Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Tony Page,1 Hanington Tate,2 Joseph Tungon,2 Michael Tabi,2 Phyllis Kamasteia2
1 James Cook University, Cairns, Australia
2 Department of Forests, Port Vila, Vanuatu
2012
The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) was established in June
1982 by an Act of the Australian Parliament. ACIAR operates as part of Australias international
development cooperation program, with a mission to achieve more productive and sustainable
agricultural systems, for the benefit of developing countries and Australia. It commissions
collaborative research between Australian and developing-country researchers in areas where
Australia has special research competence. It also administers Australias contribution to the
International Agricultural Research Centres.
Where trade names are used, this constitutes neither endorsement of nor discrimination against
any product by the Centre.
Foreword 3
Contents
Foreword 3 Weeds 37
Weed controlpulling and
Abbreviations 6 cutting............................................. 38
Host competition............................ 39
Introduction 7 Sandalwood competition............... 39
Sandalwood products...................... 7
Diseases 40
Sandalwood markets........................ 7
Processing sandalwood................... 8 Phellinus noxius.............................. 40
Leaf blackspot................................. 42
Biology 9
Pests 43
Nursery 11 Sap-sucking insects........................ 43
Seed collection and storage.......... 11
Other problems 44
Germination.................................... 13
Growing seedlings.......................... 14 Grazing cattle.................................. 44
Planting the pot host ..................... 14 Seed predation by birds................ 44
Hardening seedlings...................... 14 Fire................................................... 45
Raising wildlings............................. 15 Cyclones.......................................... 45
Nursery construction...................... 16
Nursery management.................... 17 Heartwood and harvesting 46
Tree growth rates............................ 46
Establishing a plantation 19 Heartwood development............... 47
Site selection................................... 19 Sandalwood harvesting.................. 47
Site preparation.............................. 19 Preliminary processing................... 50
Sandalwood spacing...................... 20 Sale.................................................. 51
Direct seeding................................. 21
Planting seedlings.......................... 21 Sourcing capital 53
Joint-venture plantings.................. 53
Pruning saplings 24 Sandalwood as collateral .............. 54
Formative pruning.......................... 24
Form pruning.................................. 24 Frequently asked questions 55
Remedial pruning........................... 28
Correctly pruned ............................ 29 Further reading 56
Incorrectly pruned.......................... 29
Hosts 30
Pot host........................................... 30
Intermediate hosts.......................... 31
Intermediate to long-term host..... 32
Long-term hosts.............................. 33
Contents 5
Abbreviations
2CC second cutting chips
cm centimetre
g gram
kg kilogram
m metre
mm millimetre
6 Vanuatu sandalwood
Introduction
Sandalwood products
Sandalwood trees (Santalum spp.)
are highly valued for their fragrant
heartwood oils, and are recognised as
one of the most precious non-timber
forest products. The oils have been
used for centuries for religious and
customary purposes, and are now
used internationally for cosmetics,
aromatherapy, scenting of soaps,
perfumery and medicines.
Introduction 7
Processing sandalwood The production of high-quality oil
requires a high level of experience
The carving log attracts the highest and knowledge of the process. The
price in the marketplace, followed price of oil therefore contains the cost
by oil then powder. However, the of the heartwood and other inputs,
profitability of each product also such as fuel and labourthis is why
depends on the cost of production. oil has a much higher price than
powdered heartwood. The high input
All products require the outer costs for oil production may mean
sapwood to be removed (desapped), that profitability is marginal for some
which is typically done by the processors.
harvester or grower before sale. The
total cost of processing is lowest for
carving logs; they require further
desapping, which removes the
final layer of sapwood next to the
heartwood and produces second
cutting chips (2CC). The log ends Sandalwood logs
are then sealed (usually with wax) to
prevent rapid drying and cracking.
Powdered wood requires additional
milling and blending of different
powders to achieve a final product
that is acceptable for use in agarbatti.
Powder and chips
Sandalwood oil is the most expensive
to produce because the heartwood
needs to be powdered before
the oil is extracted by an energy-
intensive and complex process called
distillation.
8 Vanuatu sandalwood
Biology
Vanuatu sandalwood is a small tree
(512 m tall) that occurs naturally in
west-coast Santo, western Malekula,
north-western Efate, Erromango,
Tanna, Aniwa, Futuna and Aneityum.
