Laboratory Manual

Physics 2DL

Modern Physics

Department of Physics

University of California, San Diego

 PHYSICS 2DL
Modern Physics

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................iii

REFERENCE

Physical Constants.........................................................................v
Spectra..........................................................................................vi

EXPERIMENTS

1. Optical Spectra and Diffraction Grating............................... 1-1

2. Coherence of Light and Interferometer ................................ 2-1
3. The Photoelectric Effect....................................................... 3-1
4. e/m of the Electron............................................................... 4-1
5. The Frank-Hertz Experiment ............................................... 5-1
6. Electron Diffraction ............................................................. 6-1

i
 PHYSICS 2DL
Modern Physics

I. Introduction to Course
This course is intended to provide some basic familiarity with experimental techniques as applied to
topics in modern physics.

Modern Physics is firmly grounded in quantum mechanical theory and reasoning. While some of
the experiments can be explained using classical reasoning, it is important to understand that the
proper understanding of the phenomena is based in quantum mechanics. In fact, some of the
experiments are hallmark experiments which ushered in the modern quantum mechanical theory.

As an example, Albert Einstein is perhaps best remembered for his Theory of Relativity. However,
Einstein received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 not for his Theory of Relativity but for his
work explaining the Photoelectric effect.

Other Nobel Prize winning experiments include Experiment 4, the charge to mass ratio of the
electron (Millikan, 1923) and Experiment 6, the scattering of electrons by crystals (Davisson and
Thomson, 1937).

Experimental physics requires careful measurements of a variety of phenomena, and in all

measurements there is some limitation on the precision, or accuracy of the quantity being
determined. No physical measurement whose result is in the form of a quoted number is complete
without an understanding and analysis of the uncertainties associated with the measurement. In
many experiments several error analysis techniques are possible and the judgement of the
experimenter is required to determine which is appropriate for the particular result.

The goals of this course are to:

1. Perform 6 experiments which illustrate the foundations of modern physics.

2. Develop the experimental approach as a method of inquiry, upon which all physical science is
based.
3. Illustrate the use of modern techniques to improve measurements.
4. Understand the uncertainties or errors in the measured physical quantities as determined by
limitations of technique.
5 . Develop an appreciation of the intimate connection between electronics and physical
experimentation.

iii
 ----------------------------
SPECTRAL LINES and STRENGTHS
----------------------------
. . . . .
MERCURY . HYDROGEN . HELIUM . ARGON . NEON . IODINE
eV nm streng . nm str . nm str . nm str . nm str . nm str
---- --- ------ . --- --- . --- --- . --- --- . --- --- . --- ---
6.73 185 1000 . . . . .
4.89 254 15000 . . . . .
313 1000 . . . . .
365 2800 . . . . .
. . . . .
Violet 3.06 405 1800 . . 403 50 . 404 50 . .
408 150 . 410 15 . . 416 50 . . 410 200
435 400 . 434 30 . 447 200 . 420 600 . . 432 500
2.85 436 4000 . . . 426 450 . 454 10 . 476 250
. . 471 30 . 430 200 . 470 20 . 486 1000
Blue 492 80 . 486 80 . 492 20 . 451 100 . . 492 200
512 40 . . 502 100 . 519 20 . .
Green 529 20 . . . . . 512 10000
535 60 . . . . . 523 1000
. . . 550 25 . 540 60 . 543 600
2.27 546 1100 . . . 561 35 . .
555 30 . . . . . 576 1000
568 160 . . . . . 589 2000
. . . . 576 80 .
Yellow 577 240 . . . . 585 500 . 598 300
579 280 . . 588 500 . 591 50 . 597 320 .
580 140 . . . . . 602 2000
586 60 . . . . 604 200 . 608 1000
. . . 603 70 . 618 350 . 619 1300
Orange 607 20 . . . 642 70 . . 629 1800
623 30 . . . 668 100 . 622 300 . 634 2800
. 656 180 . 668 100 . 675 150 . 633 220 . 657 3000
Red 1.85 672 160 . . . 687 150 . 640 200 . 662 5500
. . . . 651 150 . 670 900
691 250 . . . 694 50 . 660 150 .
. . 707 200 . 697 10000 . 668 90 . 699 500
709 200 . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
1.22 1014 2000 . . . . .
. . . . .
1.00 1240 . . . . .

Note: Multiple lines within 5nm are listed as one entry.

Source: CRC Handbook of Chemistry & Physics
 EXPERIMENT #1
Optical Spectra and the Diffraction Grating

GOALS
Physics
Use an optical grating to find the dominant spectral lines from gas discharge tubes.
Identify an unknown gas from the observed spectrum.

Errors
Calibrate the grating by comparison to known spectra.
Use the arbitrary function relation (Taylor Eqn. 3.23) to relate angle measurement
uncertainties to wavelength uncertainties.

References
Serway, Moses, Moyer 3.3, 3.4
Tipler & Llewellyn 4.1, 4.3

BACKGROUND

Identifying substances by their optical spectra is what we will do in this experiment. Each of the
hundred or so elemental substances identifies itself uniquely by the light it emits when it is in a
very hot environment.

