Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Key Concepts
Liberalism
Individualism
Freedom
Reason/
Rationality
Justice
Toleration
Feudalism
THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS
2009
Monarchs justified their position as absolute rulers by invoking God. The fact that they were
King meant they had been ordained in that position by God and therefore their authority and
power was absolute and beyond challenge. The rising merchant classes however DID
challenge this power and this sometimes lead to enormous upheaval as was the case during
the English Civil War (1642-1649) and the French Revolution 1789.In both examples the
Kings were executed as the middle classes demanded greater political rights and freedoms.
Concept Corner
A brief look at some
important liberal
concepts
1. CONSTITUTIONALISM
A principle of political conduct
whereby government institutions and
political processes are effectively
constrained by constitutional rules.
Constitutionalism also refers to a
broad set of principles or ideals
embedded within a framework of
rights and internal and external
constraints and checks on power
2. INTERNAL CONSTRAINTS
Since the state is a necessary evil it is
Constitutionalism - government which is rules based in accordance with the law vital that the state does not itself
or the constitution of the land develop agency and become a threat
Over time liberalism has become to liberty for this reason government
less radical and increasingly itself must have internal checks upon
conservative, arguing in the main its own powers. This is best achieved
for the maintenance of existing, through a separation of powers
between the three branches of
mainly liberal values.
government, namely: The Legislature,
the executive, and the Judiciary
There is a tension at the heart of
the creed between classical 3. EXTERNAL CONSTRAINTS
liberalism which believes in the A simple separation of powers, even
if formally laid down (as for example
fundamental importance of the
in the US Constitution with its tripartite
minimal state and modern system of checks and balances may
liberalism in which the state adopts be insufficient. If the system becomes
a more expansive role. corrupt then a simple separation of
internal powers will be insufficient.
Power should be a check That is why external constraints are
Liberalism, in common with all
unto power ideologies, encompasses within it a
also necessary. These can come in the
form of an entrenched bill of rights,
range of diverse, and even devolution, federalism or a codified
Charles de Montesquie(1689-1755) contradictory, traditions. There is constitution.
nonetheless a fundamental
There is an emphasis on commitment to the importance of
constitutionalism, civil liberties, individual freedom.
checks and balances, toleration
and the protection of fundamental
civil liberties. In addition freedom
of expression, the right to property LORD ACTON
and freedom of conscience are all 2. Key concepts
1834-1902
deeply ingrained in western
political systems. a) The Primacy of the
Individual "Power tends to
It is also argued that there is a
necessary and inevitable link
As feudalism and the bonds of corrupt, and absolute
loyalty to family, community and
between liberalism and capitalism. other groupings broke down power corrupts
Hayek for example argues that the
right to property is an essential
individuals were confronted with a absolutely (1887)
broader range of choices. For the
guarantor of political liberty. first time individuals were
encouraged to think of themselves
as just that individuals.
Key Thinkers
1. JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)
2 2
Some exercises of liberty
may be other regarding, that Positive liberty is the
expression of rights that have
is to say they have an effect
gradually accumulated over
on the freedom of others.
time. So for example at one
Such freedom of action is not time there was no right to
permitted. vote but over time the state
has gradually extended the
franchise.
become the licence by which to abuse (1958) differentiated between positive and
others. negative liberty.
Mill was a libertarian who distinguished Classical liberals have essentially focused
between self regarding exercises of on negative liberty whilst modern liberals
liber ty and those whic h are other have moved their focus towards positive
regarding. conceptions of liberty. This distinction is
important because it gives rise to different
Thus a person may do as he wishes in the conceptions about the role of the state.
field of self regarding exercises of liberty,
providing he has considered whether there Negative liberty implies an absence of
is any potential loss of the full expression of constraint, an expression of which may be
the liberty of others and he has correctly found in A.V. Diceys rule of Law whereby The sole end for which
mankind are warranted,
concluded that there is none. no-one is punishable except in breach of
individually or collectively,
the law whereas positive liberty implies an
in interfering with the liberty
Even in radical libertarianism however enactment of rights thus involving an of action of any of their
there has to be a recognition of the duty expanded role for the state in the number, is self-protection.
that befalls on all who exercise their liberty. legislative sphere. That the only purpose for
which power can be
This duty is to recognise and act upon the AV Dicey espoused the notion that persons rightfully exercised over any
fact that each individual enjoys an equal were free to do as they wished so long as member of a civilized
right to liberty. This principle is upheld by no law prevented them from doing so. This community, against his will,
the modern liberal John Rawls. is the essence of negative liberty. Positive is to prevent harm to others.