Sandalwood is hemiparasitic, which
means that the trees have to grow
with other species to survive. When
growing sandalwood seedlings, a
host plant needs to be planted with
the sandalwood seedling (a pot
host). Host plants need to be planted
among the sandalwood trees in the
field to promote vigorous sandalwood
growth.
Leaves
Biology 9
Flowers: small, with four greenish-
white flower parts (tepals) that are
borne in branched inflorescences
twice each year. Individual flowers
typically open in the morning of one
day and close by the afternoon of
thenext.
10 Vanuatu sandalwood
Nursery
A common method for establishing Seed collection and storage
new sandalwood plants is to sow
seeds in a substance that promotes It is important to use good-quality
germination (a germination medium), seeds because they produce strong,
and raise seedlings in soil-filled poly healthy seedlings. Use the basic
bags in a nursery before planting methods of preparation outlined on
them in the field. the next page.
Nursery 11
Collecting and preparing seeds
1. Pick Pick ripe fruit from the tree, and collect fruit that has
recently fallen to the ground. Ripe fruit are soft, shiny
and purple to black.
ripe
Immature fruit are hard, dull and green. Do not collect
seeds from green fruit because they will not be viable.
immature
2. Soak Soak the ripe fruit 3. Clean Rub the soaked fruit
in a bucket of between your palms
water overnight to remove the flesh
(about 12hours) from the seed. flesh
to loosen the Rinse the seed in
flesh. clean water to remove
any impurities.
seed
12 Vanuatu sandalwood
Germination Germinating seeds
Seeds germinate best when they 1. Nick Nick the seed shell
are sown in a free-draining medium to expose the kernel.
such as 2:1 mix of river sand and soil. Nicked seed begins
Composted sawdust is also a very to germinate after
good germination medium. 2weeks, whereas
seeds that are not
nicked may take
6weeks to germinate.
Nursery 13
Growing seedlings Planting the pot host
Seedlings are ready to be The pot host Alternanthera (see
transplanted to poly bags once they page 30) should be planted as stem
develop two true leaves. cuttings after the sandalwood is at
the 46-leaf stage. If the pot host is
Pricking out seedlings planted too early, it will grow quickly
1. Prepare poly bag Use a sterilised to overtop the young seedling,
growing medium in the poly bags that leading to stunted growth and death
has 50% sand to assist drainage and 50% of the sandalwood. If the pot host is
soil to improve water-holding capacity.
planted too late, the sandalwood may
2. Prick out Prick out the grow slowly.
seedlings (when
they are at the 2-leaf
stage) by lifting the
root system with a Hardening seedlings
cleaned stick and
pulling gently on the Once the seedlings reach the
base of the stem. 1012-leaf stage, they need to be
progressively moved to areas of
3. Transplant Plant the seedling
higher light levels to harden or
firmly in the medium
and cover the roots. acclimatise them to conditions in the
field. They should have 50% shade
in the first month, then 25% shade
for another month, and then one to
several months in full sun, before they
are planted in the field. Seedlings
4. Raise bags Place the poly bags transplanted directly from the shade
on raised benches, to a full-sun position in the field
particularly during typically have poor survival.
the rainy season, to
help drainage. A seedling is ready to plant in the
field when it shows at least two of the
5. Protect Cover the seedlings
following signs:
during periods of
heavy rain to reduce The seedling is actively growing,
the chance of the with new shoots, and has deep
growing medium
becoming saturated. green leaves.
Grow the seedlings The bottom of the stem is slightly
under shade
(e.g.shady tree woody (i.e. changes from green
orshade cloth). tobrown).
14 Vanuatu sandalwood
Height is about
2030cm.
The seedling
has small
branches
developing at
the junction of
the leaf and
main stem.
Some small Digging up a wildling
roots are
visible through
the holes in the Water the cultivated area during
bottom of the dry periods, if possible, or after
plastic. the first seedlings break through
Seedling ready for thesoil.
transplanting in the field
Keep the cultivated area free from
Raising wildlings weed regrowth.
Nursery 15
Nursery construction
A plant nursery is any place that grows
seedlings for planting at another site.
Plant nurseries take on many different
forms, but good-quality sandalwood
seedlings can be produced in even
very basic nurseries, provided that the
nursery is in a sheltered position with
ample natural light and accessible 1
fresh water.
16 Vanuatu sandalwood
Nursery management
In addition to appropriately managing
the pot host and progressively
hardening the seedlings, attention
to hygiene, preparation of growing
medium, drainage, and appropriate
watering and fertilisation regimes will
provide good results.