A plane wave (with wavelength ) incident normally onto a diffraction grating (with spacing d)
will be diffracted to angles given by
d sin = n ,

where n = 1,2, ... is the order of the diffraction peak. Figure 1 shows the incident wave crests,
which are planes where the wave is maximal. The wave is effectively re-radiated separately by
each grating slit, forming circular wave crests as shown.

1-1
 Figure 1
We see that the third wave crest from slit #1, the second from #2, and the first from #3 are
coalescing to produce a new plane wave moving away at angle from the initial direction. One
can see from the geometrical construction in the figure that this condition is satisfied if
d sin = n .

Similar constructive interference occurs if d sin is any multiple number of wavelengths,

giving higher orders n.

If the plane wave is incident at an angle with respect to the perpendicular to the grating, then
the constructive interference peaks occur at angles given by

d (sin + sin ) = n . (The grating equation)

A typical research-quality grating consists of a blank of glass upon which are engraved as many
as 25,000 accurately parallel and evenly spaced grooves per inch of surface. This is an
expensive process. Fortunately, it is not necessary to purchase an original grating in order to
produce excellent spectra; "replica" gratings, made by molding plastic material against a good
glass grating are nearly comparable in performance, and low enough in cost to be available to
almost any experimenter. You will use a small replica grating with 25,000 lines per inch.

THE EXPERIMENT

Equipment
1. Samples of gases in glass discharge tubes. Some tubes contain a known gas (Hg or N or
Ne) and three tubes contain unknown gases (labeled 1, 2, 3).
2. High voltage power supply to produce the electrical discharge within the sample tubes;
3. Diffraction grating with 25,000 lines per inch, i.e. d = 1"/25,000 = 1.016 m
4. Grating support and marker for locating the spectral lines, both mounted so that their angular
positions can be read on a scale;

1-2
5. Table of emission wavelengths (and strengths) for a few common elements, including the
unknown gases.

DO NOT TOUCH the sample tube with the 5kV power supply ON.
Before mounting or changing one of the discharge tubes be sure that the power supply switch is
off. The sample tubes have a small glass projection sticking out perpendicularly near one end.
When changing sample tubes, be sure that this projection is at the top end of the tube. It is best
to turn the supply off when not actually in use, to preserve the tubes which have a rather limited
lifetime.

With the relatively bright discharge tube sources used in the lab, the observer's eye can be used
as the detector, but this method restricts our measurements to the visible portion of the spectrum.
The setup to be used in the lab is drawn in Fig. 2.

When you look through the grating illuminated by one of the discharge tube sources, you will
notice a set of colored spectral lines, and the marker allows the angle to be measured. Each
colored line corresponds to one of the components of the emission spectrum for the gas in the
tube. The "first-order" set of spectral line images, corresponding to n = 1 in the grating equation,
will be seen at the smallest angles (closest to the source itself). At larger angles you will
probably see another set of lines similar to the first; this is the "second-order" spectrum
corresponding to n =2.

Figure 2

1-3
There are three angles in the apparatus: the grating angle , the diffraction angle and the
effective image angle + . The grating equation indicates that a given spectral line can
appear at many different combinations of and .

We should also examine how slight inaccuracies in reading the diffraction angle will affect our
determination of the spectral wavelengths.

The uncertainty is related to our measurement uncertainty and by

2 2

= d n + = d n ( cos ) + ( cos ) .
2 2

Roughly speaking, for n=1, = d ( ) + ( ) and a 0.5 degree error in and
2 2

2 rad
( = = 0.50 = 0.50 = 0.009 rad ) will produce
3600
= 1016 ( 0.009 ) + ( 0.009 ) nm = 13nm measurement error.
2 2

1-4
You will notice that if you move your head while looking through the grating at a line, the line
will appear to shift position slightly. This can introduce a significant error into your
measurements. The grating has a mask with an arrow or line drawn on it parallel to the grating
rulings. If the grating is mounted so this line is on the axis of rotation of the marker arm, then
you can eliminate the above uncertainty in image position by simultaneously lining up the
image, the marker, and the line on the grating mask.

Measurements:

Verify and calibrate your spectrometer, by measuring Hg and Ne.

Measure 5 or more separate lines for each gas. [j=1,2 ... 5]

For each line, make 4 separate measurements (2 each partner)
Measure and , estimate and
Calculate , , presuming d = 1016nm.

Obtain j j

Plot j vs theory
j , with error bars, using different symbols for Hg and Ne.

Obtain your best estimate of d for your grating.

For N2, characterize the spectrum as possible.

For 3 unknown tubes,

Obtain j j , j = 1, 2, 3 .
Identify the gas.

For 1 known tube, observe 2nd order lines j , and compare to the Grating Equation.

1-5
 EXPERIMENT #2
Coherence of Light and the Interferometer
GOALS
Physics
Measure the coherence length of light using an interferometer.
Establish that filtering increases the coherence length.
References
Serway, Moses, Moyer 1.3
Tipler & Llewellyn 5.3

BACKGROUND AND THEORY

In this experiment, we shall be concerned with light that is not strictly monochromatic, but rather
consists of a mixture of wavelengths. Indeed, until the 1960s when the laser was invented, no
perfectly monochromatic light had ever been seen or generated. Even the purest ordinary single-
color sources (radiating atoms, for example) emit light that contains a spread of wavelengths.
A property of light that is directly related to its monochromaticity is its coherence. The degree of
coherence of a source of light is the degree to which that light consists of long, unbroken trains of
sinusoidal waves.
Suppose we have a train of pure sine waves with wavelength l 0 having some total length D c in
space, and propagating at velocity c.

