In some
cases, a transfer function may be adopted.
Numerical simulations are undertaken with computer models, and utilize
historical data as a key input.
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Revetment typically associated with lakes and bays and large wave heights.
Seawall (Figure 7-1) typically for very large wave heights, with large fetch
lengths (thousands of kilometers) and in ocean conditions.
There is not always a clear distinction between revetments (Figure 7-2) and sea
walls, and quite often the terms are used interchangeably. For this Guide, the
terminology of revetment is typically adopted.
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Equation 7-1
3
50 =
( 1)3
where:
W50 = median weight of armor units
wr = unit weight of armor units (kN/m3)
H = design wave height (refer discussion below)
KD = empirical coefficient (refer discussion below)
Sr = specific gravity
= slope of revetment
Equation 7-2
= 0.8
where:
Hb = maximum breaking wave height (m)
ds = design depth at the toe of the structure
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Equation 7-3
= 1.6 ()
With an upper limit of:
= 3.2
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
where:
Ru = vertical height of runup on slope (m)
Hs = significant wave height (m)
r = coefficient of armor roughness (= 0.55 for riprap)
= dimensionless breaker parameter from Table 7-4.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
7.2.8 Flanking
As noted in FHWA (2008), flanking occurs when adjacent, unprotected shorelines
continue to recede. Erosion at the end of the wall allows wave action to remove the
soil from behind the wall starting at the ends, then progressing along the walls it
fails. Flanking can be avoided by extending the revetment or wall to meet an
existing revetment or a wall or natural rock outcropping, or by using a return wall.
A return wall is aligned perpendicular to the shoreline. The length of the return
wall should exceed the expected long-term and storm-induced recession of the
adjacent shorelines.
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ht/h Hs/D50
0.5 3.3
0.6 4.5
0.7 5.4
0.8 6.5
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Figure 7-7 Example Scour Protection using Toe extending to Depth of Anticipated Scour in
Moderate Scour Environments
Figure 7-8 Example Scour Protection using Toe extending to Depth of Anticipated Scour in
Severe Scour Environments
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
Figure 7-9 Example Sea Wall - Constructed to appear like a natural bluff
7.3 Alternatives
There are numerous alternatives to revetments and sea walls for shoreline
protection. These include:
Detached breakwaters (Figure 7-10)
Groynes (Figure 7-11)
Sub-merged reefs
The design of these types of structures is detailed in CIRIA (2007).
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
7.4 References
CIRIA, CUR, CETMEF (2007). The Rock Manual. The Use of Rock in Hydraulic
Engineering (2nd edition). C683, CIRIA, London.
Philippine Port Authority [PPA] (2009). Engineering Standards for Port and
Harbor Structures, March.
US Army Corp of Engineers [USACE] (1984). Shore Protection Manual, 4th Edition,
US Government Printing Office, Washington DC.
US Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration [FHWA]
(2008). Highways in the Coastal Environment, 2nd Edition, Hydraulic Engineering
Circular 25, FHA NHI-07-096.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
8 Water Supply
8.1 Overview
Water supply design within the Philippines is commonly undertaken by a number
of different agencies, such as the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System
for the Metro Manila Area and the Local Water Utilities Administration for the
water districts outside Metro Manila.
For the situation where DPWH is involved in water supply, it is recommended that
the procedures outlined in the Rural Water Supply Design Manual (WPP, 2012).
This document is provided in three volumes:
Volume 1 Design Manual
Volume 2 Construction Supervision Manual
Volume 3 Operation and Maintenance Manual
This document covers the key elements of water supply that will normally involve
DPWH. The following provides an overview of some of the key considerations for
water supply.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
8.3.1 Rainwater
Rainwater, or atmospheric water, is water vapour that has condensed in the
atmosphere and fallen to earth as rain, where it becomes runoff.
Rainwater may be harvested through collecting the runoff from impervious
surfaces (such as roofs and pavements) during rain events.
Rainwater is typically of a reasonable quality. The greatest risk to rainwater
quality is the vessel used to store the collected water. Rainwater tanks need
ongoing inspections and maintenance to ensure that the water is not contaminated
by microbial or chemical pollutants.
Rainfall is not evenly distributed throughout the Philippines, and some regions
experience significantly more rainfall than others (refer to Section 8.2).
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
8.3.3 Groundwater
Groundwater is water that has filtered through the soil layer from rainfall or
surface water to create underground water reservoirs. The upper surface of the
groundwater storage is termed the water table.