5
Hygiene
Good hygiene in the nursery can
ensure the development of healthy
seedlings. The key is to keep the
nursery free from plant debris
(e.g. prunings, fallen leaves, dead
seedlings), which will limit the
potential for disease to develop.
6 Many unexplained problems in the
nursery can be attributed to diseases
caused by unseen fungi and bacteria.
Sterilising the growing medium
can help to prevent diseases being
brought in by the soil. The medium
can be sterilised by sandwiching it in
black plastic and leaving it in the sun
for a day, or heating it over a fire in a
steel drum.
7
Nursery 17
Watering seedlings with a hose
Watering
The watering regime for seedlings
raised in a nursery will vary according
to the amount of rainfall and the
position of the seedling in the nursery
(e.g. 50% shade versus full sun).
18 Vanuatu sandalwood
Establishing a plantation
Establishing a plantation 19
Poor weed control in the first few needs to be evenly distributed around
years of the plantation is the main the base of the tree, but not touching
cause of tree death and plantation the stem.
failure. Selecting a site with fewer
weeds can help to reduce the labour
inputs for controlling weeds. Sites that
have many vigorous weeds need to
Sandalwood spacing
be manually weeded every week. The distance between sandalwood
and host trees (see page 30) is critical
Establishing sandalwood in a new
to ensure good growth over the
garden area makes the task of
entire rotation of the plantation. The
controlling the weeds less onerous
minimum spacing of sandalwood
because the weeds in the garden
trees is 3 m 6 m or 5m 5 m, with
and sandalwood planting can be
large, long-term host trees planted at
controlled at the same time. Better
least every fifth tree within each row.
early growth of sandalwood occurs
At a spacing of 3m for sandalwood,
in newly established gardens than in
the host trees would be spaced
older gardens where soil nutrients
every 15m. It is recommended that
have been depleted. Sandalwood
each row is offset so that every
also benefits from fertiliser that is
sandalwood is within 56m of a
applied during the establishment
longterm host (see below).
years. As a guide, Nitrophoska Blue
(or equivalent organic fertiliser) may The number of intermediate host
be applied at 2550g at 6months, trees will depend on the size of the
50100g at 12months, and 200g at host tree. In the example below,
24, 36 and 48months. This fertiliser pigeon pea has been included
Intermediate host
3m 3m 3m 3m 3m Sandalwood (e.g. pigeon pea)
6m
6m
Long-term host 15 m
(e.g. namariu)
20 Vanuatu sandalwood
Direct seeding
Good results can be achieved by
sowing sandalwood seed directly in
the soil at the planting site. Although
a direct-seeded site requires high
maintenance, seedlings managed
appropriately can have greater early
vigour than those transplanted from
the nursery.
Wide spacing in a large-scale
commercial planting To achieve good survival, the area
needs to be managed as intensively
as a nursery:
in every interspace between
the sandalwood trees. Larger Keep the cultivated area free from
intermediate hosts such as coral tree, weeds.
Sesbania and cassis may be spaced
Water seedlings frequently during
more widelysay, every second or
hot, dry conditions (daily watering
third sandalwood tree. In contrast,
may be required).
pinto peanut can be planted across
the whole site and, when managed Provide the seedlings with shade, if
correctly, can fill the entire ground necessary (e.g. an adjacent tree or
level and support all the sandalwood a frame with coconut leaves).
trees, as well as suppressing weeds.
In commercial plantings, it is
important that the spacing between Planting seedlings
the rows is large enough (at least The planting technique that is used
4m) for a tractor to slash between can mean the difference between
therows. vigorous early growth and seedling
A sandalwood planting can be loss. It is much better to take the time
established by direct seeding, or the to plant properly than to rush this
planting of wildlings or nursery-raised important step. Young seedlings enter
seedlings. a period of stress immediately after
transplanting, and this stress should
be minimised by good planting
practices so that seedlings quickly
restart leaf and root growth.
Establishing a plantation 21
Planting seedlings to ensure the best chance of survival
Plant only in soil that has good soil moisture and when the weather is not too hot.
1. Dig hole Dig a hole that 4. Plant Place the seedling
is wider but in the hole without
only slightly disturbing the roots.
deeper than
the poly bag.
