Scriptures & Texts

Oral Tradition
The Buddha's teaching was oral. He taught for 45 years, adapting the teaching to suit the
group he was addressing, and there is duplication in the texts. The language he used is
understood to be Magadhi.
The Sangha memorized the teachings, and there were group recitations at festivals and
special occasions. The teachings were rehearsed and authenticated at the First Council,
and were handed down from generation to generation accurately by means of these
group recitations.
The oral tradition continues today. The Sangha chant selected texts at ceremonies and
sometimes the lay people join in. The chanting is considered to be sacred act, in
addition to reminding and teaching the Dhamma.

Pali Canon
The teaching was written down first at the Fourth Council in Sri Lanka about 25 B.C.E. in
Pali. The writing was in three sections, Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abidhamma
Pitaka, following the division at the Councils, and is called the Tipitaka (three baskets).
The Vinaya Pitaka consists of the 227 rules of conduct and discipline applicable to the
monastic life of the monks and nuns. It is divided into three parts and, in addition to the
rules, give accounts of the circumstances under which a rule was promulgated and
exceptions of the rule.
The Sutta Pitaka consists of the main teaching or Dhamma. It is divided into five Nikayas
or collections. These are the long teachings (Digha Nikaya), medium length teachings
(Majjhima Nikaya), groups of shorter teachings according to common topics (Samyutta
Nikaya), a collection arranged to subjects discussed (Angutta Nikaya) and a collection of
a variety of shorter texts in verse and prose.
The Abhidamma Pitaka consists of seven books called the higher or further teaching.
This is a philosophical analysis and systematization of the teaching and seems to be the
scholarly activity of the monks.
The writing was on strips of dried palm leaves cut into rectangles and etched with a
metal stylus and rubbed over with carbon ink. A thread was passed through the pages to
keep them in order and elaborately painted wooden covers fixed at the ends. This is
done even today and is considered to be a meritorious activity.
The Pali Canon has been recited, checked and agreed at the Councils. The whole of it
has been translated into English. The Pali Canon was put on a single CD-Rom disk which
is published by the American Academy of Religion and Scholar's Press in Atlanta, USA.

Sanskrit Canon
The Buddha advised the monks to teach in the different languages of the people. The
oral teaching continued in India in forms of oral Sanskrit. At the Fourth Council in India
in the 1st century C.E. the teaching was written down in Sanskrit and was known as the
Sanskrit Canon. There were different versions of the Sanskrit Canon, all similar in form
and content. Both the Pali and the Sanskrit Canons can be traced to the common original
teaching of the Buddha.
The Sanskrit Tripitaka, or Canon, displayed the same three divisions as the Pali Canon,
namely:
Vinaya Vaibasha monastic rules
Sutra vaibasha the Dharma, the five Agamas corresponded to the five Nikayas of the
Pali Canon, and
Abhidharma Vaibasha the scholarly philosophical analysis which differed from the
corresponding section of the Pali Canon.
The Sanskrit Canon does not exist in a complete form in India, but does exist in
translations in Chinese, Japanese and Tibetan. Sections of it have been unearthed by
archaeologists in Central Asia.

Mahayana Texts
With the growth of the Mahayana, new Sutras were written. The teaching in the Sanskrit
Canon was incorporated into the Mahayana teaching. The new Sutras were based on the
existing texts but new material was added to incorporate the Mahayana ideas.
Of the many new Sutras written, nine are considered particularly important. Four of the
most popular and important are:
Prajnaparamita Sutras (Wisdom, Perfection Sutra), which set out the teachings of
Emptiness (Sunyata).
Saddharma Pundarika Sutra (Lotus Sutra), which explains the one-ness of the
teachings and praises the Bodhisattva. Mahayana considered this to be the supreme
teaching, and it is considered the most important Sutra in China and Japan.
Vimalakirtinirdesa Sutra, which explains that a layperson can become a Bodhisattva.
Sukhavati Sutra teaches that Buddha Amida's land was open to all believers.

Tantric Texts
With the growth of Tantric Buddhism, new Tantric texts came into being dealing with
new ideas. They deal with:
1.Kriya tantra ceremonies and rites,
2.Carya tantra practical rites,
3.Yoga tantra practice of yoga,
4.Anuttarayoga tantra higher mysticism.
Tantric Buddhism and now Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana school) emphasize personal
teaching and these texts are difficult to read and understand since they need to be
complemented by oral teaching.
Examples of tantric texts are:
Hevajra Tantra, Guhya samaja tantra (Union of the triple body of the Buddha) and
Kalacakra tantra (Wheel of Time).

Chinese, Korean and Japanese Texts

Buddhism came to China in the 1st century C.E.. The development of Buddhism in China
and the recording of the teaching as the Chinese Canon is one of the great achievement
s of human civilization.
The Sanskrit texts of different traditions were taken to China and the translation of the
texts into Chinese went on from 200 C.E. to about 1200 C.E.. At first non-Chinese, and
later Chinese monks, working individually and in teams, carried on the translation work.
State translation projects were established. Original Chinese Sutra were added.
The Chinese Tripitaka, or Canon, was compiled and followed the same pattern. There
was the Vinaya, Sutra and Abhidharma Pitakas, and it included the original Chinese
Sutras. About the 8th century the Chinese invented wood block printing to make
multiple copies of the Sutras. The oldest printed book in existence is the Diamond Sutra
dated 868 C.E..
The vast Chinese Canon is in the process of being translated into English. The Chinese
Tripitaka was translated into Korean about 10th century C.E. and later the Korean
Tripitaka was printed. The Chinese Tripitaka was brought to Japan and copied. Sutra
coping became an important religious activity in Japan. It was published in the 17th
century C.E.. The Chinese Tripitaka and the Pali Tripitaka have been translated into
Japanese last century.

Tibetan and Mongolian Canon

The Sanskrit texts were translated into Tibetan and were edited in the 14th century in
333 volumes. The Tibetan literature is in two parts:
Kanjur (Translation of the Word of the Buddha) includes the Vinaya, Sutra and
Abhidharma and also the Tantric texts.
Tanjur (Translation of Commentaries) consists of commentaries on the main texts,
hymns and also writings on medicine, grammar and so on.
The first edition was published in Beijing in 1410 C.E.. Only a small portion of the
Tibetan Canon has been translated into English. The Tibetan Tripitaka was translated
into Mongolian in the 18 century C.E..

Commentaries
In addition, as a result of Buddhist study and scholarship, there is a vast amount of
commentarial matter published over 2,500 years by Asian scholars in the different
countries.