Filters Light Source Lever Arm

Round Shaft

Mirror 1
Calibration Angle
Knobs
Knobs
Knobs

2-1
 Figure 1

Mathematically, we might express this train in terms of the field seen by a stationary observer as the
waves pass by:
Dc
E(t) = E o sin w o t , for 0 < t < Dt , with Dt ,
c
= 0 for t < 0 , or for t > Dt .

Now, we may inquire as to the

frequencies
present in this wave. Superficially, one might guess that
here, we have only one frequency, wo , since the above equation seems to imply just that. This
guess would be wrong, however,
because the wave packet turns on and turns off, i.e., is not
continuously oscillating.

The mathematical technique known as Fourier analysis deals directly with this problem. Any
arbitrary function can be represented as a sum of simple trigonometric sine or cosine functions of
different frequencies and different strengths. In particular, the Fourier Integral Transform takes our
function and converts it to a function g(w) representing the strength of various frequencies in our
original function.

For an infinitely long train of waves, i.e.

E(t) = E 0 sin w 0 t , for - < t < ,

g(w) is a "delta function", i.e., a single infinitely narrow peak at w = wo , with no contribution
anywhere else, indicating that here, there is indeed only one frequency (Fig. 2).

2-2
 Figure 2

Dc
However, when we Fourier transform our short wave train of length Dt = , we discover that a
c
band of frequencies of width Dw has appeared in g(w) , centered at wo (Fig. 3).

Figure 3

A general result, whose accuracy is sufficient for our needs here, is that a wave train of frequency
wo , truncated to a duration D t has its frequency spectrum spread over a range Dw , such that

2-3

 DwDt = 2p .

Thus, a wave "packet" of short duration D t must necessarily contain a wide spread Dw of
frequencies; only a long packet can have a narrow frequency spectrum.

This relation can also be cast in terms of the length Dc of the packet and the corresponding spread
of wavelengths Dl around the central wavelength l0 . Since

2pc
wo = ,
lo

so Dw = 2pcl-2
0 Dl ,

giving

2pc Dc
2p = DwDt = dl ,
l20 c

or,

Dl Dc
=1 .
l0 l0

The spread of wavelengths Dl is also called the bandwidth, and the packet lengthD c is also called
the coherence length.

THE MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

The interferometer measures the coherence of light by making the light interfere with itself. A
beam of light is passed through a partially transparent mirror, or "beamsplitter", so that every train
of waves in the beam is split into two identical trains, each having half of the original intensity.
Each wave train is sent along a separate path, after which the waves are again recombined. The two
components will interfere destructively or interfere constructively, depending upon whether the
difference in the path lengths is an even or odd number of half-wavelengths.

The Michelson interferometer, which we will use in this experiment, is schematically described in
Figure 4. Part of the incoming beam reflects off mirror B and travels path length l2 to mirror M2
and back; then proceeds through the mirror to your eye. The wave train which passes through B
travels length l1 to M1 and back, then bounces off B to your eye. The eye will see darkness if

l2 - l1 = (n + 1/2) lo ,

and a bright light if

l2 - l1 = nlo .

2-4

This analysis presumes a long, coherent wave, i.e. Dc > l .

Now, consider the case where D c < l2 - l1 ; we get the situation in which one portion of the
packet is delayed enough so that it fails altogether to overlap its partner at the output, and no
interference can occur.

l2

l1

_

Dc
l1 -l2

Figure 4

Thus, we have a convenient means of measuring coherence length: begin with l1 = l2 , and increase l2
until the interference fringes become weaker and just disappear. l2 - l1 is then the coherence length
Dc. This is the basic technique for this lab.

THE EXPERIMENT
The Michelson Interferometers you will use in this laboratory are precise instruments. They must
be handled with care, since the dimensional tolerances that have to be maintained to within a fraction
of l0 , i.e. fractions of a micron.

Be particularly careful not to touch the mirrors or beam splitter. The mirrors are coated on the front
surface, so they are particularly susceptible to damage.

2-5
A. APPARATUS

The first mirror has two thumbscrews on the rear of its mount; these adjust the mirror angle so that
the necessary condition of near perfect parallelism of the two beams can be achieved. These
adjustments will have been set previously for you; don't touch them until you do the slight
adjustment mentioned below.

The mirror M2 is adjustable in distance from the beam splitter. You will notice a micrometer
driving a lever arm that pushes on the mirror from a point near its fulcrum. The micrometer reading
that gives l2 - ll = 0 is marked on the base of the instrument.

** Micrometer Reading vs Dl **

The micrometer dial reads 0.00 to 25.00 millimeters of motion of the round shaft. The
micrometer shaft actuates a 1:5 lever arm which pushes the translation stage carrying the mirror.
You can verify with a ruler that 25. mm (dial) = 5. mm (stage) = 10. mm (Dl). This gives

1 mm (dial) = 400. mm (Dl)

or
1 tic (dial) = 4. mm (Dl)

The light source contains two sources, each controllable from the switch box. One source is an
ordinary white incandescent bulb that emits at all visible wavelengths. The second is a mercury
vapor bulb that emits light at a few discrete wavelengths, mainly in the violet, blue, green, and
weakly in the yellow. Refer to the Spectral Lines table.

