The process of pinioning involves the cutting of one wing at the carpel joint, thereby removing the basis

from which the primary feathers grow. This makes the bird permanently incapable of flight because it is
lopsided (Rees, 2011)

WELFARE...?

A common excuse given by zoos for pinioning is that it allows birds to be kept in large, open enclosures
rather than in smaller, confined aviaries. One industry consultant suggested: The difference between
pinioning and not pinioning is the difference between access to, and the relative freedom, of several
acres of an islet spotted lake or confinement to an aviary pond.2 This statement makes the somewhat
contradictory suggestion that the amputations are carried out for the birds own welfare benefit.

Whilst birds having access to large open enclosures may be pleasing to zoo visitors who are impressed
with the space and apparent freedom that the birds are provided, meaningful use can hardly be made of
any environment by an animal whose most important locomotive adaptation (flight), has been
permanently removed.

In addition, to suggest that the only alternatives to large open enclosures are small confined aviaries is
misleading, at best. Notwithstanding CAPS fundamental opposition to zoos, large and complex aviaries
are possible. Indeed, one zoo which has invested in an alternative to pinioning is South Africas Birds of
Eden, which claims to be the worlds largest free-flight bird aviary at 50 meters high, covering 23,000
square meters of forest, 70% of it indigenous. It houses more than 3,500 birds of more than 280 species.
Many are ex-pets who are rehabilitated before release into the aviary, or come from other zoos,
including birds such as the cranes, flamingos and some of the ducks have been subjected to the cruel
practice of pinioning.3

It is clear then, that the issue is not one of zoos being forced to choose between the lesser of two evils in
the form of either large open top enclosure (and pinioned birds) or cramped aviaries, but rather a
reluctance on the part of the zoo industry to invest in closed enclosures of sufficient size to allow flight.

This point was alluded to by zoo consultant, Peter Dickinson, who noted that: The alternative [to
pinioning] would be the building of aviaries of exceptional size which would in most cases be cost
prohibitive. Judging by the marked absence of these types of aviaries on zoo sites in England, it seems
that the principle of providing large aviaries has been dismissed out of hand by the industry at large on
grounds of cost.

The deliberate and unnatural control of flight also occurred at the hands of bird keepers, where it has
been used as a tool of captive wild bird management for many years in zoos, bird gardens, and parks,
but only in large species, especially waterfowl (ducks, geese, and swans) and the cranes. The permanent
loss of flight allows these birds to be kept loose on lakes and in ornamental gardens, and this grounding
is achieved through making a bird lopsided when it attempts to fly. This unevenness or asymmetry of
the wingsmaking one shorter than the other is achieved in several ways, but the most common one
is the practice of pinioning.

This is a minor surgical procedure which involves the removal of the last segment of one wing,
equivalent to the fingers of a human hand, from which grow the large primary or flight feathers. This
makes a birds wing-loadingthe area of wing in relation to its body weightuneven, and as a result
it cannot lift off. As many people find this rather disconcerting, certainly disfiguring and even morally
offensive, the practice is now being replaced by tendon surgery, which leaves the birds wings intact, but
prevents them from opening fully.

Flying seems such a boon, it is inconceivable that some birds would choose not to fly, but that is exactly
what happened during the course of evolution, and those that did not use their wings eventually lost the
power of flight. How long this reverse process took remains as much a mystery as the development of
flight, but recent observations on the atrophy of the flight muscles through a birds inability or
unwillingness to fly indicate that flight can be lost very quicklypossibly in just a few generations in
some species. However, loss of flight is not necessarily synonymous with loss of wings, and it is likely
that the reduction of normal wings to the tiny vestigial appendages which are the kiwis and cassowarys
wings, has taken millions of years.

The development of a soft, insulating layer of feathers allowed the early birds to maintain higher body
temperatures and so become warm-blooded. Feathers eventually developed into a necessary
requirement for flight, although not the only one, and allowed colonization of colder environments and
dispersal to otherwise inaccessible locations. Like Archaeopteryx, the first birds could only glide, but the
eventual development of the keel and powerful breast muscles then made flapping flight possible.
Surprisingly however, insulation and not flight is the feathers most important role. Flight is a secondary
function, for although flying birds may manage quite well when they are grounded, they cannot survive
a lengthy drop in body temperature unless they have evolved to become torpid daily like the
hummingbirds and swifts, or to actually hibernate like the poor will. Insulation and maintaining body
temperature are the feathers only functions that apply to all birds, and with their protection they were
able to colonize the worlds coldest regions and survive in temperatures many degrees below freezing
for months at a time. As birds evolved, the demands of flight affected almost every aspect of their
structure and physiology. They became streamlined and their muscles and bones were modified to
provide maximum power and minimum weight. Their lungs and circulatory systems underwent great
changes to provide the oxygen needed for such strenuous activity, and they developed a digestive
system able to rapidly process the high-energy foods needed to fuel their flight. Flight also required
highly developed sight and balance, and the ability to quickly control muscular activity to prevent crash
landing, to alter direction rapidly, to avoid obstacles, or to chase and seize their prey.

Birds basically have two muscular-skeletal systems fused into one rigid frame. Their hind limbs and
associated muscles, which are for walking, running, climbing, assisting take-off, and for absorbing the
shock of landing, are attached to the pelvic girdle. Their forelimbs, which have developed into wings
powered by large muscles, are attached to the rigid sternum, and allow rapid response to threats. In
addition, their bones are mostly hollow and thin-walled, with internal reinforcing struts giving them a
honeycombed appearance and making them lighter and stronger. Airspaces linked to the lungs provide
a ventilation system for the muscles. The most distinctive feature of the flying birds skeleton is the
presence of a breastbone shaped like a boats keel, which provides a greater surface for the attachment
of large breast muscles, without which flight is impossible.

Wings are a birds forelimbs modified for flight. They are concave, which is more efficient for flying than
a flat surface, and comprise the same components as human hands and arms, with an upper arm, elbow
joint, forearm, wrist, hand, and fingers; but unlike our arms, they rotate only at the shoulder. The major
feathers used in flightthe primaries and secondaryare attached respectively to the fingers and the
forearm, and are anchored to the bones by connective tissue. The primaries are mainly responsible for
control and propulsion, while the secondary provide lift. However, as the removal of the primaries on
one wing has shown through the wing-clipping or pinioning of captive birds to make the wings
asymmetrical and normal flight impossiblethe primaries of both wings are necessary to power lift-off
unless the bird is assisted by a strong wind.

Pinioning - the surgical removal of part of the metacarpal bone and the phalanges of one wing of a bird.
This is commonly performed within the first days of life when the process is considered a minor
veterinary medical procedure. Pinioning at this age may, or may not, be performed by trained veterinary
staff. Pinioning after 7 days is a surgical procedure requiring anesthesia to be performed by a qualified
veterinarian.

Recommendations for Developing an Institutional Flight Restriction Policy

Developed by the AZA Avian Scientific Advisory Group, December, 2013

Owners sometimes ask for procedures that limit flight. It is legal to clip the flight feathers of one or both
wings. Dewinging, wing notching and tendon severing are not permitted in any birds. Pinioning is not
permitted in farmed birds. Pinioning can be carried out on non-farmed birds, but only by a veterinary
surgeon, and an anesthetic must be administered if the bird is 10 days or over (Gibbens 2013).