Groundwater is typically of a good quality due to the filtering effects of the soil
having removed microorganisms, sediments and organic matter. However, it may
contain dissolved natural salts and substances, some of which may be harmful, so
testing is still recommended before use. It may also be affected by contaminated
land, and this should be considered if it is identified a potential geohazard in the
Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment (Volume 2A: GeoHazards).
Groundwater may be extracted using:
Springs a point at which ground water naturally flows onto the surface, which
occurs when the water table is higher than the terrain. Springs may be
intermittent or continuous, and can be developed to improve their ability to
service a population.
Wells a hole dug down through the soil to reach the water table, so that the
bottom of the well fills with water. Water may be extracted from the base of
the well through buckets (raised by hand or via mechanical means) or through
pumping.
Infiltration Galleries are horizontal wells, formed by digging horizontal,
perforated pipes into water bearing soils. The pipes collect water from the soil
and discharge it to a storage structure.
Details on the siting, construction and use of these systems is provided in Rural
Water Supply Design Manual - Volume 1(WPP, 2012)
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
8.4.1.1 Physical
Physical quality parameters relate to the physical experience of using the water.
Although negative physical aspects may not pose a health risk, they may reduce
peoples willingness to utilize the water source. Physical parameters to be assessed
include:
Turbidity
Color
Odor
Taste
8.4.1.2 Chemical
Chemical pollutants within water sources may occur through natural or
anthropogenic means. Urban development and agriculture are common sources of
chemical pollutants. To assess a water sources chemical quality, testing should be
undertaken on:
Hardness
Alkalinity and acidity
Dissolved oxygen
Chemical and biological oxygen demand
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
8.4.1.3 Microbial
Microbial water quality needs to be strictly monitored, particularly for domestic
water sources. Microbial contamination can quickly result in adverse health
impacts for users of the water system.
Microbial assessments should be undertaken for:
Protazoa
Helminths
Bacteria
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
8.5.1 Demand
An assessment of the expected water demand on a supply system should be
undertaken as the first step in designing a water supply system. The assessment
should also investigated the expected future demands as it may be desirable to size
the system based on these future demands in order to avoid additional works in
the future.
The amount of water demanded from a system is affected by:
The level of service to be provided
The size of the population using the system
Quantity and quality of the water available in the region
Water tariffs
Climatic conditions (rainfall)
Water usage habits of the population
Volume of non-revenue water (leakage, illegal connections, free water)
The Rural Water Supply Design Manual - Volume 1 (WPP, 2012) provides a
methodology on predicting system demand.
8.5.3 Sustainability
Designing a sustainable system will reduce ongoing costs, improves financial
viability, provides continuous, suitable services to consumers and reduces stresses
placed on the natural water system.
Sustainability considerations should be investigated for the following areas:
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
8.7 Reservoirs
Reservoirs are included in distribution systems in order to:
Balance the supply and demand in the system
Maintain adequate and relatively uniform pressure in the system
To provide a back-up storage volume to prevent service interruption when
working on pipes between the source and the reservoir, or if supply is
temporarily reduced
To allow uniform operation of pumps
Reservoirs may be constructed either at ground level, or at an elevated position,
relative to the location of the consumers. Elevated reservoirs allow for gravity to
assist in distributing the water. In hilly areas, water may flow directly to an
elevated reservoir. In flatter areas, pumping will be required to lift the water to the
elevated position.
The Rural Water Supply Design Manual - Volume 1 (WPP, 2012) contains a
methodology for sizing and designing reservoirs for water supply systems.
8.8 Pumping
If possible, water distribution systems should be designed to operate under gravity
flow, so that pumping is not required. This reduces the complexity of the system
and the required operation and maintenance costs.
In low grade regions, or where elevated reservoirs are utilized, pumps may be
required to move water through the distribution system and maintain appropriate
pressure levels.
Pump systems should be designed in accordance with Section 6.10 and the
relevant manufacturers specifications.
8.9 References
WPP (Water Partnership Program), 2012, Rural Water Supply Volume 1, Design
Manual, The World Bank Office, Manila, Philippines.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
9 Climate Change
9.1 Climate Predictions for the Philippines
PAGASA undertook a study on the likely influences of climate change in the
Philippines in 2011 (PAGASA, 2011). The study focused on projected changes as a
result of climate change to 2020 and 2050, measured relative to a baseline period
from 1971 to 2000. The study focused on the following impacts of climate change:
Projected increases in temperature
Magnitude of changes to long term (e.g. annual) rainfall
Frequency of extreme weather events, including:
- Extreme temperature
- Extreme rainfall
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
The PAGASA (2011) study, like most climate based assessments that has been
undertaken, has focused on daily rainfall events. In particular, it has estimated:
Changes to seasonal rainfall.