Included also in your equipment are two filters that transmit light over wavelength bands of
different widths. The green plastic filter transmits a much wider band than the blue filter; you will
determine their approximate bandwidths, D l , in this experiment.

B. PROCEDURE

Determine Dl for the single green line of Mercury.

Turn on the mercury lamp, and slip the green filter over its window. The filter will pass the green
spectral line while blocking the other lines. The spectral width D l of the green light that passes
through
the filter is not determined by the filter, but rather by the mercury atoms themselves, which
produce an extremely narrow bandwidth and a very long Dc .

Assuming that the interferometer is in proper adjustment, you should now be able to see in the
viewing port a system of vertically oriented stripes, or "fringes".

The reason that you see several fringes rather than a uniform illumination over the field of view is
that the image of mirror Ml is not exactly parallel to M2 . Our analysis presumed that both
mirrors are perpendicular to the light path. Actually each mirror has some small angular deviation
from perpendicularity. Thus, the difference in path lengths l2 - ll varies from one point on the
mirror to another.

Carefully adjust the angle of Ml using the nearest screw on M1 . Note that the number of fringes in
the field of view can be set to any value you please. Now, with about ten fringes or so in the field,
make a slight adjustment of l2 - l l with the micrometer. For each complete fringe that passes a

2-6
given point in the field, l2 - l 1 has changed by lo . Why does the fringe pattern appear to move
across the field? Estimate l0 from the fringe motion versus dial tics.

Attempt to place an upper limit on D l for the mercury green line by seeing how large l2 - ll can
be made with the fringes still visible.

Determine D l for white light

Next, turn on the white light, and remove the green filter. You will see no fringes at all until you
adjust l2 - ll to the neighborhood of zero, and then make a very careful search. Go slowly; the few
fringes are easy to miss. Determine how large l2 - l1 can be with the fringes still usable.

What can you conclude about the coherence length of white light from the fringes you see? Is the
coherence length you infer consistent with what you already know about the bandwidth?

Determine D l for two different filters acting on white light

Place the green filter over the white light, and re-estimate coherence. Notice that visually, the filtered
green light and the green mercury line appear to be the same color, but that their coherences are very
different.

Now, substitute the blue filter. Infer its bandwidth from the maximal l2 - l1 for fringes.

2-7
 EXPERIMENT #3
The Photoelectric Effect
GOALS
Physics
Measure Planck's constant by using the photoelectric effect.

Errors
Estimate the range of allowable slope fits to your data points to estimate the accuracy of your
determination of h.
Compare your value of h to the accepted value.

References c = 3 108 m/s

Serway, Moses, Moyer 2.4 e = 1.6 1019 coul
Tipler & Llewellyn 3-3 h = 6.64 10 34 J - s
= 4.15 1015 eV - s

BACKGROUND

The photoelectric effect is simply the ejection of electrons from matter by incident electro-magnetic
radiation, particularly by visible light, ultra-violet light, and x-rays. At the time of the discovery of this
effect in the late nineteenth century, however, it seemed anything but simple; indeed, the observations
contradicted much of what was known about electromagnetic waves. In the end, a considerable upheaval
in classical physics resulted.

An incident photon of frequency f has energy E = hf , where h is Plancks constant. If sufficient, this
photon energy allows the electron to escape from the potential well of the metal (of unknown depth Wo),
1 2
and also gives the electron some kinetic energy KE = mv . That is,
2
hf = W 0 + KE . (Einstein relation)

This relation was announced by Einstein in 1905 on purely theoretical grounds. Experimentally, you will
measure KE versus f, thus determining h.

THE EXPERIMENT

Equipment
1. Mercury discharge lamp
2. Photosensitive vacuum tube
3. Set of light filters

31


In this lab, you will essentially duplicate Lenard's 1902 experiments. You will be able to arrive at a
reasonably close determination of Planck's constant h with simple equipment.

DO NOT LOOK DIRECTLY INTO THE DISCHARGE TUBE WHEN THE LAMP IS OPERATING
since ultra violet radiation damages the unprotected eye. Cover the light source and phototube housing
with the light shield hood. This shield hood is also necessary to keep the room light out of the phototube
(fluorescent lights also contain the mercury spectrum).

The core of the experiment is a photodiode vacuum tube, which has a large (curved) cathode coated
with an alkali metal with a relatively low work function W0, and has a thin wire anode which is used to
collect the emitted electrons.

The electronic schematic and the corresponding conceptual schematic is shown in Fig. 1. A photon
impinging on the cathode ejects an electron, and this electron may or may not have sufficient kinetic
energy K to travel up the potential hill eVAK to the negatively biased anode. If the emitted electron does
not have sufficient energy KE < eVAK, it returns to the cathode and no photocurrent is observed. If KE >
eVAK, the emitted electron reaches the anode and produces cathode photocurrent measured by ammeter.
The cathode photocurrent goes to zero when KE = eVc . The Plank constant h can be found by measuring
Vc as a function of f and using the Einstein relation hf = W0 + KE : hf = W0 + eVc , h = d (eVc ) df .