Gibbens, N. (2013) Pinioning non-agricultural birds. Veterinary Record 173, 53

Contrary to popular belief, adult birds will not reject their young if touched by human hands. Most birds
have a very poor sense of smell and all birds have strong parental instincts. Many times, you can watch
after a bird by simply monitoring it until it is able to fly on its own. Read these simple tips to find out
when you should bring a bird in and when you should try to help it yourself.

Fledgling birds have their wing feathers, but they are still small and may have a few lingering tufts of
down. Nestling birds are either naked or covered with a soft down, not feathers.

Wild animals DO NOT abandon their babies due to the smell of humans. Birds, in fact, cannot even smell
anything! While mammals can smell very well, the scent of humans is not nearly enough of a danger
signal to cause a mother to go against all of her hormonal and instinctual maternal behaviors.

Fractures- If near or involving a joint, fractures and dislocations can mean the joint itself is involved. This
will generally lead to arthritis and will compromise the use of the joint and flying ability will be severely
impaired.

SURGICAL PROCEDURES

Pinioning
Pinioning, the surgical removal of the tip of the wing from the alula distally to render a bird flightless, is
a common procedure in waterfowl. When done early (at 2-3 days old), this procedure is virtually
bloodless and stress free (Figs 36.36-36.38). Pinioning older birds is more difficult because stress and
excessive bleeding can occur. The proper technique for pinioning is to remove metacarpals III and IV and
leave the alula intact to cover the amputated area. If the alula is removed, repeated trauma to the
stump can occur on a regular basis.

Another advantage to pinioning birds at a young age is that birds can be easily sexed before pinioning.
Subsequently, the wing pinioned can indicate the sex of the bird, ie, females will be pinioned on the left
wing and males will be pinioned on the right.

Tendonectomies of the extensor carpi radialis tendon or the insertion point of the superficial pectoralis
muscle are surgeries that have been described for rendering birds flightless. These techniques are not
always effective. 9 Furthermore, most waterfowl owners feel that it is not cost effective to do these
surgeries.

General Principle

Amputation of the second and third metacarpal bone on one wing prevents flight by producing
imbalance. This approach has been used almost exclusively in adult birds but it has been found
preferable to operate on cygnets when they are only five to six weeks of age and therefore much easier
to handle.

Surgical Technique

The operative site (Figure 1) was clipped free of down with curved scissors, soaked in 70% ethanol and
infiltrated locally with approximately 0.4 ml 2% xylocaine hydrochloride' using a 26 gauge, 1-inch needle.
A pair of straight Rochester-Carmalt hemostatic forceps was placed proximal to the joint and held by the
assistant's left hand. Small scalpel incisions were made between the alula and metacarpals and through
the web between metacarpals and ulna with the wing semi extended. For better cutaneous stitching the
skin was retracted proximally while the fused second and third metacarpals were rapidly amputated as
close to the joint as possible with bone cutting forceps. The alula was left intact. Releasing the skin and
musculature allowed wound closure over the end of the amputated bone with a single suture of 00
chromic catguts on a curved cutting needle.

When hemorrhage occurred the wound was dusted with hemostatic powder and a small piece of
adsorbent cotton was applied around the wing. The cygnet was then released immediately. The stitches
disappeared spontaneously in the process of cicatrization.

82. Birds Pinioning or otherwise deflighting a bird

Proposal Must be performed by a veterinarian or a

veterinary student under the direct
supervision of a veterinarian.

Must only be performed in the best interests

of the animals.
 Pain relief must be used at the time of the
procedure.

Pinioning is the surgical pinioning i.e.

permanent deflighting.

For the purposes of this proposal the term

best interests of the animal means: this
procedure should only be contemplated after
other suitable means of confining the bird
have been attempted and have failed and
euthanasia is the only alternative.

Restricting a procedure to in the best interest

of the animals does not preclude a vet from
undertaking the procedure for therapeutic
reasons as a result of disease or injury.

Current state Zoos code of welfare 2005

Minimum Standard 11 Normal Patterns of

Behavior

(e) Pinioning involving significant muscle,

tendon, or bone damage to the wing must
only be undertaken by a veterinarian and with
appropriate pain relief for the bird.

What is the problem? This procedure is likely to meet the criteria

(see Box 1 on page 8) for determining whether
it is a significant surgical procedure. The
criteria will come into effect when the
regulations come into force.

How will regulation help? Provides clear mandatory standards for the
procedure.

Minimizes the level of pain and distress caused

by requiring pain relief at the time of the
procedure.

Penalty A prosecutable regulation offence. Can include

a criminal conviction. Maximum penalty fine of
$5,000 for an individual, $25,000 for a body
corporate.

Additional questions and information Refer to the general questions set out in
sections 9.1 and 12.1.
 In addition, please also consider the following
questions:

For the purposes of this regulatory proposal it is proposed that the term best interests of the animal
will mean that this procedure should only be contemplated after other suitable means of confining a
bird have been attempted and have failed and euthanasia is the only alternative.

Is it clear from the above definition when the procedure would be in the best interests of the animal? If
not, why not?

The optimum age for pinioning used to be considered to be between 4 and 10 days (Startup, 1967),
although more recent guidance suggests 2-5 days old, when the wing is very small in proportion to the
body. At this age bleeding is minimal and easily controlled and the procedure appears to cause less
stress in the bird than if carried out later (Bourne, 2010).

Pinioning of older birds requires anesthesia; (this is a legal requirement in England if carried out on birds
aged ten days or over2). Although only one wing is usually affected, the procedure is permanent and
irreversible. A pinioned bird will never be able to fly.

Veterinary guidance on pinioning describes the procedure as follows (Bourne, 2010):

The portion of the wing distal to the 'bastard-wing' or alula is amputated. [] The portion removed is
the part of the wing on which the primary flight feathers grow. In very young waterfowl (downiest) the
wing is very small in proportion to the body. The bird is held in one hand, with the thumb and forefinger
holding the wing out and applying pressure just proximal to the alula.

A sharp, sterile pair of scissors is used to cut through the wing just distal to the alula, and at a slight slant
medially (inward) from the front to the back edge of the wing. This involves cutting through the major
and minor metacarpal bones. Pressure is maintained on the wing for a few seconds. If there is any
bleeding the cut end may be touched with a styptic (e.g. silver nitrate pencil) and/or sprayed with an
antibiotic/dye spray to encourage drying and disguise any blood spot.

(The bastard wing is a feathered thumb at the front of the wing to increase maneuverability (Tudge,
2009)).

It has been reported that birds pinioned at an older age, who had been used to flying for some years
prior to the mutilation, may be psychologically affected (Humphreys, 1973).

Peter Dickinson, an International Independent Zoo Consultant and former zoo inspector, is critical of
conducting the procedure on older birds: I am totally against pinioning of birds more than 4 days old by
anyone other than a veterinary surgeon. Longer than this it becomes a true surgical procedure involving
pain, shock and trauma. I would wonder as to why any bird should need to be pinioned after that age.
There has obviously been some failure in captive management practices. Questions would have to be
asked (Dickinson, 2011).