Changes in the number of days which have in excess of 300 mm of rainfall.
Seasonal rainfall is useful for impacts to water supplies, but only provides an
indication on extreme rainfall events. Similarly, while the number of days with
rainfall in excess of 300mm suggests that severe storms will be more frequent, the
exact frequency and size of these rainfall events is not reported. This makes it
difficult to directly correlate, for example, changes in the frequency of present day
100 year rainfall.
At the time of this report, there were no known detailed studies of sea level rise
within the Philippines. The recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC, 2013) provides estimates of likely global sea level rise relative to 1986 to
2005. These estimates are provided Table 9-1. The mean values are the range in
mean values from the different climate scenarios, while the ranges are the ranges
in values between the different models.
It is important to note that sea level rise will not be uniform across the world.
However, IPCC (2013) notes that it is very likely that sea levels will rise in more
than about 95% of the ocean area. Furthermore, around 70% of the coastlines
around the world are projected to experience sea level rise within 20% of the
global mean sea level change.
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Changes in Temperature Changes evaporation from lakes and water bodies, reducing storage over time;
Changes in evapotranspiration, and hence changes infiltration losses during
rainfall events. This may result in a changes in runoff during certain events
Changes in Long Term Rainfall Changes in long term rainfall affect water supply systems such as water
reservoirs and dams and groundwater supplies;
Affect the baseflow of rivers, with subsequent environmental and human
impacts
Changes in Extreme Rainfall Affects flood estimation. Where extreme rainfall events increase, the flood
protection of current structures will be reduced. For example, a 100 year flood
dike might be reduced to a 50 year flood dike under a future climate change
scenario.
Changes in Sea Levels Increases in sea level rise will reduce the protection provided by coastal
structures such as sea walls and revetments;
Increases in saline intrusion into groundwater systems, which may affect water
supplies and environmental reliance on these systems;
Changes in wetland and low lying river systems, with greater saline intrusion.
This will have a resulting impact on environment and livelihoods that revolve
around these areas.
Changes in Typhoon The potential increase in typhoon frequency will impact extreme rainfall (as
Frequency noted above);
Frequency of extreme winds and impacts on structures
Storm surge, which will be affected both due to the typhoon and further
exacerbated by sea level rise.
9.1.2 Uncertainty
It is important to understand that there is significant uncertainty in the estimation
of climate change. This is through both the estimation of likely emission scenario
through to the complex global weather patterns that are affected by the increases
in emissions and natural meteorological changes. Estimating changes in weather,
such as changes in the path and track of typhoons, can be extremely difficult.
Therefore, it is important to understand this in reviewing estimates from different
bodies, and understand that this provides a new level of uncertainty into the
design process.
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Approach Recommendation
General Approach Incorporate a 10% increase in rainfall intensity in the design. For
example, a 100 year rainfall intensity is increased by 10%.
Alternative Approach This sensitivity analysis should consider increases in rainfall intensities of
10%, and determine the likely impact on the proposed hydraulic design.
In some situations, there will be minimal impacts, while in others the
differences in flood levels will be more significant. Where the cost
implications are significant, then consideration for a Planned Upgrade
approach should be considered, as identified in Section 9.2.3.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
Approach Recommendation
General Approach Allow for a 0.3 m sea level rise in the design.
Alternative Approach Determine the likely impacts of a 0.3 m sea level rise. Refer to potential
for Planned Upgrade as discussed in Section 9.2.3.
9.3 References
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013). Working Group 1 Contribution
to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) Climate Change 2013: The Physical
Science Basis, Final Draft, September.
Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration
[PAGASA] (2011). Climate Change in the Philippines, February.