Figure 1

The negative retarding voltage -VAK applied to the anode determines the height of the potential hill. The
Potential Energy for a charge q is PE = qVAK, where q = e = 1.6 1019 Coul. Thus, applying
VAK = - 1.0 Volts gives a potential energy hill of PE = 1.6 1019 J = 1.0 electron-Volt. The electron-
32
Volt, eV, is the natural unit of energy for describing all atomic processes, where individual electrons
move in electrostatic potentials on the order of 1 Volt.

The experiment consists of determining the maximum KE, which an electron obtains from photons of a
given frequency, by varying VAK until the cathode current goes to zero. An electrons KE will be less than
this maximum if it originated from deeper in the metals Fermi sea of electrons, with energy surface at
W0.

The light source is a mercury discharge lamp whose light is concentrated at a few discrete wavelengths.
You will place special filters in a holder on the mercury light housing. These filters pass only
wavelengths within about 50 of the wavelength marked on the edge of the filter. They thus permit the
selection of mercury emission lines.

Calibration
1. Cover both the Mercury Lamp and Photodiode windows.
2. Turn on the power supply, Mercury Lamp and the Photoelectric Effect Apparatus. Allow Mercury
Lamp to warm up for 20 minutes.
3. On the apparatus, set the VOLTAGE Range switch to 20 V. Turn the CURRENT RANGES switch
to 10-13.
4. Zero the current by first disconnecting the 'A', 'K' and GROUND cables from the back of the apparatus.
Then press PHOTOTUBE SIGNAL button in to CALIBRATE and adjust the CURRENT
CALIBRATION knob until the current reads zero.
5. Press PHOTOTUBE SIGNAL button to MEASURE and reconnect all three cables.

Measurement of Vc
1. With the cover on the Mercury Lamp window place the 4 mm pinhole and 577 nm filter on the window
of the photodiode. Now remove the Mercury Lamp cover.
2. Adjust the VOLTAGE ADJUST knob until the current is zero. This voltage is your stopping potential
Vc for 577 nm wavelength light.
3. Replace the Mercury Lamp cover and repeat the above steps with the remaining filters.

33
Basic lab measurements
1. Measure the cathode electron cutoff voltage Vc (by each student separately) for each of the five filters:
365 nm, 405 nm, 436 nm, 546 nm, 577 nm. Make about 4 determinations of the cutoff voltage Vc for each
filter to get an idea of experimental error.
2. Calculate the light frequency f for each filter and plot your eVc as a function of f. Each data point
should have error bars indicating the estimated precision of your measurement of Vc.
3. Draw an average straight line through your data and from this line determine Planck's constant.
Determine the uncertainty in your result.
4. Compare h with the commonly accepted value.

34
 EXPERIMENT #4
Charge to Mass ratio of the Electron

GOALS
Physics
Measure the charge-to-mass ratio e/m for electrons.

Technique
A low pressure He-gas-filled tube allows the electron trajectories to be seen by eye.
Helmholtz coils produce a uniform magnetic field.

Errors
You should calculate your best estimate for e/m = x and your standard error x as

(x x)
i
2

x = i =1
from your N measurements xi of e/m.
N ( N 1)

References
Serway, Moses, Moyer 3.2
Tipler & Llewellyn 3-1

41
THE EXPERIMENT

The e/m tube to be used in the lab contains an electron gun to produce a beam of electrons, a very low
pressure helium vapor atmosphere to render the beam visible, and a glass scale to permit measurements of
the trajectory of the electrons.

The simple electron gun is pictured schematically in Fig. 1. The gun has a hot filament, which serves as
the emitting cathode, along the axis of the cylindrical anode can.

Figure 1

The filament is heated white hot (~2000 Kelvin, giving kBT ~ 0.2 eV) by the current flowing through it
from the filament supply. The filament is a tungsten wire with a low work function energy W ~ 2.6 eV.
A small fraction f ~ exp ( W k BT ) ~ 2 106 of the surface electrons escape the metal; this is called
thermionic emission. These electrons are accelerated toward the cylindrical anode can by the voltage Va
applied between the filament and the anode. Most of these electrons strike the inner surface of the anode
with a kinetic energy eVa, and are absorbed. Some electrons, however, pass out through a narrow slot in
the anode (also with kinetic energy eVa), forming a flat ribbon beam of electrons which we use for the
experiment.

The tube itself has a small amount of helium vapor added to its otherwise good vacuum. A few of the
beam electrons strike helium atoms and excite them (Expt. 5); then the excited helium atoms emit visible
radiation and we can thus, "see" where the electron beam is.

4-2
 Figure 2

Another feature of this special e/m tube is that it contains a glass scale to permit measurements of the
trajectory of the electrons.

When a uniform magnetic field is established throughout the tube, the electron beam will be bent into a
circle, as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 2. The radius of the circular electron path is related to the
magnetic field and the electron energy in the following simple way. An electron moving in magnetic field
experiences a force perpendicular to its velocity the Lorentz force. It results to centripetal acceleration
and curved motion,
mv 2
evB = ,
r

e
or Br = v . (1)
m

The electron velocity is determined by the cathode-anode voltage Va applied to the gun, as
m 2
v = eVa . (2)
2

Thus we obtain
2
m e
Br = eVa ,
2 m

and finally,
e 2V
= 2 a2 . (3)
m Br

4-3
In order to perform this experiment we must know r, Va, and B. r is measured using a glass scale and Va is
simply an applied and measured potential from a variable power supply. How do we obtain and measure
B?