The British Waterfowl Association (2004) claims that pinioning is currently mainly carried out by lay
people who are dedicated bird keepers and we see no reason for any change. The very operation
involved is swiftly carried out and any slight discomfort is minimal and fleeting.
The Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust also dismiss concerns about the procedure being painful, despite the
birds not being anaesthetized. Its Chief Executive told a government select committee in 2004 (EFRA
Select Committee, 2004b):

I would not say that we know that they do not feel pain, but what I will argue is that we have got 60
years experience of this and that without any fail these are very young birds where their wings are not
at all developed at this stage, two days old the birds return immediately to normal feeding and normal
behavior and do not pay any attention to the damaged wing at all. I suspect with any mutilation there is
going to be some element of pain, but it does not appear from 60 years of records of this that it is
having any kind of damaging effect. It is certainly nowhere near as stressful as, say, wing clipping would
be, or some of the other constraints like actual amputation of wings which happens in some countries.

In the adult bird, shock and hemorrhage represent the two risks that are present. Shock is more likely
to develop in the wild bird, such as a crane, than it is in the more domesticated ornamental duck.
Hemorrhage may, on occasion, be profuse, and the brachial artery should be ligated. (Startup, 1967)

Bourne (2010) lists potential problems as: Brood-mates and broody hens may peck at any blood spot
on the end of the pinioned wing and cause injury.

It is important to ensure no traces of blood are left on the wing if the downy is with parents, as this may
lead to excessive grooming which may traumatize the site and cause further hemorrhage. Blow-flies
may infect the wound, particularly in hot weather. An antibiotic/dye spray may be applied to reduce the
risk of myasis (fly-strike).

Zhang et al (2011), state that surgical approaches such as pinioning expose birds to the risks of
accidental death or complications, such as excessive hemorrhage, osteomyelitis, myasis, and sepsis,
during anesthesia, surgical operation, and post-operative care.

According to zoo husbandry guidelines for flamingos, pinioning is the most common de-flighting
method performed on flamingos maintained in outdoor enclosures (AZA 2005). However, it has been
shown that reproduction is severely hindered by pinioning, due to the males difficulty in balancing
himself during copulation. Full-wing flamingos have better balance, whereas pinioned male greater
flamingos more regularly fall off when mating (although the impact of pinioning is variable amongst
different species of flamingos and even individuals of the same species, and not pinioning is obviously
not a guarantee of 100% fertility).

Other advantages of not pinioning flamingos other than increased fertility include reduced threat of
predation and reduced food stealing by other birds entering the enclosure (AZA, 2005). Flamingos are
not the only species whose reproductive capacities are adversely affected by pinioning. Pinioned male
cranes have also been observed to have difficulties keeping their balance when mating (Sawyer, 1997).

Characteristics

-Both sexes are glossy, brilliant birds, but the male is bright green with blue and red patches, while the
female is crimson red with a blue belly. His coloration helps him blend among the trees as he forages for
food. Her colors help camouflage her as she sits in dark tree holes incubating eggs.
-Length: 14 inches; Wingspan: up to 28 inches; Weight: up to 16 ounces

-Lifespan: In the Wild 40-50 years; In Captivity 80 years

Behaviors

-These birds are strong fliers and on long flights they fly high above the forest canopy.

-They search for food during the day traveling in pairs or small parties, calling loudly. In the evening they
engage in display flights before gathering in large groups of up to 80 birds to roost for the night.

-Eclectus parrots have 2 distinct calls: in flight, a harsh screeching is repeated 3 or 4 times; while feeding,
they have a wailing cry or a mellow flute-like call.

-Enrichments at the Zoo: bird toys in and out of cage, tree branches with leaves set up in cage, climbing
gym, sunflower seeds, steamed yam, pine nuts, daily handling, and demonstrations on and off zoo
grounds

Did You Know?/Fun Facts

-The feet of parrots are unusual (zygodactyl). The 2 outer toes of the foot point backwards and grip in
opposition to the 2 forward pointing inner toes. This provides them with an extremely powerful grasp,
enabling them to hold and manipulate objects close to their beaks.

-Males and females are so different in color (sexually dimorphic) that they were once thought to be 2
different species.

-Newly hatched chicks are covered with short, thick bristles which are replaced with fluffy, gray down
after 2 or 3 days. It is not until the gray down is replaced by the red or green feathers that the sex of the
chick is known.

-There are 10 subspecies of Eclectus, with some differences in size and the females plumage (feathers).
However, the males of all the species are very similar.

-Eclectus parrots help to disperse seeds and probably pollinate some flowers.

The eclectus parrot, or Eclectus roratus roratus, is a species of parrot known for its vibrant colors and
intelligence. The male and female eclectus parrots differ so much in color that they were thought to be
two separate species of parrot until the beginning of the 20th century.

Eclectus parrots make popular house pets due to their mild temperaments and ability to mimic human
words. Male eclectus parrots are green in color, though the particular shade of green varies according to
their subspecies. Female eclectus parrots vary in color from red to purple. Adult female eclectus parrots
have black beaks, while adult males have yellow or orange beaks. Adult eclectus parrots can weigh up to
12 oz. and measure up to 14 inches in length. There are over eight different species of eclectus parrot,
all of which are native to Australia, the Solomon Island, Indonesia or New Guinea. The eclectus parrot
usually resides in the rainforest. In their native habitat, eclectus parrots feed on a variety of tropical
fruits, pollen, seeds, nectar and flowers.

In captivity, eclectus parrots are fed vegetables such as carrots, kale and peppers as well as fruits such as
mangoes, cantaloupes and pomegranates. They can also eat greens like dandelions and collard greens.
The female eclectus parrot usually builds her nest in the treetops of the rainforest canopy. After the
female has laid her eggs, the male eclectus parrot will bring the female food.

Both the male and female eclectus parrot take turns bringing the baby parrots food and protecting the
nest from predators. In their native habitat, eclectus parrots often live in large groups. These groups
help raise baby parrots, even if they are not their own babies.

Because of their intelligence, eclectus parrots are popular pets. Eclectus parrots are one of the species
of parrot that can be taught to speak. Eclectus parrots can live up to 50 years in captivity.

Pinioning

Fully pinion all birds at the wrist via amputation or tenotomy. If tenotomy is practised one must make
certain the joint fluid is drained, at least one centimetre of the extensor tendon is removed and the wing
is tied shut until the wound is completely healed. When amputating do not remove the wing finger
(alula). The wound is continually opened as the bird strikes solid objects if the alula is removed.
Frequently it is recommended to trim the secondaries of the pinioned wing. I have a West African
crowned crane which can flap to fifty feet on a high wind and one and a half wings.

The lesions on wings proved to be inflammatory in nature. No organisms were seen in sections nor could
they be cultured but mixed inflammatory cell (granulocyte/macrophage) infiltration was a feature of
histological sections. These lesions appeared to be associated with surgical pinioning. Although
pinioning of wings is useful in order to prevent escape, it has some disadvantages in that birds may find
it difficult also to escape from predators, and roosting behaviour may be impaired. When guineafowl are
kept indoors it is probably preferable either not to pinion them, and to facilitate management by
habituating them to humans, or partially to clip the primary feathers on one wing.

When surgical pinioning is performed it must be done properly and humanely. The alula should be left
intact to help protect the end of the bones (Gandal & Amand, 1982).

During Hard Times, Eclectus Parrot Moms Kill Male Chicks and Raise Females

The Eclectus Parrot is well known for an unusual degree of sexual dimorphism (males are emerald green,
females bright red) and a breeding strategy wherein several males mate with a single female. But no
one expected the results of a recent study: under certain circumstances, mothers will kill their male
chicks and raise only females. Other than humans, Eclectus Parrots are the only species known to kill
offspring based solely upon gender.