2. Cut poly bag Cut the poly 5. Fill hole Fill the hole and
bag carefully press the soil in only
to minimise very slightly with
disturbance hands. Never stamp
and breakage the seedling in with
of the roots.a feet, as this
will break the
roots of the
seedling.
a
To reuse the poly bag, follow the steps on the next page.
22 Vanuatu sandalwood
Planting seedlings and saving
the poly bag for reuse
1. Wet Wet the soil in
the poly bag.
Establishing a plantation 23
Pruning saplings
The carving log, which is the most Form pruning
valuable sandalwood product, is
formed in the heartwood of the lower Often a tree is not pruned for a year
trunk with no branches. Through or more and needs to be pruned to
formative pruning in the first 34years bring it back to being a tree with a
of a trees life, a farmer can promote single trunk. Form pruning is distinct
a single-stemmed trunk and improve from formative pruning in that it
the chances of a tree forming a requires a knife or secateurs. This
carving log. method is effective for young saplings
up to 4years old, but less effective
Heartwood development begins in for older trees. Older trees should be
the roots and butt of the tree and left unpruned, because pruning can
progresses up the main trunk. A fork introduce heartwood rot or disease.
in the trunk will typically slow the rate
of vertical heartwood development
up the main stems. Therefore, the
volume of heartwood in two large
branches is typically less than that in
an equivalent-sized main stem.
Formative pruning
Formative pruning of young saplings
is the most effective pruning method
because it removes only a very small
amount of productive photosynthetic
leaf material. This is achieved by
pinching off all growing tips that
compete with the central leader.
24 Vanuatu sandalwood
Formative pruning
1. Identify central leader The central leader is
the main, central
growing point of
thetree.
Pruning saplings 25
Form pruning
1. Identify forked sapling Select saplings with a forked trunk.
2. Remove fork Remove the fork by cutting the unwanted branch with
asharp knife or secateurs.
26 Vanuatu sandalwood
Form pruning (continued)
3. Identify competing leader A competing leader is a branch growing vertically
towards the top of the tree.
Pruning saplings 27
Remedial pruning Select new leader Competing
leaders
Pruning back to a single remove with
secateurs
leader is often necessary
when the central growing
tip is damaged, possibly
by wind, a bird or a falling
branch. This can be done
immediately after growth
recommences.
28 Vanuatu sandalwood
Correctly pruned
A sandalwood tree that has
been correctly pruned has:
one trunk and a single
leader at the top
a canopy of leaves that
extends approximately
two-thirds of the height of
the tree, providing a good
area for photosynthesis,
which will ensure a
vigoroustree
a canopy that tapers
towards the top, providing
good balance (a low
centre of gravity).
Incorrectly pruned
An example of a sandalwood
tree that has been incorrectly
pruned has:
an inappropriate shape
in this case, a lollipop,
because too many lower
branches have been
removed
a reduced canopythis
reduces photosynthetic
capacity and hence the
vigour of the tree
many branches at the
top, which make the tree
top heavy and unstable,
particularly in the wind.
Pruning saplings 29
Hosts
The plants with which sandalwood Pot host
forms haustoria (see page 10) are
called hosts. Sandalwood forms
haustoria with many different species,
Alternanthera
but some species (particularly Alternanthera nana
legumes) support greater growth
and vigour in the sandalwood. There
are three main host types used for
Sandalwood
cultivating sandalwood:
pot hostplanted in the poly bag
after the seedling reaches the
46-leaf stage and typically persists
in the field for a time after planting
intermediate hostsmall tree or
large shrub, typically a short-lived
(about 5years) nitrogen-fixing
Alternanthera nana
legume that is planted close to the
sandalwood
long-term hostlarge tree that
provides a host for the entire
sandalwood rotation; it is planted
at a lower density in the plantation
and at least 3m from the closest Alternanthera nana with
sandalwood tree. sandalwood seedlings in poly bags
30 Vanuatu sandalwood
Intermediate hosts Pigeon pea
Cajanus cajan
Pinto peanut Sandalwood
Arachis pintoi
Sandalwood
Pinto peanut
Hosts 31
Sesbania Intermediate to
Sesbania grandiflora long-term host
Coral tree
Erythrina poeppigiana
32 Vanuatu sandalwood
Cassis Long-term hosts
Leucaenea leucocephala
Brau
Hibiscus tiliaceus
Brau Sandalwood
Hosts 33
Oak tree or coastal she-oak Bluwota or rosewood
Casuarina equisetifolia Pterocarpus indicus
34 Vanuatu sandalwood
Namariu Red seed or biza
Acacia spirorbis Adenanthera pavonina
Hosts 35
Citrus (orange, pamplemousse,
lime or lemon)
Citrus species
36 Vanuatu sandalwood
Weeds
Every newly planted seedling
requires a weed-free area of at least
1 m2 for at least 3 years. The most
common cause of plantation failure is
inadequate weed control during the
years of establishment. This means
that labour inputs for weed control
need to be considered in any new
sandalwood planting.