We employ a uniquely useful arrangement of conductors called Helmholz coils. They are simple, hoop-
like coils which are positioned on a common axis and separated by a distance z0 equal to their radius a.
Connected in series with the same polarity, they each have the same current I. In this arrangement, they
give a magnetic field which is homogeneous over a fairly large volume near the center. The field is

0 NIa 2 8o NI
B= = , (4)
( a + ( z0 / 2) )
2 2 3/ 2
125a

where the second form presumes z0 = a.

Here, N=130 is the number of turns per coil, I is the current, a =0.15 m is the coil radius, and o = 4
10-7 Weber/Ampere-meter. B is in Webers/m2, called Tesla; 1 Tesla = 104 Gauss.

The complete apparatus for this experiment, in addition to the vacuum tube and Helmholtz coils, consists
of a power supply which controls accelerating potential and the coil current.

Basic lab measurements

Set the gun anode power supply to Va = 200 Volts and measure the beam diameter for 8 coil current
settings (a 5-10 minutes warm-up time is recommended before taking careful measurements). The
electron beam has a finite width. There are various energy losses from the beam electrons, including
scattering from helium atoms, and those electrons which have suffered least loss or no loss have the
largest radii of curvature. Therefore, you should measure the outside radius of the electron beam.

Repeat the measurements at Va = 300 Volts and Va = 400 Volts.

Make a separate computation of e/m for each combination of Va and B. Compute the average, and
estimate the statistical error. Estimate your systematic errors from a, Va and any other effects you can
think of.

The accepted value of e/m is 1.76 x 1011 Coulomb/kg.

Optional: Verify if the Earth's magnetic field of 6 x 10-5 T (0.6 Gauss) is negligible in this experiment by
rotating the apparatus.

4-4
 EXPERIMENT #5
The Franck-Hertz Experiment:
Electron Collisions with Mercury (Argon in our Experiments)
GOALS
Physics
Measure the energy difference between the ground state and the excited state in argon atoms.

Error
Calculate whether your mean value for the energy difference is in reasonable agreement with one of the
principal lines in the argon spectrum.

References
Serway, Moses, Moyer 3.5
Tipler & Llewellyn 4-5

BACKGROUND
You are probably familiar with the model for an isolated atom that consists of a positively charged
nucleus about which electrons are distributed in successive orbits. Niels Bohr introduced this planetary
model of the atom in 1913 to account for the wavelengths present in the atomic spectrum from hydrogen
gas. He also postulated that only those orbits occur for which the angular momentum of the electron is an
integral multiple of h/2, i.e. nh/2, where n is an integer and h is Plancks constant. Using this non-
classical postulate together with some relations from classical physics, Bohr showed that the energies of
the electrons occupying these allowed orbital states had a simple dependence on the integer n, namely:
mee 4
En = , n = 1, 2, 3, ... (1)
8 o2 h 2 n2
2.18 1018
= Joules ,
n2
where me is the mass of the electron and o is the permittivity of free space. Note that these energies are
negative, so that the lowest energy occurs when n = 1.

Instead of expressing the energy in Joules, it is more intuitive to use the energy unit of electron volts (eV).
Recall that 1 Joule = 1 Coulomb 1 Volt. Similarly, 1 eV is the energy gained by one electron in passing
through a potential difference of 1 Volt. Since e = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb, we obtain 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19
Joule. Equation (1) can then be written as
13.6
En = [eV] . (2)
n2
In the n = 1 orbital, the electron is bound by 13.6 Volts because it is close to the (positive) nucleus; for
larger n, the electron is further from the nucleus, and the binding is less. Note that the inverse square
dependence of the energy levels produces a relatively large energy difference between the levels
associated with small n, whereas the higher levels are very close to each other.

In classical physics, a charged particle in an orbit will radiate energy, because it is accelerating. Thus a
classical planetary electron would continuously radiate away its energy, moving to progressively lower
orbits.
51
 Figure 1: Energy level diagram of the hydrogen atom.

This led Bohr to his second non-classical postulate: an electron remaining in one of the allowed orbital
states does not radiate energy; radiation is emitted only when an electron goes from a state of higher
energy (n2) to a state of lower energy (n1), where n2 > n1. The energy of the quantum of radiation emitted,
E = hf , is equal to the difference in energy of the two states.

Just as electrons may make transitions down from higher energy states to lower ones, they may also be
excited up into higher energy states by absorbing precisely the amount of energy representing difference
between the lower and higher states. James Franck and Gustav Hertz showed that this was, indeed, the
case in a series of experiments reported in 1913, the same year that Bohr presented his model.

In its lowest energy, with n = 1, the atom is said to be in its ground state. From Fig. 1, we see that raising
the electron in a hydrogen atom from the ground state (n = 1) to its next highest state (n = 2) requires an
energy absorption of (13.6 3.39) = 10.21 eV. This energy may be provided in several ways. The atom
may absorb a photon, as in the photoelectric effect experiment.

Alternatively, if we heat the gas, the excitation may come from the mean kinetic energy of an atom
1 3
E = m(v 2x + v 2y + v 2z ) = kT .
2 2
However, human-scale thermal energies are rather low: at T = 300, kT 1/ 40 eV.