His own good, eit her
liberty are rights granted by the State such
physical or moral, is not a
Although the value of liberty is hardly as previously did not exist, for example the
sufficient warrant.
contested in different strands of liberalism, extension of the franchise in 1918 to
its meaning is sometimes debated. Berlin women.
The Age of Enlightenment (or simply the opposed superstition, intolerance and
The age of Enlightenment or Age of Reason) was a some abuses of power by the church
cultural movement of intellectuals in the and the state.
enlightenment 17th and 18th centuries, which began
first in Europe and later in the American
Originating about 1650 to 1700, it was
spar ked by philosophers Bar uc h
colonies.
Spinoza (16321677), John Locke
Its purpose was to reform society using (16321704) and physicist Isaac
reason, challenge ideas grounded in Newton (16431727).
tradition and faith, and advance
The Scientific Revolution is closely tied
knowledge t hrough t he scientific
to the Enlightenment, as its discoveries
method.
overturned many traditional concepts
It promoted scientific thought, scepticism and introduced new perspectives on
and intellectual interc hange and nature and man's place within it.
Justice
modern liberalism
Modern liberalism has come to the view however that unrestrained and unregulated market
forces lead to inequality of opportunity and that therefore increased interventionism is
required in order to create the conditions for a just society.
Civil Liberties
1. POLITICAL RIGHTS
These include the right to vote, join
any party of our choosing and the
right to campaign and stand for a
particular party.
2. FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION
This means that the individual is free
to come together with other
individuals for any lawful purpose.
3. FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE
This means that the individual is free
to hold any particular political, moral,
ethical, philosophical, spiritual or
religious belief that they wish to hold.
4. FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT
The liberty of the individual to travel
and go about their lawful business
without unnecessary constraint or
e) Toleration minorities harshly because they dissent impeachment.
from the majority view.
Liberals accept and even embrace
5. FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION
moral, cultural and political diversity.
However liberals do not endorse An extension of freedom of
unlimited toleration, just as they do not conscience. The individual is free to
Associated with this idea of tolerance
endorse unlimited freedom. Locke felt express any opinion he or she wishes
are fundamental civil liberties including
that Roman Catholics could not be to express. This in practice is subject
Freedom of Association, Conscience,
afforded toleration as they threatened to many constraints. There is no
Movement & Expression.
national sovereignty. freedom of expression for religious
intolerance or racial hatred. There are
Personal Freedoms, Social Freedoms,
Views that are of themselves intolerant also libel laws to prevent defamatory
Political Rights, Right to Privacy, Right
such that they threaten tolerance, i.e. publication.
to Property and Employment Rights are
racist opinions, are not however
all hallmarks of the liberal democratic
acceptable. 5. PERSONAL AND SOCIAL
ideal and are seen as essential
FREEDOMS
guarantees of toleration.
This emphasis on diversity and The individual has the right to self
toleration however has for some determination and to make decisions
These go hand in hand with political
conservatives lead to a weakening of about how to live their lives.
and other forms of pluralism and can
authority and a society of disorder and Decriminalisation of homosexuality
only be removed through censorship
instability. would be regarded as a significant
and repression which liberals naturally
liberal advance.
oppose as threatening liberty.
Too many competing claims and points
of view may lead to moral and cultural 6. PROPERTY RIGHTS
The liberal case for toleration 1 st
relativism in which every claim is valid The individual has the right to
emerged in 17th Century in regards to
and in which every opinion has merit. accumulate and dispose of property
opposition to religious repression.
as he or see sees fit. This is a central
This leads to a situation in which in liberal value going back to John
John Locke had argued that since the
obligation and duty are eschewed in Locke (1732-1804) who defined the
primary function of the state was to
favour of rights and freedom. central liberal values as life, liberty
protect life, liberty and property, it
and property
had no right to interfere in the care of
mens souls.