Harsh Conditions and Drastic Adaptations

The study, published in the journal Current Biology (October, 2011), was conducted by researchers
based at the Australian National University. The study site was at Cape York, Queensland, in Australias
tropical northeast (Eclectus Parrots are also found on New Guinea and many Indonesian islands).

The unusual behavior seems driven by the scarcity of safe nesting holes, which are generally located 90
feet or so above ground. Nest sites closer to the ground are vulnerable to flooding, and to predation by
scrub pythons and monitor lizards. Females fight viciously over prime nest sites, and may occupy the
same one for many years.
Female Eclectus chicks are easier to rear than males, and fledge as much as a week earlier than their
brothers. Apparently, time is of the essence during very rainy years, or in particularly vulnerable nests,
because females will kill the more costly male chicks when certain conditions are met. In doing so,
they increase the likelihood of successfully rearing at least 1 chick (only 2 eggs are produced). Details
need to be explored, as not every mother in a poor nest site will kill her male offspring, but the pattern
is quite clear.

Choosing the Chicks Sex?

According to some researchers, females that typically use low nest hollows have evolved a way to
choose the sex of their offspring, dispensing with males before they are born.

Other Eclectus Strategies

Some Eclectus Parrot populations are already skewed in favor of females. I wonder if this helps to
explain another of their odd breeding behaviors. Unlike most parrots, female Eclectus will mate with
multiple males, each of whom will feed her while she is on the nest.

Females Eclectus Parrots rarely leave the nest hole during the nesting season, and so rely entirely upon
their mate for food. Multiple males were thought to be an insurance policy against the death of
one. But only a small percentage of females can find and keep safe nest sites. Perhaps the males must
share successful females if they are to have any chance of contributing to the next generation?

The fact that even such a popular, well-studied parrot holds such secrets is very excitingwe really
never can tell what will come to light next!

Flight restraint

Why would we want to keep birds that could not fly in the zoo? One answer is to conserve them, as part
of captive management programmes, and to prevent them from becoming extinct in the wild. It is
argued that it is not always possible to provide a bird species with the adequate enclosure space
necessary to enable it to fly; physical space may be limited and so may the funds necessary to build
larger 'roofed' enclosures. There are also reports that birds that are able to fly are more susceptible to
injuring themselves in some enclosures. It has been argued that preventing the extinction of bird species
through captive management programmes is more important than the potential negative ramifications
of restricting flight in some birds. The argument is that the impact of restricting flight is dependent on
the extent to which the birds would ordinarily flyor, in other words, the extent to which the bird is
motivated to fly. Previous studies have considered that behaviours that occupy a large part of animals'
activity budgets are necessary and highly motivated (Bubier 1996). But Mason et al. (2001)
demonstrated that animals may be highly motivated to perform behaviours that have relatively short
durations. This issue is difficult to resolve without adequate empirical data.

The alternative viewpoint is that willfully amputating a healthy animal (such as tail docking, castration,
etc.) and preventing it from performing a natural behaviour (flying, reproduction) is abhorrent and
compromises its welfare (see Chapter 7).
Discussions of this type often operate On two levels: one that uses information gained as reliably
recorded and interpreted facts, and the other based more on conjecture, assumption, or belief. As
discussed in Chapter 7, the need for objective insight is essential when trying to tease apart the emotive
elements of a contentious issue. We need to consider whether the implementation of flight restraint
affects bird welfare or conservation. This will, of course, depend on the species and the method of flight
restraint used.

Various methods are employed to render a bird incapable of flying. Techniques vary in terms of how
invasive or permanent they may be. Wing management, especially pinioning, is probably the most
debated aspect of flight restraint and works on the principal of unbalancing the bird so that it cannot fly,
or making it physically unable to use it wings (the more common procedures employed are illustrated in
Fig. 6.23). Feather clip- ping is achieved by cutting through the primary feathers from one wing to
unbalance the bird. The same is achieved with brails, which consist of a loop of material over the
shoulder of one wing, twisted to keep the wing closed.

Surgical methods of wing management are also available and considered by law to be 'mutilations',
defined as any 'procedure which involves interference with the sensitive tissues or bone structures of an
animal, other than for the purpose of its medical treatment' in section 5(3) of the Animal Welfare Act
2006. Within this Act, surgical procedures of wing management are exempt for conservation activities
and listed as permitted procedures if undertaken by a vet or following strict codes of conduct. The
subsequent Mutilations (Permitted Procedures) (England) (Amendment) Regulations 2008 provide
further clarification, and specifically allow the wing- and web-tagging of non-farmed birds for
conservation purposes, including captive management programmes.

There are two main surgical methods.

Pinioning, which essentially involves the amputation of a digit at the wing tip, although there are
variations in technique, and is legal in the UK as long as the bird is not housed on, or the procedure is
undertaken on, agricultural land (The Welfare of Livestock (Prohibited Operations) Regulations 1982).

Little research has been undertaken that specifically investigates the impact of flight restraint on bird
welfare and/or conservation. Hesterman et al. (2001) assessed the welfare implications of different
flight restraint techniques by considering how they might contravene the five freedoms. Table 6.2
outlines some of these arguments. But, because of this lack of research, most arguments that are made
for or against this husbandry technique are based on the observations Of experienced keepers and
managers. indeed, in most situations in which it is necessary to decide whether or not to intervene,
there is likely to be little data available to inform any decision, which is why some of these issues
become longstanding debates.

Should the ability of birds to fly be prevented or restricted in zoos? If flying is considered a fundamental
part of their behavioural repertoire, can they live without it and what effect does that have? 'lhese are
the types of question that need to be addressed when considering the costs and benefits. Of
implementing this and Other husbandry measures. (Costbenefit analyses are explained more fully in
section 7.5.3.)

Animal behavior, management Geoff hosey

Pinioning (see Figures 22-16 and 22-17)

Preferably performed

23 days after hatching. Amputation is generally performed at the level of the metacarpals (preferably
leaving the alula intact). Alternatively, amputation may be performed at level of metacarpus or ulna.

To cut the bone hemostatic clips and/or sharp scissors (small birds) or surgical saw (larger-sized species)
may be used.

Tourniquet may be applied to temporarily occlude circulation.

Should be performed under general anesthesia, with additional use of analgesics, except when pinioning
23-day old chicks.

Operation performed under general anesthesia.

Pinioning of 23-Day-Old chicks is generally performed using scissors and without anesthesia.

Postoperative recovery period is 810 days.

Pinioning of large birds can be more complex and is therefore more often associated with complications
than pinioning in smaller or younger birds.

When performed during the growth of feathers, hemorrhage may occur from (accidental) trauma to the
feathers. Hemorrhage resulting from trauma to other tissues may also occur.

Insufficient skin to cover the bone may pose a risk for pressure necrosis.

Skin trauma.

Infection (preventive antibiosis may be considered).

Bone splintering.

Prevention of flight

The practitioner is sometimes asked to carry out these procedures on free-ranging birds to stop them
flying. Amputation of the tip of the wing may be required in those birds that sometimes suffer from a so-
called 'slipped wing' or 'angel wing', a condition common in waterfowl (Sanderson, 2006; personal
communication), in a northern goshawk, (Zvivanovits, 2006) and the author has seen it in budgerigars
(see Chapter 3, p. 54). Resolution of this condition may be possible in large birds by osteotomy and
intramedullary pinning of the large metacarpal bone. A bandage is applied for 46 weeks (Yeisey,
1993).