A more convenient way to get collisional excitations is to create a beam of electrons and permit these
electrons to collide with the electrons in the gas atoms. In this way, energy may be transferred from the
electron beam to the gas atoms. If the energy of the electrons in the beam is less than the energy
separation of the ground state from the first excited state, then no energy is transferred and the collisions
are elastic. If the beam energy is equal to or greater than the separation of the lowest states, then energy is
absorbed equal to the energy separation of the states and the collision is inelastic. The beam electrons will

52
be left with some of their initial energy remaining if that initial energy is greater than the energy
separation of the two levels.

In this experiment, you will use a beam of electrons to measure the energy required to kick an electron
from the ground state to the excited state of argon. A schematic diagram of the apparatus is shown in Fig.
2.

Figure 2: Franck-Hertz Tube.

The sealed tube contains a small amount of argon gas. The tube contains a cathode (K) which is heated to
emit electrons, a perforated electrode (grid G2) maintained at a positive accelerating voltage VG2K with
respect to the cathode, and a collector electrode (anode A) held at a small retarding voltage VG2A. Figure 3
shows the collector current as a function of voltage VG2K.

Electrons emitted by the cathode are accelerated by the electric field as they fall down the potential hill
toward the anode. When eVG2K < E, only elastic collisions can occur between the electrons and the argon
atoms. The energetic electrons will pass through the perforated electrode G2 and will be able to go up the
small potential hill to reach the collector. When eVG2K approaches E the collector current begins the drop
because some electrons make inelastic collisions with argon atoms, lose all their kinetic energy, and
therefore cannot overcome the final potential barrier (retarding potential) eVG2A. The current rises as
VG2K is increased further, since electrons can now make one inelastic collision then accelerate again and
get enough energy to reach the collector.

Successive minima in collector current with a spacing of V = E/e occur when an electron gains enough
energy to make N inelastic collisions, with no energy remaining to overcome the final barrier.

53
 Figure 3: Collector current vs. voltage.

Note also that mercury and argon atoms have many electrons (and protons) instead of the one for
hydrogen, and their spectrum is significantly more complicated than for H. A more detailed quantum
mechanical analysis is thus required to account for the energies of all these electrons. Why hydrogen gas
is not used in the FranckHertz experiments? The reason is that hydrogen atoms combine in pairs to form
hydrogen molecules, with a H-H binding energy of 4.5 eV. Therefore, some of the energy lost in inelastic
collisions of the electrons with a hydrogen gas could result from separating the hydrogen molecules into
atoms and this would complicate the analysis of the measured collector current.

THE EXPERIMENT

CAUTION: Connections should be done by TA. Turn voltage OFF when you complete your experiment.

Allow the argon tube and apparatus to warm up for 15 minutes

Set the filament heater at Vf ~ 2 V. (Grid 1 voltage VG1K ~ 1.5 V is set by your TA)

Produce a Franck-Hertz signal. Note that the first minimum appears at a voltage larger than the voltage
between the succeeding equally spaced minima. This results from the fact that the electrons must
surmount the reverse bias voltage as well as a "contact potential" that exists between the cathode and
anode.

Repeat the measurements at two other Vf. Produce paper versions of I vs. VG2K for 3 Vf and include in
your report.

Compute the corresponding average spacing and its uncertainty. What are some important sources of
uncertainty in these results?

Determine the best value and uncertainty for the energy and wavelength corresponding to the difference
between the ground state and excited state for argon. Is it in reasonable agreement with one of the
principal lines in the argon spectrum ( = 108.1 nm) ?

54
 EXPERIMENT #6
Electron Diffraction

GOALS
Physics
Determine the DeBrogie wavelength l = h /mv for electrons, by diffracting them from parallel
planes of atoms in a carbon film.

Techniques
Control the wavelength of
the electron by varying its kinetic energy KE = eVa from an
accelerating voltage.

References
Serway, Moses, Moyer 4.2
Tipler & Llewellyn 5-1, 5-2

In 1925, de Broglie suggested that particles such as the electron also have wave properties. Thus, a
particle with mass m, traveling with velocity v, has a momentum mv and wavelength l = h/mv.

You will verify this hypothesis experimentally. When an electron is accelerated through a potential
difference Va, it gains a kinetic energy
1 2
mv = eVa , or mv = 2emVa .
2
Substituting this value for v in the de Broglie expression for the wavelength gives
h h Va -1/ 2
l= = = (1.23nm) (1)
mv 2meVa 1 Volt
Thus it is fairly simple to produce a beam of electrons with a sub-nanometer wavelength by
accelerating them in a voltage Va.
One might try to diffract this beam of electrons from a grating. However, the spacings between the
rulings in man-made gratings are of the order of microns (103 nm). In contrast, atomic lattices have
natural spacings of ngstroms, i.e. 0.1nm.

Consider the scattering of waves from a single plane of atoms as shown in Fig. 1. The atoms are
spaced a distance d' apart. The incident wave makes an angle q with a row of atoms in the surface.
a c is the wave front. The scattered wave makes an angle a with the surface; its wavefront is b e .
Constructive interference will occur for the rays scattered from neighboring atoms if they are in
phase -- if the difference in path length is a whole number of wavelengths. The difference in path
length is a e - c b . Therefore
a e - c b = d'cos a - d'cos q = ml ,
where m is an integer.