3. Liberalism and Democracy. 7. THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY
Everyone has the right to respect for
In On Liberty (1859) J.S. Mill that
a) The State his private and family life, his home
toleration is of fundamental importance and his correspondence. - Article 8 of
not only to the society but to the Whilst liberals cherish freedom dearly, the Human Rights Act.
individual. In the social realm only a they do not believe that it is possible to
free market of ideas would allow the achieve a balanced and just society out 8. EMPLOYMENT RIGHTS
truth to emerge. of the free actions and voluntary Everyone has the right to fair and
associations of individuals. Thus there is equal treatment in the workplace.
As far as individuals were concerned a fundamental difference between Liberals place great emphasis on
toleration was a guarantee of self- liberals and anarchists. Liberals believe equal opportunities legislation as
autonomy and thus moral development. the state the law and government to be discrimination in the workplace is an
necessary whereas anarchists do not. affront to equality of opportunity.
For some liberals, democracy is
intolerant to the extent that it treats
the state
In the UK the crown is the symbol of state authority
Jean Jacques The stated aim of the Social Contract is to determine whether there can be a
legitimate political authority.
Rousseau In order to accomplish more and remove himself from the state of nature, man
1762
must enter into a Social Contract with others. In this social contract, everyone
will be free because they all forfeit the same amount of rights and impose the
same duties on all. The social contract is the best guarantee of individual
liberty
Hobbes and the state of Montesquieu - any state J.S. Mill On Liberty (1859) -
Key Ideas nature established must have its the sole warrant for
own power checked interfering with the liberty
Locke - Where there is no There must be both internal of another is self protection
law there is no freedom. and external constraints on
Law must be established to the state Hegel (1821) The
secure life, liberty and Philosophy of Right has a
property Internal constraints are more positive conception of
achieved by a rigid the state as a realm of
Rousseau - the general will separation of powers universal altruism
of the people is sovereign
Lord Acton - power tends to
corrupt and absolute power
corrupts absolutely
The state is a necessary evil, a realm of coercion which is a threat to property, to liberty and even to life.
The state is necessary to individual and limits freedom. Classical fundamental rights were life, liberty,
liberalism thus believes in as minimal as (property) and the pursuit of happiness.
establish order and security possible role for the state, a
but contained within that nightwatchman in Lockes metaphor. The weight given to suc h rights
necessity is the potential for distinguishes classical liberals from
Classical liberalism is no longer the early conservatives. Though both early
evil in that it imposes a historical curiosity it may have been Conservatives and classical liberals
collective will upon t he deemed in the mid-twentieth century shared their views about the minimal
where paternalism and intervention state, conservatives were much more
individual and limits freedom. were the new orthodoxies. Since the prepared to see a stronger state at the
Classical liberalism t hus emergence of the new right in the
believes in as minimal as 19 8 0 s c l a s s i c a l l i b e ra l t h e o r i e s
concerning the state experienced a
possible role for the state, a resurgence.
Classical liberal ideas developed in the
transition from feudalism to capitalism and
nightwatchman in Lockes thus as the emergent industrialised capital
metaphor. Natural Rights
state in the world liberal ideas flourished
in England and then later the USA. The central
The state is a necessary evil, a realm of Natural rights theorists such as Locke or idea in classical liberalism is that of negative
coercion which is a threat to property, Jefferson had a profound influence on freedom. In this conception of freedom individuals
to liberty and even to life. It is the early development of liberalism. are free to that which no law prevents predicated on
necessary to establish order and In their view rights were natural or the premise of habeas corpus, that no one is
security but contained within that inalieble, a condition and a punishable except in breach of the law. Thus freedom
necessity is the potential for evil in that consequence of being human. The is the absence of external constraints.
it imposes a collective will upon the
In Leviathan (1631) Hobbes argued that only a strong government, preferably an absolutist one
Hobbes Leviathan would be able to establish order and authority. Repressive government was better than no
government at all. Locke and other early liberals were deeply suspicious of the state and its
attendant threat to liberty. Citizens reserved their right of rebellion against a coercive state
1631
which denied freedom a principle that is echoed in the 2nd amendment of the US constitution.