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Annex A Estimating Scour
Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
Contents
A. ESTIMATING SCOUR ....................................................................................................................................... 1
A.1 SCOUR ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................................................... 1
A.1.1 Long-Term Profile and Plan Form Changes ................................................................................................... 1
A.1.2 Contraction ..................................................................................................................................................... 2
A.1.3 Local Scour ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
A.2 BRIDGE SCOUR ESTIMATION ................................................................................................................................... 3
A.2.1 Contraction Scour Conditions ......................................................................................................................... 3
A.2.2 Live Bed Contraction Scour Equation ............................................................................................................ 4
A.2.3 Clear Water Contraction Scour Equation ...................................................................................................... 5
A.3 LOCAL SCOUR ........................................................................................................................................................ 6
A.3.1 Pier Scour Equation ........................................................................................................................................ 6
A.3.2 Scour at Abutments......................................................................................................................................... 8
A.3.3 Froehlich's Live-Bed Abutment Scour Equation ............................................................................................ 8
A.3.4 HIRE Live-Bed Abutment Scour Equation .................................................................................................... 10
A.4 SCOUR AT TRANSVERSE STRUCTURES .................................................................................................................... 10
A.5 SCOUR AT LONGITUDINAL STRUCTURES ................................................................................................................. 11
A.5.1 Scour with Flow Parallel to a Vertical Wall ................................................................................................. 11
A.5.2 Scour with Flow Impinging at an Angle on a Vertical Wall ........................................................................ 12
A.6 SCOUR AT BENDS ................................................................................................................................................. 12
A.7 ESTIMATION OF BED SCOUR AT GROUNDSILLS ........................................................................................................ 13
A.8 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure A1-1 Fall Velocity of Sand-sized Particles with Specific Gravity of 2.65 ...............................................................5
Figure A1-2 Abutment Shape ...................................................................................................................................................................9
Figure A1-3 Orientation of Embankment Angle, , to the Flow ................................................................................................9
Figure A1-4 Determination of Length of Embankment (L') Blocking Live Flow for Abutment Scour Estimation
................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Figure A1-5 Definition of Dmxb and Dmnc ..................................................................................................................................... 13
Figure A1-6 Downstream Erosion at Groundsill ......................................................................................................................... 14
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
A. Estimating Scour
Reasonable and prudent hydraulic analysis of a bridge design or flood control
project like a revetment requires that an assessment be made of the proposed
structures vulnerability to undermining due to potential scour. Because of the
extreme hazard and economic hardships posed by a rapid bridge collapse or other
structure collapse, special considerations must be given to selecting appropriate
flood magnitudes for use in the analysis. The following discussions provide a
description of stream stability and scouring mechanism.
Scour is the result of the erosive action of flowing water excavating and carrying
away material from the bed and banks of streams. Potential scour can be a
significant factor in the analysis of a stream crossing system. The design of a
crossing system involves an acceptable balance between a waterway opening that
will not create undue damage by backwater or suffer undue damage from scour
and a crossing profile sufficiently high to provide the required traffic service.
The rates of scour in different materials and under different flow conditions
depend on erosive power of the flow, erosion resistance of the material, and a
balance between sediment transported into and out of a section.
With erosion-resistant materials, final, worst case, or equilibrium scour may not
be reached in any one flood but may develop over a long series of events. The
methods currently available do not specifically accommodate cohesive bed
materials or time-dependency. Therefore, consider the results of any scour
calculations only as an indication of the maximum potential scour. Use judgment
to decide whether or not calculated depths are likely for the given site conditions
and life expectancy of the bridge.
Present applicable technology dictates that bridge scour should be evaluated as
interrelated components:
Local scour.
Long-term profile changes can result from stream bed profile changes that occur
from aggradation and / or degradation:
Aggradation is the deposition of bedload due to a decrease in stream sediment
transport capacity that results from a reduction in the energy gradient.
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A.1.2 Contraction
Channel contraction scour results from a constriction of the channel that may, in
part, be caused by bridge piers in the waterway. Deposition results from an
expansion of the channel or the bridge site being positioned immediately
downstream of a steeper reach of stream. Highways, bridges and natural channel
contractions are the most commonly encountered cause of contraction scour.
Contraction scour occurs when the flow area of a stream at flood stage decreases
either by a natural contraction or by a bridge. From continuity, a decrease in flow
area results in an increase in average velocity and bed shear stress through the
contraction, thus increasing erosive forces and removing more bed material from
the contracted reach than is transported into the reach. This increase in transport
of bed material from the reach lowers the natural bed elevation. As the bed
elevation decreases, the flow area increases, and the velocity and shear stress
decrease until relative equilibrium is reached, i.e., until the quantity of bed material
that is transported into the reach is equal to that removed from the reach.
Depending on the stream flow, contraction scour can be either live-bed or clear-
water. Live-bed scour occurs when the bed material upstream of the constriction
is in motion. The scour that results at the constriction reflects equilibrium between
the sediment transported into the section and that transported away from the
section. Under live-bed conditions, scour holes created during the rising stage of a
flood often refill during the recession stage.