6-1
 Figure 1: Scattering of waves from a plane of atoms. Path difference for waves from
adjacent atoms.

Another condition is that rays scattered from successive planes separated by a distance d also meet
in phase for constructive interference. Figure 2 shows the construction for determining this
condition.

Figure 2: Path difference for waves scattered from successive planes of atoms.

The difference in path length for rays traveling from planes 1 and 2 is seen to be a b + b c , the extra
distance traveled by the ray scattered from plane 2. This path difference must be an integral number
of wavelengths. Therefore
a b + b c = d sin q + d sin a = nl
These conditions can be satisfied simultaneously if q = a. In that case m = 0 satisfies the first
condition for any d , and
nl = 2dsin q
satisfies the second condition.

Thus the conditions for constructive interference are that the incident and scattered beams make
equal angles q and that the relation nl = 2dsin q must be obeyed where d is the spacing between
parallel adjacent planes of atoms. This relation was developed by Bragg in 1912 to explain the

6-2
 diffraction of x-rays from crystals. The parameter n is called the order of the diffraction
spectrum.
Thus far, only single crystals have been considered. Most materials are polycrystalline. They are
composed of a large number of small crystallites (single crystals) that are randomly oriented. Your
electron diffraction sample is a polycrystalline film, thin enough so that the diffracted electrons can
be transmitted through the film.
Figure 3(a) shows a beam of electrons of wavelength l traveling from the left and striking a plane
of atoms in a crystallite. If this plane makes the angle q with the incident beam such that
l = 2d sin q, where d is the spacing of successive atomic planes, the beam will be diffracted by the
angle g = 2q.

Figure 3: Showing how the randomly oriented crystallites in a polycrystalline film scatter
into a cone when the Bragg condition is fulfilled by planes of atoms disposed
symmetrically about the incident beam.

There are many randomly oriented crystallites in this film. Thus we may expect that there will be
crystallites in which this diffracting plane makes the same angle q with the beam direction but
rotated around the beam in a cone as shown in Fig. 3(b). The diffracted beams from all the
crystallites in the sample will fall on a circle whose diameter may be determined from the cone angle
g 2q and the distance from the sample to the film or other detector. The Bragg condition becomes

nl = 2d sin q 2d q d g ,

where we have used the small angle approximation of sinq q .

In 1927 the wave nature of electrons was verified by reflection and transmission diffraction
experiments using these techniques. For this work Davisson and G.P. Thomson were awarded the
Nobel prize in 1937. De Broglie received theNobel prize in 1929 for his basic insight on the wave
nature of matter.

6-3
THE EXPERIMENT
Equipment
1. Electron diffraction tube with carbon thin film target.
2. High and low voltage power supplies.
3. Calipers for measuring diffraction ring diameters.
CAUTION
The 5kV power source can give you a very nasty shock. Verify that your circuit is correctly
wired before turning on power. Have your instructor or TA check the circuit.
Check that the anode current monitoring meter is on the grounded side of the circuit as shown
in the diagram below.
Never permit the anode current to exceed 0.2 mA; otherwise the target may be damaged.

Figure 4: The electron diffraction tube

The electron diffraction tube is sketched in Fig. 4. The carbon film is mounted in the anode as
shown. You will set the anode to a voltage +V a, so that the electrons have kinetic energy
1
KE mv 2 = e(Va Vb )when they hit the carbon film. The variable anode voltage Va is provided
2
by the 5kV dc supply.

6-4
 The electrons are emitted from an indirectly-heated oxide-coated cathode. The heater voltage, VF , is
supplied by the 6Volt output on the same box as contains the 5kV supply. VF is applied to the 4
mm diameter terminals in the plastic cap at the end of the tube. The external bias Vbias for the can
surrounding the cathode is provided by the separate power supply. The negative biasing of the can
surrounding the cathode serves to focus the electron beam. The beam current Ia varies with both
anode and bias voltages, as does the beam kinetic energy.

Be sure to keep the beam current below 0.2 mA as monitored on the DVM in the grounded side of
the anode circuit. The energetic electron beam deposits its power
P = Ia *Va 0.2mA * 5kV = 1Watt as heat in the carbon target. If its glowing dull red, its too
hot. To prevent surprising increases in current, you should stabilize the filament heater current for
about a minute before turning on the anode voltage.

6-5
 Figure 5: Atom arrangements in carbon showing the two sets of planes that produce the
diffraction rings.

Figure 5 shows the arrangement of the atoms in a carbon crystal; They are located on the corners of
hexagons. Two principal spacings of the atom planes are indicated; these spacings are

d1 = 0.123 nm and
d2 = 0.213 nm .

As you turn up the anode voltage you will see two rings on the screen. Each ring corresponds to
one of the carbon d spacings (d1 or d2 ).

The diffraction condition derived for the polycrystalline carbon film is (approximately)

l= dg .

To determine g, you will measure the ring diameter D on the screen with calipers. The geometric
construction shown in Fig. 4 then allows you to calculate g from D. Finally, we expect

l = (1.23 nm)(Va - Vb )-1/ 2 = d g .

For each ring, plot (Va - Vb )-1/ 2 as a function of g for a number of values of Va. Determine d1 and d2
from the slopes of these curves. Using error analysis, compare your values to the d spacings
expected for carbon.

6-6