Weeds 37
for establishing sandalwood in Weed controlpulling
Vanuatu. These vines include
Glycine max (soybean), Merremia
and cutting
peltata (merremia or big leaf) and If manual weed
Mikania micrantha (mile-a-minute or control is used, in
Americanrope). weedy sites it is best
to clean around the
base of each tree
every 12 weeks.
38 Vanuatu sandalwood
Host competition
Sandalwood does not grow well under
high competition for soil nutrients,
water and light from other plants,
including hosts. Although hosts are
necessary for good sandalwood
growth, most can outcompete
sandalwood if they are too dense
or their growth is left unchecked.
Planting among cassis thickets often
leads to stunted sandalwood growth,
with pronounced leaf yellowing (see Yellowing sandalwood in cassis thicket
top right image).
Sandalwood competition
Sandalwood growth is severely
reduced when it is planted at a high
density (spacings less than 3m4m).
Although good early growth can
be achieved at such densities, after
34 years growth will stagnate as
a result of competition between
Crowded sandalwood
sandalwood trees for soil nutrients,
surrounded by oak trees
water and light. The two images to
the right are severe examples of the
effects of high-density plantings. The
trees in the centre image are limited
by both the high planting density
(1.5m1.5m) and the high number
of host trees (oak trees) planted
around the sandalwood. The trees in
the bottom image are 10 years of age;
they are spindly because of a high
planting density and lack of available
long-term hosts.
Weeds 39
Diseases
Phellinus noxius The disease is spread through the
root systems of affected trees, and
infection can therefore rapidly spread
to other trees in a plantation.
Phellinus prevention
The best way to control Phellinus is to
prevent infection by:
avoiding planting in areas where
the disease is already established
Navwun at the base of a sandalwood trunk selecting a site that is free-draining
and on a slight slope; waterlogged
soil promotes the growth of
thefungus
removing all living stumps when
clearing a new site, because living
stumps and roots are the most
likely sites for Phellinus spores to
establish a new colony; stumps
should be burned to ensure that
they are completely dead
allowing a short period of fallow
after clearing, or ensuring that
Navwun-infected sandalwood losing its leaves
the refuse and roots of old trees
that may harbour Phellinus have
Phellinus noxius is a fungal root decomposed
infection (locally known as navwun),
planting herbaceous plants
which has the potential to kill
adjacent to each sandalwood tree
sandalwood seedlings and trees.
(e.g. Euphorbia tithymaloides [vinil],
The leaves of affected trees will
Alpinia purpurata [red ginger] and
rapidly turn from green to brown
Cordyline fruticosa [cordyline or
before dropping within a few weeks
nangaria] are said to help prevent
of showing the first symptoms. If the
the spread of infection, although it
disease is present, a brown skin, which
is not known how)
is the fruiting body of the fungus, can
be seen at the base of the tree.
40 Vanuatu sandalwood
avoiding unnecessarily cutting At the first sign of symptoms, such as
into the sandalwood tree with a drying leaves, some growers believe
bushknife that the following control methods
help reduce the spread of infection:
pruning during dry conditions to
limit the chance of infection of Plant herbaceous plants adjacent
cut stems and to help the rapid to each sandalwood tree (e.g. vinil,
healing of the wound (because red ginger, nangaria).
sandalwood grows rapidly during
Excavate a hole around the trunk of
the dryseason)
the affected sandalwood tree and
avoiding movement of infected place plenty of cut bush lemons
plants into the sandalwood in the immediate root zone, as is
plantation. done in coffee production in Tanna.
Diseases 41
Leaf blackspot
Blackspot
42 Vanuatu sandalwood
Pests
Sap-sucking insects
Various sap-sucking insects occur
on sandalwood trees, including
mealy bugs and aphids (order
Hemiptera), and also beetle borers
(order Coleoptera). These insects are
abundant in some localised areas and
at particular times of the year, but
none is considered to be a serious Mealy bugs
pest of sandalwood. These insects
are more common on weaker or
stressed saplings, and rarely occur on
vigorously growing trees.