Clear-water scour occurs when the bed material is not in motion. The sediment
transported into the contracted section is essentially zero. Clear-water scour
occurs when the shear stress induced by the water flow exceeds the critical shear
stress of the bed material. Generally, with clear-water scour, no refilling occurs
during the recession of the flood due to the lack of sediment supply. During the
initial stages of a flood, clear-water scour could occur followed by live-bed scour
at higher flood stages.
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Local scour involves the removal of material around piers, abutments, spurs, and
embankments.
Local scour is a function of the geometry of these features as they relate to the flow
geometry. However, the importance of these geometric variables will vary.
Increasing the pier or cofferdam width either through design or debris
accumulation will increase the amount of local scour, but only up to a point in
subcritical flow streams. After reaching this point, pier scour should not be
expected to measurably increase with increased stream velocity or depth.
Armoring occurs because a stream or river is unable, during a particular flood, to
move the more coarse material comprising either the bed or, if some bed scour
occurs, its underlying material. Scour may occur initially but later become arrested
by armoring before the full scour potential is reached for a given flood magnitude.
When armoring does occur, the coarser bed material will tend to remain in place
or quickly redeposit to form a layer of riprap-like armor on the stream bed or in
the scour holes and thus limit further scour for a particular discharge. This
armoring effect can decrease scour hole depths that were predicted based on
formulae developed for sand or other fine-material channels for a particular flood
magnitude. When a larger flood occurs than used to define the probable scour hole
depths, scour will probably penetrate deeper until armoring again occurs at some
lower threshold.
If armoring of the stream bed occurs, there may be a tendency for the stream to
widen its banks to maintain a continuity of sediment transport. This could result
in a more unstable, braided regime. Such instabilities may pose serious problems
for bridges and flood control structures because they encourage further, difficult-
to-assess plan-form changes. Also, the effect of bank widening is to spread the
approach flow distribution that, in turn, results in a more severe bridge opening
contraction.
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clear-water scour. The critical velocity is calculated using the equation by Laursen
(1963):
Equation A1-1
= 6.1910.166 50
0.33
where:
Vc = critical velocity above which material will be transported, (m/s)
y1 = average depth of flow in the main channel at approach section,
(m)
D50 = bed particle size in a mixture of which 50% are smaller, (m)
The average live bed contraction scour depth uses the modified version of
Laursens live-bed scour equation (based on HEC18):
Equation A1-2
2 0.857 1 1
2 = 1 ( ) ( )
1 2
= 2 0
where:
ys = average depth of contraction scour (m)
y2 = average depth after scour in the contracted section (m). This is
taken as the section inside bridge at the upstream end.
y1 = average depth in the main channel or floodplain at the approach
section (m)
yo = average depth in the main channel or floodplain at the contracted
cross section before scour (m)
Q1 = flow in the main channel or floodplain at approach section
(m3/s)
Q2 = flow in the main channel or floodplain at the contracted cross
section (m3/s)
Wl = bottom width of the main channel or floodplain at the approach
section (m)
W2 = bottom width of main channel or floodplain at the contracted
cross section less pier widths (m)
K1 = an exponent determined using the Table A1-1.
V* = shear velocity in upstream cross section (m/s) = (gy1S1)0.5
= fall velocity of bed material (m/s) based on Figure A1-1
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
Figure A1-1 Fall Velocity of Sand-sized Particles with Specific Gravity of 2.65
Source: HEC18
Equation A1-3
3/7
0.025 2
2 = [ 2 ]
3 2
ys = y2 y0 (average contraction scour depth)
where:
y2 = average depth in the contracted section after contraction scour,
(m)
yo = average existing depth in the contracted section, (m)
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Equation A1-4
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Table A1-3 Correction Factor, K2, for Angle of Attack, , of the Flow
Table A1-4 Increase in Equilibrium Pier Scour Depths, K3, for Bed Condition
The correction factor K4 decreases scour depths for armoring of the scour hole for
bed materials that have a D50 equal to or larger than 2.0 mm and D95 equal to or
larger than 20 mm. The correction factor then is as follows:
If D50 < 2 mm or D95 < 20 mm, then k4 = 1
If D50 > or equal 2 mm and D95 >or equal 20 mm, then
K4 = 0.4 (Vr)0.15
where:
Vr = (V1 VicD50) / (VcD50 VicD50) > 0
And
VicDx = approach velocity (m/s) required to initiate scour at the pier for
the grain size Dx (m)
VicDx = 0.645 (Dx/a)0.053 VcDx
VcDx = critical velocity (m/s) for incipient motion for grain size Dx (m)
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
where:
y1 = depth of flow just upstream of the pier, excluding local scour, (m)
V1 = velocity of the approach flow just upstream of the pier, (m/s)
Dx = grain size for which x percent of bed material is finer, (m)
For complex pier foundations such pile groups, pile groups and pile caps, pile
groups, pile caps and solid piers exposed to flow, detailed scour estimation is
referred to in Evaluating Scour at Bridges (HEC18, 2001).