Pinioning

Pinioning can be carried out by simply cutting short some of the primary and most of the secondary
feathers to prevent flight. A sharp pair of strong scissors is sufficient for the operation, and, providing
the shaft is cut while the feather is not growing (i.e. not in their 'pins'), it does not bleed. It is best to
leave the outer one or two primaries, which will cover the defect in the wing when it is folded and lead
to a better cosmetic appearance. Only one wing is treated, since the principle is to unbalance the bird's
flight. If both wings are operated on, many birds are able to achieve short-distance flight, certainly over
an enclosure fence. Some parrot owners like to walk round with the bird perched on their shoulder. It is
wise to warn owners Of pet parrots that even after clipping the wings the bird may still be able to get
over the garden fence or high into the nearest tree. Some parrots will persistently fall heavily onto their
sternum, resulting in a chronically bruised and ulcerated area.

Wing-tip amputation

Amputation of the wing tip for pinioning is usually carried out in fledglings through the third and fourth
metacarpal bones, just distal to the carpus. The blood supply to this area, particularly when the feathers
are growing, can be well developed. It is therefore wise to place a tourniquet around the carpal area just
proximal to the attachment Of the second metacarpal or alula digit (attachment of bastard wing) before
making any incision. If the covert feathers are well plucked from the area and the operation site is wet,
the underlying structures can more easily be seen. An encircling incision is made through the skin at
least half way along the length of the third and fourth metacarpal bones, so that there is plenty Of skin
left to cover the ends Of the bone. The skin, tendons and any muscle are then dissected back to the
proximal end of the third and fourth metacarpal bones. These are cut at this level with bone forceps or
strong scissors (Fig. 8.28). If the temporary ligature is effective, bleeding is minimal; otherwise there can
be a lot of hemorrhage which is difficult to control. The skin and other soft tissue is then sutured so that
the remaining muscle will cover the ends of the bone.

Essentials of avian medicine and surgery

Appendix 7 Pinioning captive flamingos

Pinioning denotes the amputation of part of the metacarpal bone and the phalanges Of one wing in
order to unbalance the bird and render it flightless; if both wings are pinioned, the bird will sometimes
become airborne, especially in a strong wind.

In downy chicks, the tip of the wing is snipped off cleanly just below the 'bastard wing', along the line
indicated in the figure; the cut surface should be dusted with a little antibiotic or sulphonamide powder.
The sooner pinioning is done, the better. Immediately after hatching, very little pain appears to be felt,
and there is almost no bleeding. A sterile (boiled) pair of sharp nail scissors is a suitable instrument.

When pinioning a full grown flamingo, it is best to have one person to hold the bird, the other to
perform the operation. On humanitarian grounds, a local anesthetic should be administered, the
amount depending mainly on the drug of choice. Instructions are supplied by the manufacturers, and
average body weights are given in Appendix 2. The drug should be injected intramuscularly with a sterile
syringe and hypodermic needle (a 21 to 23 gauge Luer mount would be suitable) close to the proposed
site of operation. After allowing a few minutes for anaesthesia to occur, a tourniquet or ligature should
be applied just above the amputation point, that is just below Phalanges Il, the 'bastard wing'. The cut
should be made with sharp, sterile bone cutting forceps (along the line indicated in the figure); if the
wing is still attached by skin, this can be severed with a sharp pair of scissors. The cut end should be
dipped in an antibiotic or sulphonamide powder (and tannic acid powder is frequently used as a
coagulant). The ligature should be kept in place for at least ten minutes.

Flamingos

ANATOMY

The skeleton of the wing consists of the humerus, ulna, radius, ossa carpi, and ossa metacarpalia
(carpometacarpus) plus three fingers (phalanx proximalis minoris, phalanx proximalis digiti majoris,
phalanx distalis digiti majoris; Fig. 36-1). The thumb phalanx, digiti alularis, is located at the os
metacarpale majus.

In normal position, with the wing folded, the humerus is resting at the body. Two major muscles are
inserting at the humeral bone. The Musculus biceps brachii is responsible for flexion and the M. triceps
brachii for the extension of the wing. The pneumatized humeral bone is supplied with air via the saccus
clavicularis.

In birds, the ulna and radius run parallel to each Other without rotational movement and the ulna is
larger than the radius. The carpalia and metacarpalia are joined and reduced to a few bones, such as the
carpometacarpus, os carpis ulnare, and os carpi radiale. There are three digits; the thumb (alular digit)
may have one or two phalanges and is called the alula. The alula has an important aerodynamic function
by capturing the uplifting wind. The second finger (digitis major) has two phalanges. The third finger
digit is a minor digit, with only one phalanx. The joints Of the wing may only be flexed and extended to
obtain a rigid wing. During flight, the main force comes from the distal wing, whereas the proximal
region of the wing is providing the uplift.

FEATHERS

Feathers have a cornfield epidermis. During growth, the feather is supplied with blood from the follicle.
The venous and arterial vessels degenerate once the growth is completed. Therefore, traumatization Of
newly growing feathers can cause severe blood loss.

The pinion is a contour feather with a hollow shaft and a vane. The shaft consists of the big shaft
(rhachis) and the calamus. The vane has plenty of rigid filaments (barbae) in a fan-shaped position.
Those carry additional finer filaments (barbulae), which are interconnected with little hooks (hamulus).
The umbilicus proximalis is situated at the end of the quill (Fig. 36-2).110

METHODS OF SURGERY

There are different methods to prevent a bird temporarily or even permanently from flying. Whatever
the method used, it has to be taken into consideration that rendering the bird flight-incapable can cause
a major impact on the natural behavior of the bird. The legal protection of animals has to be respected
and, in some countries, these procedures may require a legal permit. A bird can be kept from flying until
the next molt by unilateral or bilateral trimming of the flight feathers. The same effect can be
permanently achieved by follicle extirpation, which destroys the germinal area of the feather. NO new
feathers will be produced after the next molt. This surgical technique was introduced in 1970 by
Gauckler.s

The procedure should only be performed on fully grown feathers once follicular activity has ceased.
Once the bird has started molting, the germinal tissue cannot be completely extirpated and the residual
tissue could induce new feather growth.5 Not all procedures of electro cauterization of active papillae
have been successful and other methods such as laser techniques are being clinically tested. 3

Anesthesia and Drug Management

The bird is placed in a sternal position with the legs extended to minimize blood pooling, especially in
Ciconiiformes.9 A deep narcosis and analgesia are necessary. Inhalation with isoflurane by means Of
mask or

intubation is the preferred method for the induction of anesthesia (Boxes 36Q and 36-3).5'7s

The flight (and body) feathers are already removed, and a tourniquet is placed proximal to the surgery
field to reduce blood flow and allow a clear visual field. The skin around the surgical area is then
disinfected. There are two different methods of making the incisions to extirpate the feathers (Figs. 36-3
and 36-4).