Pests 43
Other problems
Grazing cattle An adequate fence requires three
strands of barbed wire with reinforced
The leaves of all sandalwood species end stays and fence posts at 1.5m
are highly palatable to cattle. intervals.
Both feral and village cattle can
graze young saplings and severely
reduce the chance of plant survival.
Sandalwood trees may need to be
Seed predation by birds
at least 5years old before they can The sweet flesh of sandalwood fruit is
tolerate cattle grazing. a prized food for many types of birds.
Fruit consumption by birds is the
The only effective method of
main reason that not enough seeds
controlling cattle grazing is to remove
are collected for planting or sale.
or tether the cattle, or fence the
The problem is more pronounced in
plantation. Without such control,
isolated locations, because birds are
cattle grazing can completely destroy
left undisturbed for long periods and
a young sandalwood plantation.
it is difficult for a farmer to collect
Cattle grazing of sandalwood is a seeds regularly.
particular problem in Erromango,
Positioning new plantings close to
where feral cattle preferentially graze
village or garden areas will help the
sandalwood. In isolated locations,
farmer maintain the trees and limit
the fences need to be particularly
seed loss from consumption by birds.
strong because, without people
around, cattle have been known to A sandalwood tree that is a
deliberately break a fence to get to particularly valuable source of seeds
the sandalwood. may be protected by using a net
over its canopy or branches. Another
method, which has a limited effect, is
hanging shiny objects in the branches
of the tree to distract and frighten
the birds. Scarecrows can also be
effective. However, many birds are
quick to see through these tricks, so
it is important to place these objects
in the plantation only as the seeds
mature and quickly remove them after
the farmer has finished harvesting the
seeds.
Sandalwood damaged by grazing
44 Vanuatu sandalwood
Fire
Sandalwood does not tolerate fire
and will die even when exposed
to a low-intensity fire. Fuel loads in
sandalwood smallholdings should
be kept to a minimum by removing
wood debris from the site. During
dry periods, care should be taken to
limit people lighting fires close to and
upwind of the sandalwood plantation.
Cyclones
Ideally, sandalwood plantings should
be established in areas with good
wind protection, to limit the damage
caused by cyclones. The use of
windbreak trees known to be tolerant
to high winds, such as whitewood
(Endospermum medullosum) and
oak, can reduce the wind speed in a
sandalwood planting. Sandalwood
trees tend to break under cyclonic
winds, but can recover through new
growth from the damaged stem.
Other problems 45
Heartwood and harvesting
Tree growth rates management regimes. Although
93% of the data were collected from
The value of a sandalwood tree is trees aged 10 years and under, these
largely determined by the weight of differences in early growth rates are
its heartwood and the concentration likely to persist in later years.
and composition of its oil.
Determining the rate of heartwood Increase
development in a sandalwood (mm)
tree is important because it
will affect the length of its
commercial rotation. The weight
of the heartwood is invariably Old garden
limited by, or dependent on, the Planted within agarden area
nolonger used as such 7.8 mm
diameter of the trunk.
46 Vanuatu sandalwood
Heartwood development Sandalwood harvesting
Many experienced sandalwood The time needed to develop
farmers in Vanuatu believe that the enough heartwood for harvest will
rate of heartwood development is vary between trees and growing
strongly associated with soil type, environments. Tree size is a good
rainfall and the level of sun exposure indication of when the tree is ready
on the canopy of the sandalwood for harvest. In Vanuatu, the minimum
tree. The most experienced farmers size at which a tree can be harvested
say that sandalwood develops is a trunk diameter of 15cm at breast
heartwood rapidly when it is grown height, which corresponds to a tree
in a shallow soil or soil with a high with a basal diameter of about 20cm.
level of stone inclusions, together Under good growing conditions,
with a distinct annual dry period and a tree of this size is approximately
exposure to full sun. The expected 1520years old.
period for harvest under these
conditions was 1520years, but Oil is particularly concentrated in the
may be as much as 3040years for roots and butt of the sandalwood
trees growing in areas of deep fertile tree; therefore, the stump and roots
soil, high and evenly distributed need to be dug out to gain maximum
rainfall throughout the year, and a saleable value from the tree.
shadedcanopy. Heartwood is present in the branches
of older trees, but is unlikely to be in
the branches of planted sandalwood
with a rotation of 1520 years.