As a check on the potential depth of scour to aid in the design of the foundation and
placement of rock riprap and / or guide banks, Froehlich's (1989) live-bed scour
equation or the HIRE equation in FHA (2001[2]) can be used.
Equation A1-5
0.43
= 2.27 1 2 ( ) 0.61 + 1
where:
ys = scour depth, m
K1 = coefficient for abutment shape (Table A1-5)
K2 = coefficient for angle of embankment to flow
K2 = (/90)0.13 (see Figure A1-3 for definition of )
<90 if embankment points downstream
>90 if embankment points upstream
L = length of active flow obstructed by the embankment, m (refer
Figure A1-4)
Ae = flow area of the approach cross section obstructed by the
embankment, (m2)
Fr = Froude Number of approach flow upstream of the abutment =
Ve/(gya)0.50
Ve = Qe/Ae, (m/s)
Qe = flow obstructed by the abutment and approach embankment,
m3/s
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Description K1
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Figure A1-4 Determination of Length of Embankment (L') Blocking Live Flow for Abutment
Scour Estimation
The HIRE equation, is applicable when the ratio of projected abutment length (L)
to the flow depth (y1) is greater than 25. This equation can be used to estimate
which the equation was derived:
Equation A1-6
= 41 ( 10.55) 2 10.33
where:
ys = scour depth, m
y1 = depth of flow at the toe of the abutment on the overbank or in
the main channel, m
Fr1 = Froude Number based on the velocity and depth adjacent to and
upstream of the abutment
K1 = abutment shape coefficient (from Table A1-5)
K2 = coefficient for skew angle of abutment to flow calculated as for
Froehlich's equation
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
A simplified version of Equation A1-6 can be adopted to estimate the scour at the
nose of these transverse structures. Equation A1-7 may be adopted where the
projecting embankment or abutment length is large in relation to the flow depth
(a/y1>25). Where this is not the case, Equation A1-8 may be adopted.
Equation A1-7
= 41 0.33
where:
ys = equilibrium depth of scour, m
y1 = average upstream flow depth in the main channel or on the
overbank, outside the influence of the structure, m
a = structure length projecting normal to the flow, m
Fr = upstream Froude Number outside the influence of the structure
Equation A1-8
0.4
= 1.11 ( ) 0.33
1
Scour occurs at longitudinal structures when the flow is parallel to a wall due to
the change in friction presented by the wall.
HEC23 (2009) presents a methodology for calculating the scour, as provided in
Equation A1-9.
Equation A1-9
= 1 (0.73 + 0.142 )
where:
ys = equilibrium depth of scour, m
y1 = average flow depth in the main channel, m
Fr = upstream Froude Number
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
When flow arrives at an angle to the vertical wall, there is additional scour that can
occur. HEC23 (2009) provides an estimation of the scour depth for this scenario
and this is shown in Equation A1-10.
Equation A1-10
Flow behaviour around a bend will result in higher scour on the outside of the bend
than that of the inside of the bend. In the design of revetments and dikes, it is
important to understand the maximum depth of scour that is expected at the
outside of the bend.
HEC23 (2009) provides a method for estimating the expected depth on the outer
part of the bend. This is the long term expected depth based on the bend
characteristics. It can be used to subsequently determine the maximum scour that
is expected.
Equation A1-11
= 1.8 0.051 ( ) + 0.0084 ( )
where:
Rc = centreline radius of the bend, m
W = width of the bend, m
Dmxb = maximum water depth in the bend, m
Dmnc = average water depth in the crossing upstream of the bend, m
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
For the purposes of estimating the downstream scour channel beds resulting from
groundsills, it has been assumed that:
Flow is occurring in unsubmerged flow conditions (a conservative
assumption)
That the drop is vertical
A sketch of a typical vertical drop groundsill, with unsubmerged flow occurring, is
shown in Figure A1-5.
The scour depth, ds, may be found from the equation:
= ( 0.225 0.54 )
where:
ds = local scour depth for a free overfall, measured from the
streambed downstream of the drop (m)
q = discharge per unit width (m3/s/m)
Ht = total drop in head, measured from the upstream to downstream
energy grade line (m)
dm = tailwater depth (m)
Ku = 1.9
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
The subscripts u and d refer to upstream and downstream of the channel drop
respectively.