First, in larger birds such as marabou and Other storks and pelicans, the extirpation is done with single
vertical incisions. This prevents the surgery' field from becoming unnecessarily large. Each cut is placed
parallel to the feather shaft. The skin may be bluntly separated with scissors or an elevator from the end
Of the shaft. This should be done very gently to avoid tearing the thin avian skin. Attention should be
directed toward avoiding the larger blood vessels running parallel to the metacarpus. The follicles are
then dissected and up to 1 cm of the tip will be removed on every flight feather. The remaining part Of
the feather remains in the skin.

The remaining feather, including the vane, is trimmed to facilitate placement of a bandage following
surgery. This also reduces the weight of the wing in compensation for the weight of the bandage. The
remaining feather will be released during the next molting period. Only then will the result Of the
surgery be evident Depending on the size of the incision, the skin will be closed with one or two sutures.
A monofilament, resorbable, needle-thread combination with a tapered needle should be used to
reduce traumatization of the tender skin. The suture will not need to be removed. The same is repeated
with all flight feathers of the carpometacarpus; in total, 10 or 11 feather follicles have to be extirpated

It is also necessary to extirpate approximately six body feathers in this area, especially in large and heavy
birds. Experience has shown that storks or pelicans can get enough upwind to fly if only the flight
feathers were removed.5'9

The Other method involves only one incision with a scalpel parallel to the metacarpal bones,
approximately 1 cm below the follicle. This can be used in small birds such as ducks. The skin is dissected
along the incision to develop a flap, which will be lifted up cranially. Below the skin are the ends Of the
feather shafts, which have to be loosened and eventually cut with scissors, up to 6 to 8 mm, depending
on the size of the bird. The incision may be closed with single stitches in smaller birds. Once the remains
of the feathers below the wing are shortened, the wing will be covered with a bandage. S'9

Bandaging

The surgical field will be covered with a no adhesive wound dressing after a wound gel or powder has
been applied. To further protect the traumatized area, a thick layer Of cotton gauze is then applied. in a
figure-of-eight fashion so that the bird is able to rest the wing against the body. Finally, the wing is
covered with a Vetrap bandage to protect the Other bandage layers from dirt and moisture (Fig. 36-5).
Water birds should not have access to bathing water. The tourniquet will be removed only after the
bandage has been applied. A potential hemorrhage is prevented by the pressure bandage.

In any case, the bandage should be completely removed after 2 to 3 days to avoid ankylosis of the
metacarpal joint. By then, the healing process is usually advanced enough so that no further wound
protection is required. If needed, the wound may be treated with gel or powder.

Recovery

Birds with long legs need to be supported by a person or hammock during recovery from anesthesia
until they are able to stand by themselves (Box 36-4).'

Reference

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE WING

The anatomy and physiology of birds have been adapted to allow flight. The bones in the wing include
the humerus, ulna, radius, radial carpal bone, ulnar carpal bone, carpometacarpus, and bones of the
digits of the manus (digitus alularis, digitus major, and digitus minor) (Figure 65-1). The alula (digit Il) has
one or two phalanges and has an important aerodynamic function. The wing has four patagia (Figure 65-
2). / The propalagium is the largest skinfold of the wing, and it fills the angle formed by the partially
flexed elbow. It is composed of a network of multiple layers of collagen and elastin, which are
suspended between the leading edge and the dorsal antebrachium of the wing,
The primary avian flight muscles are the pectoralis and the supra coracoideus The pectoralis is a large
muscle composed of primarily large fibers and is attached to the humerus at the deltopectoral crest. It
may make up 35% of the birds total body weight. Il This muscle contracts during the downstroke and
pronates the wing. The supracoracoideus IS a smaller muscle with short fibers and originates from the
sternum; its tendon of insertion passes through the triosseal canal to the dorsal surface of the humerus.
This muscle elevates and supinates the wing during lhe upstroke. Both muscles, the pectoralis and the
supracoracoldeus, accelerate and decelerate the wing across the transition between downstroke and
upstroke.38 The extensor carpi radialis originates from the medial epicondyle of the humerus, extends
over the cranial surface of the carpal joint, and ends in the carpometacarpal extensor apophysis_ This
muscle extends the carpus and advances the primary flight feathers forward. The musculus polllcis
brevis inserts cramodorsally on the base of the alula and abducts it or, if the musculus flexor pollicis is
relaxed, raises it. The musculus pollicis longus originates on the proximal ventral surface of the ulna and
the radius. The tendon of insertion attaches to the extensor process of the carpometacarpus. This
muscle extends the carpus when the elbow is flexed. Two smaller muscles, the triceps brachii and the
biceps brachii, control the wingk shape by flexion and extension of the elbow

PINIONING

Pinioning is the act of surgically removing one pinion joint, the joint of a bird wing farthest from the
body, to prevent flight. t is basically a surgical amputation at the carpus. The procedure is usually only
performed on one wing, based on the assumption that this will result in imbalance. The authors have
been unable to find reports comparing unilateral pinioning with bilateral pinioning.

Hatchling Birds

Most sources recommend pinioning of hatchling birds between the ages of 3 and I O days. Chicks are
allowed to begin eating and adapt to life outside the egg before this potentially painful and stressful
procedure is performed. The tip of one wing is cut off with scissors by lifting the alula and positioning Ille
scissor across Ille carpometacarpus to transect proximal to the major and minor portions to ensure that
the follicles of all primary remiges are removed. Topical or injectable local anesthetic should be applied
to reduce the pain associated with the procedure, making sure to calculate an appropriate dose, which
may be difficult in small chicks. Hemorrhage is minor, and the amputation site heals quickly by
secondary intention. The alula is left In an effort to protect the amputation site during healing and after
the bird has grown feathers.33 As much of the caudal aspect of the carpometacarpus as possible must
be removed to remove all primary flight feather follicles. If the cut is too distal, some remiges will grow,
and the bird may be able to fly. If the cul end extends beyond Ille alula, il is more prone to trauma and
development of a stump granuloma. Chicks under parental care, for vxample, wading birds, psittacines,
and pelicans, may be rejected by the parent after pinioning.

In hatchlings that are slightly older (13 weeks), hemorrhage is more likely 10 be significant. A
hemostatic clip may be applied just proximal to the amputation site, as proximal as possible, to preserve
the alula. The clip is applied at an angle under the alula, from distal to proximal, to allow removal of all
of the primary remiges. The clip will provide hemostasis when scissors are used to amputate distal to
the clip, and the tissue within the clip will necrose and heal proximal to it. In 8 to 10 days, the clip will
fall off.

Adult Birds

In more mature chicks and in adult birds, surgical amputation of the distal wing is performed for
pinioning. The goal is to remove the carpometacarpus to which the primary remiges are attached thus
preventing birds from flying. General anesthesia and aseptic technique are used. 3 g 36 Hemostasis is
vital and may be achieved using ligatures, hemostatic clips, electrosurgery, laser, or other techniques.
Postoperative analgesla should be provided for 3 to 5 days following surgery.

Surgical removal of the carpometacarpus was first reported in 1912. c' Since then, various procedures
for amputation of the wing lip in adult birds have been reported. The procedures include the use of an
elastic band to control hemorrhage; a double-action bone cutter to cut just distal to the alula, caving it
to heal by secondary intention;- and performing an aseptic surgical disarticula Lion at the carpus.'g
When the wing is extended, no primary remiges remain, and this is considered unsightly by many. Some
have 1,23.gg.3+ reported leaving the cut end to heal by secondary intention, since not enough soft
tissue remains to cover the cut end of the bone.