This states A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of
the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed
Neo - Liberalism Neo-Liberal
Neoliberalism is a political philosophy strong focus around the faculty of Economics
whose advocates support economic University of Chicago.
liberalization, free trade and open
The school emphasizes non- 1. ECONOMIC LIBERALISM
markets, privatization, deregulation,
intervention from government and Essentially a critique of the post war
and decreasing the size of the public
generally rejects regulation in consensus and the mixed economy
sector while increasing the role of the
markets as inefficient with the characterised by state ownership and
private sector in modern society.
exception of central bank regulation control of strategic industries and
of the money supply (i.e., utilities. These industries were made
monetarism). It is associated with subject to the disciplines of market
The Chicago school of economics
neoclassical price t heor y and forces through privatisation.
describes a neoclassical school of
libertarianism and the rejection of Government services were also put
thought within the academic
Keynesianism in favor of monetarism out to private contractors
community of economists, with a
until the 1980s.
2. MONETARISM
Control of the money supply. This
meant reducing taxation and
expense of liberty than were classical developed. Adam Smiths The Wealth
government spending
liberals. of Nations (1776) drew heavily upon
liberal and rationalist assumptions
3. DEREGULATION
The functions of government should not about human nature and the proper
Deregulation aimed remove barriers
extend beyond the minimal role of role of government.
to competition and business by getting
preser ving order and protecting
rid of controls.
property echoed in Jeffersons maxim Governments of the 16th and 17th
that government is best which governs centuries had interfered heavily in the
4. LIBERALISATION OF CAPITAL
least. running of the economy
FLOWS
Deregulation aimed at removing
Utilitarianism Smit h however argued t hat t he
barriers to currency flows. This allows
economy works best when it is free
multinational corporations to move
Bentham and Mill regarded rights as from government interference. The
vast amounts of currency with very
abstract nonsense. They instead placed market works best when it operates
little control across national borders.
emphasis on humans as motivated by according to the wishes of free
self interest by seeking pleasure and individuals acting as economic agents
avoiding pain. Utilitarianism is best whether as buyer or seller, employer or
summed up in the phrase the greatest employee.
good for the greatest number.
Market forces when left alone will
The principle of utility is that the produce wealth, economic prosperity
rightness of any action may be judged and well being. The market is also a
by the tendency of the action to self-regulating mechanism and requires
promote happiness. In this way what no management. Indeed any attempt to
benefits society as a whole may be manage capitalism will result in
more or less scientifically established. economic inefficiency.
Darwinism
Social
Heaven helps those who help themselves (Samuel Smiles: Self-Help, 1859)
social sphere is also a sphere in which
Social Darwinism the survival of the fittest is the most Inequality
One of the key features of classical appropriate maxim.
liberalism is its attitude to both poverty
and social inequality. There should be no attempt from 1. Stems from the individuals own unique
government to interfere with these laws character. Some people have more talent
A rigid believe in individualism and of nature, simply because some are in and ability than others and some are
freedom will tend to locate the source poverty. The poor are poor because harder working than others.
of social problems such as poverty they have failed to stand on their own
within the individual themselves. Those two feet. 2. Talent and the work ethic are spread
with a willingness and ability to work unevenly and poverty is the inevitable
will prosper whereas those are lazy will Social Darwinisms most recent result of a lack of talent or application
not. The work ethic is therefore central. expression can be seen in the attacks
on welfarism in the 1970s, 80s and the 3.The poor are poor because they lack
Herbert Spencer, The Man Versus The 1990s and again in the wake of global initiative and enterprise or because they
State (1884), drew on Darwins theory financial crisis. All across Europe are work-shy.
of evolution, specifically the concept of welfare spending is being slashed as a
natural selection, and applied this to necessary (but also moral) means of 4. Individuals who are poor should not
the social sphere. Society and the reducing government deficits. look to rely on society to alleviate their
distribution of social rewards are a just condition. They need to become self reliant
reflection of each individuals efforts. The best way to overcome the
Thus wealth creation and its distribution dependency culture was to foster an
are uneven as a result of the uneven enterprise culture
distribution of talents and efforts. The
Social Darwinism is an ideology of society that seeks to apply biological concepts of Darwinism or of evolutionary theory to sociology and
politics, often with the assumption that conflict between groups in society leads to social progress as superior groups outcompete inferior ones.
Social Darwinism is generally understood to use the concepts of struggle for existence and survival of the fittest to justify social policies which
make no distinction between those able to support themselves and those unable to support themselves. Many such views stress competition
between individuals in laissez-faire capitalism; but the ideology has also motivated ideas of eugenics, scientific racism, imperialism,fascism,
Nazism and struggle between national or racial groups.