Note that the estimated depth of scour is independent of the grain size of the bed
material in the above equation. It is assumed that the bed will scour regardless, but
that the rate of scour will vary depending on the bed material.
The check dam must be designed structurally to withstand the forces of water and
soil assuming that the scour hole is as deep as estimated from the above equation,
in order to ensure successful operation over the design life of the groundsill.
A.8 References
A-14
Annex B Sediment Transport Concepts
Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
B.1 Overview
A brief introduction to key sediment transport concepts is provided as the topic is
complex and there are many different approaches to analysis. This section is
largely based on FHA (2012).
Sediment transport involves complex processes that interact to produce the
existing channel form and future channel adjustments. The amount of material
transported or deposited in a stream under a given set of conditions is the result
of the interaction of two groups of variables that influence:
Quantity and Quality of Sediment - The variables depend on the geology and
topography of watershed; magnitude, intensity, duration, distribution, and
season of rainfall; soil moisture conditions; vegetal cover; cultivation and
grazing; surface erosion and bank cutting
Capacity of the Stream to Transport the Sediment - The variables depend on
hydraulic properties of the stream channel which are fluid and flow related
properties including: slope, roughness, hydraulic radius, discharge, velocity,
velocity distribution, turbulence, tractive force, viscosity and density of the
fluid sediment mixture, and size and gradation of the sediment.
These variables are not all independent and, in some cases, their effect is not
definitely known. The variables which control the amount of sediment brought
down to the stream are subject to wide variation, not only between streams but at
a given point of a single stream. The quantitative analysis of any particular case is
extremely difficult.
It is practicable to measure the sediment discharge over a long period of time and
record the results, and from these records to determine a soil loss from the area.
The variables that deal with the capacity of the stream to transport solids are
subject to mathematical analysis as these variables are closely related to the
hydraulic variables which control the capacity of the stream to carry water.
Many aspects of hydrology play a role in sediment transport analyses including
peak flow rates, individual flood hydrographs, and the duration of flow. The entire
range of flow may be significant because even though the highest flows have the
highest rates of sediment transport, lower flows may have significantly longer
durations and produce the greatest cumulative sediment transport.
As channels respond and adjust to changes in flow and sediment supply, changing
watershed conditions often result in changes in channel geometry. Channel
geometry, bed material, and vegetation determine hydraulic variables (such as
velocity and depth), which in turn control sediment transport capacity. Therefore,
sediment transport and channel stability depend not only on the specific physical
processes, but also the history of natural and human-induced factors in the
watershed.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
Of the various sediment properties, physical size has by far the greatest
significance and other parameters such as fall velocity tend to be related to
physical size. In general, sediments have been classified into boulders, cobbles,
gravels, sands, silts, and clays on the basis of their nominal or sieve diameters.
Particle Shape
The prime indicator of the interaction of sediments in suspension within the flow
is the fall velocity of sediment particles. The fall velocity of a particle is defined as
the velocity of that particle falling alone in quiescent, distilled water of infinite
extent.
Sediment Size Distribution
Specific weight is weight per unit volume and is expressed in grams per cubic
centimeter.
Porosity
The porosity of granular materials is the ratio of the volume of void space to the
total volume of an undisturbed sample.
Angle of Repose
The angle of repose is the maximum slope angle upon which non-cohesive material
will reside without moving. It is a measure of the inter-granular friction of the
material and is different for dry versus submerged conditions.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
Equation B4-1
0=yS0
where:
0 = shear stress (Pa)
y = flow depth (m)
= specific weight of water (N/m3)
S0 = bed slope
The critical shear stress for a particle can be estimated as:
Equation B4-2
c=ks Ds (s-)
where:
c = critical shear stress for beginning of motion (Pa)
ks = Shields parameter
Ds = particle size (m)
s = specific weight of particle (N/m3)
The Shields parameter ranges from 0.03 to 0.10 for natural sediments and depends
on particle shape, angularity, gradation and imbrication. The use of 0.047 is
common for sand sizes. When the shear stress of the flow exceeds the critical shear
stress of the particle, the channel bed begins to mobilize and bed material is
transported downstream. Particle motion begins as sliding and rolling of
individual particles along the bed. It is important to recognize that the Shields
equation is not a sediment transport equation because it does not provide any
estimate of the amount of sediment in motion. It is also important to note that only
the shear stress acting on the particles, or grain friction, should be used in applying
this relationship.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
The suspended bed material load depends on the interaction between gravity and
turbulence. Because gravity is causing particles to settle, they are concentrated
near the bed. Turbulence mixes the particles in the water column and, depending
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
on the size and specific weight of the particles, relatively few particles may reach
the surface.