Other authors have reported preserving the skin I to 2 cm distal to the carpus, performing a
disarticulation at the distal radius and ulna but preserving the radial carpal bone or transecting the
carpometacarpus, and then using the soft tissues to cover the ends of the bones.

In much of the literature regarding deflighting of birds by amputation of the distal wing, much concern
has been expressed about trauma to the stump. 103 The bone has very little soft tissue covering it, and
when al owed to heal by secondary intention, the scar tissue does not hold up to the trauma well. Birds
may traumatize the slump if the enclosure is too small and the wing hits the walls, or they may attempt
to fly and lut the stump on the substrate. The risk of stump trauma (lacerations, ulcerations, and
granulomas) may be minimized by surgically covering the stump with normal, feathered skin. In
addition, the site heals faster with less risk of infection when sutured. 3 Some birds, including pelicans
(Pelecanus sp.) and ground

articulates with the alula. A bone cutter or a pair of heavy scissors is used to cur this projection off,
leaving it with the alula. If this IS removed, the flap created containing the alula will have a very thin
base and may necrosis_ The alula is rotated caudally to cover over the radial and ulnar carpal bones.
Suture the skin on the dorsal and ventral aspects of the amputation site, this technique provides a very
sturdy stump resistant to environmental trauma.
Severe hemorrhage and shock have been reported as complications from pinioning adult birds

and many authors have recommended the use of a tourniquet to control hemorrhage. A single artery
supplies the distal wingthe ventral metacarpal artery, which runs along the ventral aspect of the
carpus from cranially at the distal radius and radial carpal bone to the minor portion (metacarpal IV) of
the carpometacarpus.14 Ideally, this IS ligated prior to being transected, but if il is accidently transected,
it is fairly easy to identify, clamp, and ligates A technique to occlude the ventral metacarpal artery prior
to transecting it involves passmg a suture between the major and minor portions of the
carpometacarpus.14 The venous drainage at this location is not single or discrete. Continuous, slow
bleeding may occur but is generally easy to control with digital pressure, electro surgery, suture
pressure, or bandage. It is best to bandage Ille amputation site 10 keep it clean and to bandage the wing
to the body because many birds will hold the wing drooped because of postoperative pain and
discomfort. After I to 2 days, the sutured skin incision will have sealed and the pain will have subsided,
so bandaging is usually no longer needed.

Parental Problems

Parenting is a learned process and captive birds do not always make ideal parents, especially with the
first few clutches. Parents may eat, traumatize or abandon the eggs or the chicks. Some parents never
learn to provide adequate care; others may learn to provide improved care with subsequent clutches.
Disturbances in the aviary will increase parental problems. Most psittacine birds lay eggs every two to
three days and start incubation

when the first egg is laid. Highly productive species such as cockatiels may lay an additional clutch
before fledging chicks from the previous lay. These adults may remove the feathers from the chicks in an
attempt to encourage them to leave the nest.

Nestling Problems

A healthy nestling will interact with the parents and elicit feeding activity by displaying a food-begging
behavior. Any factor that decreases the vigor of the chicks (disease, cold, competition) can decrease
their chances of being properly fed. Often the older and more vigorous chicks will compete most
efficiently for food and parental attention, causing younger chicks to be neglected and undernourished.

Environmental Problems

Nestlings in a hot, cold or damp nest box may be stressed, fail to beg for food or be abandoned (Figure
30.2). Improper nest material may be ingested or inhaled or may support the growth of bacteria and
fungi. Rats, snakes and other predators may consume nestlings or disturb the parents and prevent
regular feedings. Disturbances of the nest box may cause parents to neglect or traumatize chicks.

Iniuries
Nestlings may be injured by their parents, other nestlings or improper nest box construction (eg,
exposed nails, shipper nest material). Poor nutrition can cause metabolic bone disease and make the
chicks more susceptible to fractures. Many of the larger psittacines are territorial and may traumatize
the nestlings when defending the nest. To prevent these injuries, the nest box can be equipped with a
sliding door over the entrance hole to exclude the

parents from the nest box while chicks are being examined. Chicks may also traumatize each other, most
frequently injuring the beak, face and wing tips.

FIG 30.2 Chicks may be abandoned in the nest if the parents are inexperienced, if insufficient types and
quantities of food are available, if the neonate does not properly beg for food, or if the nest box is cold,
hot, damp or infested with vermin. Chicks that are being raised by the parents should be observed daily,
if the parents will allow it, to ensure they are receiving proper care. Neonatal mortalities may indicate
disease or management-related problems within the collection that can be identified by postmortem
examination.

The name Eclectus is derived from the word eclectic because of the sexually dimorphic coloration. Some
pronounce the name E-klek-tus and others prefer Eck-lec-tus. Eclectus parrots are blessed with physical
features that make them uniquely beautiful. Their head and breast feathers look like silky hair.

Eclectus females are heavy bodied birds with a compact, rounded look. They have predominately red
coloration of varying shades and most subspecies have beautiful blue or lavender-purple breast
feathers, as well as a daisy-yellow tail band and vent on the female of the Vosmaeri subspecies. The
mature female of all Eclectus subspecies has a jet black beak while the mature male's beak is a stunning
candy-corn configuration of yellow, orange and red.

Eclectus males are streamlined, efficient flyers with feathers of brilliant shades of emerald green with
blue or yellow hues, varying according to subspecies. They have splashes of red on their sides and some
blue in the wings and tail. The upper mandible of the Eclectus male changes from a lack of pigment at
hatching, to black for their first six to twelve months of life. Then the upper mandible of males of all the
subspecies develops the characteristic stunning candy corn color, usually by the age of one year but
occasionally delayed until 18 to 24 months of age.

Size and weight characteristics

The Eclectus is a medium size parrot with a wingspan of two to two and half feet. The length of the
commonly available Eclectus subspecies ranges between twelve to fourteen and half inches. In my
opinion, weight "ranges" are not useful because the ranges of the various subspecies overlap. Partly
because of cross breeding between subspecies, weight ranges can cause more confusion than clarity. Of
the commonly available subspecies, the Solomon Island Eclectus is the smallest and the Vosmaeri
Eclectus is the largest but otherwise, few generalizations about weight are helpful. It might be more
realistic to use a general weight range based on an average of the combined weights of all the available
subspecies. Such a range was established by a well-known avian veterinarian and researcher, Dr. Susan
Clubb. She worked with hundreds of Eclectus pairs and babies of the commonly available subspecies
during her years of research at the Avicultural Breeding and Research Center in Loxahatchee, Florida. Dr.
Clubb averaged the weights of adults of the most commonly available Eclectus subspecies and published
this range in the reference book, "Psittacine Aviculture". According to Dr. Clubb, the average weight of
the adult male Eclectus is 430 grams with a range of 388 to 524. The average weight of the adult female
Eclectus is 452 grams with a range of 383-549 grams. Eclectus babies reach their maximum weight at the
age of seven weeks. At fledging, they lose approximately ten percent of their weight in preparation for
flight. Eclectus parrots continue to grow until the age of two years.