Nick Clegg, Leader of the Liberal Democrats
Modern Liberalism
Also sometimes
referred to as C20th
Liberalism
Green also challenged the classical liberal notion of liberty. In the absence of
external constraints for example in relation to freedom, exploitation is likely to
Social Liberalism follow. Green thus proposed the idea of positive freedom which could safeguard
the individual against social evils, best espoused in the Beveridge Report of 1942
1. An expanded role for the state.
Inequality (especially extremes) are If the market cannot or will not provide individuals with equal opportunities to grow
an affront to liberty. and develop modern liberals then argue that the only course of action is collective
2. Extreme poverty denies people action undertaken by the state.Less than see the state as a threat to liberty it should
equality of opportunity. therefore be seen as its guarantor. The state should be seen as an enabling state
3. The state therefore has a role to undertaking a wide role of social and even economic responsibilities.
play as an enabler of opportunity
by reducing inequality. Although this is a significant departure from classical liberalism it does not place the
4. The expansion of welfare state before the individual. Modern liberals still retain the view in common with
entitlements does not threaten the classical liberals that ultimately individuals are responsible for themselves and must
existence of negative rights be self reliant. The expanded role of the state simply makes this more possible for
(although some classical liberals more people thus helping people help themselves.
disagree.)
In addition to T h e Wa l l S t r e e t Such interventionist
The Ideas of John providing welfare, Crash and the Great policies were
governments of the D e p r e s s i o n we r e greatly influenced
Maynard Keynes 20th century have arguably the and guided by the
also pursued c l e a r e s t work of John
policies of economic demonstration of the Maynard Keynes.
management whilst failures of the free
a b a n d o n i n g market. After the
classical liberal second world war
laissez faire, all governments
attitudes to the adopted policies of
market. intervention
Social Liberalism
Liberalism in the 21st
Social Liberalism negated by an extended role for the state in
regards to the granting of positive rights, such Century
Social liberalism grew out of the expanding as welfare entitlement.
role of the state in 20th century. Just as the The end of the cold war marked a
minimalist state was the norm in the 19th Positive and negative rights should not high point of liberal optimism. Former
century, so too was the welfare state in the therefore be seen in opposition to one another communist states embraced the free
market and democratic forms of
20th century but rather as complementary, broadening the government.
range of available rights to individuals and
A number of factors contributed to this enhancing equality of opportunity The American Political Scientist
Francis Fukuyama developed his end
ideological and historical shift including the of history thesis in which history
need for national efficiency, stronger healthy Many examples of modern liberalism can be (defined as a conflict between the
workers, pressures for political reform and a detected in the policies of Lloyd George, competing ideologies of collectivism
need to tackle the large scale poverty Asquith, Roosevelt and Attlee, Macmillan, and capitalism) had entered a new
phase characterised by the triumph of
characteristic of the late 19th and early 20th Kennedy and Johnson leading to, in the United liberal democracy and the spread of
centuries. States for example, affirmative action policies. free markets.
Similar policies are now at the centre of the
Two grounds for optimism have
Welfarism as a political strategy or priority is EUs equal rights agenda. emerged:
not the preserve of a single ideology.
Conservatives, socialists, liberals, feminists Firstly the ever increasing complexity
and diversity of social, political and
and even fascists have at some point all economic formations can only be
embraced welfarism. made stable by the adoption of
liberal values. Rule based
But not all adherents to these ideologies governance, competition between
elites, fair and free elections and
supported welfarism unconditionally. It is best secure civil liberties best enable the
to examine each of the ideologies in turn to political structures of society to be
find support for and indeed opposition to the responsive to the increasing pace of
change,
principles embodied in welfarism
Secondly globalisation, particularly in
Modern liberals have defended welfarism its economic form, accelerates the
spread of free market ideas.
principally on grounds of equality of Economic globalisation refers to the
opportunity process whereby all national
economies have, to a greater or
If social circumstances produce gross lesser extent, been absorbed into an
interlocking global economy,
disadvantages that interfere with the principal meaning that no national economy is
of equality of opportunity then corrective steps now an island.
and measures are justified.
In this global economy, production is
internationalised and financial capital
Such an expansion of state activity does not flows freely and instantly between
diminish rights but actually enhances rights countries.