120
100
Heartwood yield (kg)
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Basal diameter (cm)
Relative level of heartwood development among differently sized trees sampled in
Tanna and Erromango
2 4
48 Vanuatu sandalwood
5 8
Sapwood
Preliminary processing
Sandalwood is sold by weight. Before
selling it, the only requirement is to
remove the sapwood from around
the heartwood. This is usually done
by gradually cutting the sapwood
away with a bush knife. This process
results in two waste products: pure
sapwood chips and second cutting
Removing bark and chips (2CC), which are both used in
sapwood with a bush knife the manufacture of incense. The 2CC
are chips that retain some heartwood.
Sapwood chips
50 Vanuatu sandalwood
Sale
The minimum price paid for
sandalwood heartwood is set each
year by the Vanuatu Department of
Forests. Since 1990, the minimum
price has been increasing at an
annual rate of 10%consistently
above the consumer price index of
2.6% over the same period. Recently,
increased competition in Vanuatu
has meant that the actual prices paid
are often above the minimum price.
Sandalwood buyers will generally
collect and pay for sandalwood on the
farm.
52 Vanuatu sandalwood
Sourcing capital
Sourcing capital 53
rotation. At maturity, each partner sandalwood planting as security for
gets half the trees and has the right to microfinance. However, the bank often
market their own sandalwood. deems a smallholder as unemployed
and therefore the likelihood of that
Less ambitious arrangements include smallholder securing such a loan is
those where the investor provides the limited.
smallholder with poly planter bags
and small tools. After five years, an Other financial institutions in Vanuatu
inventory of the planting is completed will not currently consider sandalwood
and the planting is registered as a at any stage of maturity as security
plantation with the Department of for loans. The reasons given by these
Forests. The investor provides a small institutions are the high risks of these
retainer each year from year five to assets to natural disaster, the logistical
harvest, and the smallholder agrees to constraints of liquidating these assets
sell their sandalwood to the investor upon default, and many smallholders
at market price. not having a reliable source of income
to service such loans.
Sandalwood as collateral
With a rotation of at least 15years
before making any return, the
economic benefits of plantation
sandalwood may only be realised well
into the future. However, sandalwood
can be used as security for accessing
credit services. Using sandalwood in
this way can help to bring forward the
benefits of planted sandalwood to
support business opportunities and
stimulate local economic activity.
54 Vanuatu sandalwood
Frequently asked questions
Will the prices of sandalwood decline I only have a few sandalwood
with more plantations? seedswhat should I do?
The demand for sandalwood has Many people without sandalwood
been increasing over the past decade, trees have found it difficult to source
but supplies from natural forest have seeds. When starting to plant
dwindled. There is currently much sandalwood, it is best to plant the
greater demand than supply for all first seedlings in an area that is visited
sandalwood products. Sandalwood often. Planting a few trees in the
planting in Vanuatu has been village area adjacent to the house is
increasing over recent years and is a good way to learn about growing
likely to continue. The current global the tree, because you will be able to
plantation resource will only partially observe it daily and tend to it when
replace wild-harvested trees and, required. Once the trees planted in
even with new plantations being the village mature, the seeds may
established, it is likely that demand be easily collected before the birds
will outstrip supply. Consistent consume them.
prices for sandalwood products are
expected in the short to medium term Are coconut plantations suitable for
(1530years). The long-term price sandalwood production?
(30years plus) is dependent on the
planting activity of other countries, There are not many examples of
such as Australia, India and China. combined sandalwoodcoconut
agroforestry systems in Vanuatu.
However, given the prevalence of
How long do I need to grow the
coconut plantations, interplanting with
trees before they can be sold?
sandalwood could provide additional
Heartwood development varies income to such a production system.
between trees and sites. A tree It is recommended that sandalwood
planted on an appropriate site is planted, along with host species,
(see page 19) may be harvested at least 3m from the nearest coconut
after 15years. In Vanuatu, variation palm (see page 20) and that only small
between trees in a plantation means numbers of trees are planted initially,
that sequential harvesting may take to determine the suitability of the site.
place from 15 to 25 years. Trees that If sandalwood grows well under these
are planted on inappropriate sites conditions, more sandalwood could
may develop heartwood very slowly be planted.
and take 30 years or more before they
can be harvested.
56 Vanuatu sandalwood