Pinioning

There are various surgical means of deflighting birds including patagiectomy,68,89 joint ankylosis,111
tendonectomy71,94 and pinioning.44,68,71,89,94,111,114 The most common procedure is pinioning.
When waterfowl are one to four days of age, they can be quickly and easily pinioned without anesthesia.
This procedure causes very little hemorrhage or stress to young chicks.
Early pinioning obviates the need for a more complicated procedure at a later date. Toe nail clippers,
scissors or other cutting device (suture scissors and wire cutting scissors work well) are used for the
procedure. The chick is held upside down, preferably with one wing outstretched, and the alula (second
digit) is held out from the carpus (Figure 46.19). The third and fourth metacarpals are then cut as close
to the alular and carpus as possible. This will remove all of the primary flight feathers. Although no
further treatment is usually necessary, bleeding can be controlled with silver nitrate, Monsels solution
or radiosurgery. The stump can be sprayed with an antibiotic powder.

In older birds, pinioning can be performed at the level of the carpus, but is usually performed at the
proximal end of metacarpals III and IV. The procedure can be performed using a local anesthetic in a bird
that is manually restrained or the bird may be anesthetized with isoflurane (Figure 46.20). Feathers are
removed from the carpus to midway on metacarpals III and IV. A tourniquet is placed on the wing at the
level of the humerus. The skin is prepped with povidone iodine and alcohol. A ligature of absorbable
suture of approximately 2-0 size is placed around the proximal end of metacarpal IV, incorporating as
much interosseus tissue as possible. A similar ligature is placed around metacarpal III, also incorporating
as much interosseus tissue as possible. These sutures are designed to ligate the interosseus metacarpal
artery, which passes between these bones. A figure-of-eight suture placed around and between the
metacarpal bones has been suggested, but in the authors opinion it is inferior to the described
technique. The skin is then incised between mid-shaft and the proximal one-third of metacarpals III and
IV. Muscle and fascia are cut deep to the bone. The skin and muscle are bluntly dissected and pushed
proximally using a gauze pad to expose the metacarpal bones.

The bone should be exposed as close to the base of the alula as possible. Metacarpal bones III and IV are
cut as proximal as possible with a bone saw. Rongeurs or nail trimmers tend to splinter the bone.
Vessels are ligated if necessary. The skin and muscle are pulled back over the bone end and excess tissue
is removed. Muscle and fascia should be sutured over the bone to help pad the ends. Two or three
overlapping horizontal mattress sutures are generally sufficient for closure, and the end of the incision
can be sealed with tissue adhesive. Skin should be sutured loosely over the bone ends to prevent
pressure necrosis. Although bandaging is not usually required, a pressure wrap may be placed over the
stump for several days to control mild hemorrhage and protect the incision. Birds should be restricted
from the pool for three to seven days to prevent water and bacteria from contaminating the incision. If
tissue glue is used to seal the skin, the wound may be sufficiently protected to allow immediate release
to water.111 The comparison of a pinioned and non-pinioned wing is shown in Figure 46.21. A
modification of this procedure utilizes elastic castration bands at the base of the metacarpal and
excision of bone and tissue distal with a double action bone cutter.66 However, several weeks may be
necessary for the stump to necrose, slough and heal. The editors do not recommend this procedure, for
humane reasons.

An adult, common pariah kite weighing 2.5 kg was rescued by the forest officials from the outskirts of
Bareilly city and brought to the Referral Veterinary Polyclinics, IVRI for treatment of wound in right wing.
Physical examination revealed the bird to be dull and depressed with exposed bones of right wing
having sharp edges along with loss of soft tissue coverage. The fractured fragments were necrosed
(Figure 1) with the presence of contaminated wound on the medial aspect of distal third of the
humerus. However, the contralateral wing appeared nearly normal and rest of the body did not reveal
any abnormality or injury. Radiographic examination confirmed the fracture of distal third of humerus of
the right wing (Figure 2). Based on the clinical and radiographic findings, amputation of the wing was
considered.

The bird was administered with xylazine (Xylaxin, Indian Immunologicals Ltd; 5 mg/kg, IM) followed 10
minutes later by ketamine (Aneket, Neon Labs; 15 mg/kg IM). The bird was restrained in left lateral
recumbency and the surgical site was prepared for aseptic surgery by plucking the feathers. The
wounded site was flushed with lukewarm normal saline mixed with 1% chlorhexidine solution and the
adjoining feathers were plucked off around the injury site to prevent further wound infection. The
wound was then thoroughly debrided followed by topical application of 5% povidone iodine solution.
The wing was prepared and draped for aseptic surgery in a routine manner. The skin was incised and
muscles were transected. A transverse osteotomy was carried out at the proximal third of the humerus
after raising the muscle flaps from a healthy area.

The muscles were sutured using chromic catgut No. 20 over the bone stump. The subcutaneous tissue
was sutured using chromic catgut No. 20. Finally the skin was closed by black braided silk No. 20
(Figure 3). The owner was advised to keep the bird confined in a cage to restrict movement for a
minimum period of two weeks.

Postoperatively, meloxicam (Melonex, Intas; 0.5 mg/kg IM, once daily for 5 days) and enrofloxacin
(Bayrocin, PfizerBayer; 20 mg/kg IM, once daily for 7 days) were administered along with antiseptic
wound dressing for 10 days. The skin sutures were removed on 10th day postoperatively. The bird
recovered completely without any complications and became completely normal by 30 days (Figure 4).
However, the bird lost its functional ability to take a long flight and could only use its wings for very
small distance flights.

Female parrots easier to raise

The parrots build their nests in tree trunk hollows about 30m above the ground, but there aren't always
enough homes to go around. In fact, there are so few of these havens that females will literally fight to
the death to secure one to breed in.

Those birds that end up in low, flood-prone hollows will have a much tougher time raising their young,
especially during torrential rains.

"The hollow could fill up with water at any time and they only have these very small windows of time to
operate in," Robert says. "And if they have a male chick in the nest, that slows down the whole process."

Female chicks fledge up to seven days earlier than their male siblings, so mothers in poor nest hollows
have a better chance of success if they kill the male chicks and concentrate their maternal efforts on the
female.

Dr Glen Chilton, ornithologist at James Cook University in Townsville says while infanticide is rare, it's
not uncommon for species to produce more offspring than they can raise.

"The female American white pelican always lays two eggs and never raises more than one offspring;
they just cannot do it, and so that second egg is insurance," he says. "Eclectus parrots are doing their
best to make a genetic contribution to following generations. They're driven to do it. It's built into their
genes."

Parrots can control the gender of a baby

The parrots also have the incredibly rare ability to be able to control the sex of their offspring. Often, but
not always, they can produce a string of females or males in a row.

Mother Eclectus parrots living in flood-prone nests seem to have evolved the ability to produce fewer
males than the females living in safe hollows - meaning they don't have to kill as many babies.

Robert says infanticide is already skewing the sex ratio of the birds.

"That means those females will have trouble finding mates," he says. "However, provided [they] don't
do it too often, the benefits of producing at least one surviving chick are such that you can get away
with it."

Climate change affects

Climate change and the weather are also likely to impact the viability of parrot nests in the future,
especially if there are extended wet seasons. "That would mean a lot more flooding of these hollows,
which will have a dampening effect both in terms of numbers and in terms of the skewed sex ratio," says
Robert.

But Glen is optimistic the Eclectus parrot populations will be fine because he says there are other
mechanisms in place to balance the sex ratio. For example, if the wet season brings more females,
perhaps the dry season will be favourable for male chicks. Or if more females are born in poor nests,
perhaps more males are born in the good nests. Future research will focus on these questions.