Larger particles have greater fall velocities and therefore for a given level of
turbulence large particles will remain close to the bed. Finer particles are mixed
higher into the flow and have higher concentrations. Extremely fine particles have
nearly uniform concentrations, primarily silts and clays, and have very small fall
velocities. They are defined as wash load, which are derived primarily from upland
erosion and bank erosion of floodplain materials. Wash load material is not found
in appreciable quantities in the channel bed. In summary, bed material is
transported in contact with the bed (bed load) and in suspension (suspended bed
material load). The total sediment load transported by the channel also includes
wash load, which is supplied to the channel rather than derived from the bed. In
coarse bed channels, such as cobble-bed and boulder-bed streams, sand may act
as wash load because it is not found in appreciable quantities in the bed and
because the supply is far less than the channel capacity to transport this size.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
develop many of the sediment transport equations used for sand and gravel sizes.
Any equation that is considered for use should be evaluated for applicability to the
specific conditions.
An overview of three methods to estimate the bed material sediment transport is
presented as derived primarily from FHWA (2001). Upstream sediment input to
the study area should be considered. Detailed information and key assumptions
for these methods should be studied in FHWA (2001) before use of the method as
following as estimation of sediment transport is a complex.
Equation B4-3
qb = K( 3/2
)
where:
3/2
1 12.9
K= [ 1/3
]
2/3
() ( )
Qb 3/2
= ( ) ( )
Q
= ( )
qB = metric-tons/day/meter (Tons/day/foot)
Qb = water discharge quantity determining the bed-load transport,
m3/s (cfs)
Q = total water discharge m3/s (cfs)
D90, Dm = particle size, mm (both SI and English units)
| p| DS|
Dm =
100
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
where:
KB f' V
= b
Kr 8 gRSf
Where fb, the Darcy-Weisbach bed friction bed friction factor for the grain
roughness, fb is determined from the Nikuradse pipe friction data with pipe
diameter equal to four times the hydraulic radius and K6 = D90. If the boundary is
hydraulically rough, (VxD90/100), Kr is given by:
26
=
901/6
Qb 1
=
Q 2yo (1+H25 )
1/2
n 3/2
1+
W
( nw )
b
The term Nb is the Mannings roughness coefficient for the bed of rectangular
channels:
2/3
2yo nw 3/2
Nb =n {1+ (1- ( ) )}
w n
1/2 2/3
2yo (1+H52 ) nw 3/2
nb =n {1+ [1- ( ) ]}
w n
where:
n, nb, nw = roughness coefficients of the total stream, of the bed, and of the
banks, respectively
H5 = horizontal side slope related to one unit vertically
W = bottom width
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
Equation B4-4
yo
qs = s vcdy
a
where:
q6 = suspended load discharge per unit width
s = weigh per unit volume of suspended sediment
V = velocity at height y above the bed
C = volumetric concentric at height y above the bed
It applies logarithmic velocity distribution and solves a number of equations for
different grain sizes. Further details are available in FHWA (2001).
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
Figure B- 2 Relation Of Discharge of Sands to Mean Velocity for Six Median Sizes of Bed
Sands, Four Depths of Flow, and a Water Temperature of 60F
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
Equation B4- 5
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 3 Water Projects Design
B.5 References
American Society of Civil Engineers [ASCE] (2008). Sedimentation Engineering
Processes, Measurements, Modeling, and Practice, M.H. Garcia (ed.), ASCE Manuals
and Reports on Engineering Practice No. 110.
Julien, P.Y. (2010). Erosion and Sedimentation, second edition, Cambridge
University Press.
Simons, D.B. and F. Senturk (1992). Sediment Transport Technology, Water
Resources Pub.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (2002). SAM Hydraulic Design Package for Channels,
Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and
Development Center.
US Department of Transportation Federal Highways Division [FHWA] (2001).
River Engineering for Highway Encroachments Highways in the River
Environment, Hydraulic Design Series No. 6.
US Department of Transportation Federal Highways Division [FHWA] (2012).
Stream Stability at Highway Structures, 4th Edition, Hydraulic Engineering Circular
No. 20, April.
Yang, C.T. (2003). Sediment Transport: Theory and Practice, Krieger Publishing
Company.
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