Chapter 2

Aircraft Structure
Introduction
An aircraft is a device that is used, or intended to be used, for
ight, according to the current Title 14 of the Code of Federal
Regulations (14 CFR) Part 1, Denitions and Abbreviations.
Categories of aircraft for certication of airmen include
airplane, rotorcraft, glider, lighter-than-air, powered-lift,
powered parachute, and weight-shift control. 14 CFR part 1
also denes airplane as an engine-driven, xed-wing aircraft
that is supported in ight by the dynamic reaction of air against
its wings. Another term, not yet codied in 14 CFR part 1,
is advanced avionics aircraft, which refers to an aircraft that
contains a global positioning system (GPS) navigation system
with a moving map display, in conjunction with another
system, such as an autopilot. This chapter provides a brief
introduction to the structure of aircraft and uses an airplane
for most illustrations. Light Sport Aircraft (LSA), such as
weight-shift control, balloon, glider, powered parachute,
and gyroplane have their own handbooks to include detailed
information regarding aerodynamics and control.

2-1
Lift and Basic Aerodynamics
In order to understand the operation of the major components
and subcomponents of an aircraft, it is important to understand
basic aerodynamic concepts. This chapter briey introduces
aerodynamics; a more detailed explanation can be found in
Chapter 4, Aerodynamics of Flight.
Four forces act upon an aircraft in relation to straight-and-
level, unaccelerated ight. These forces are thrust, lift,
weight, and drag. [Figure 2-1]
Figure 2-1. The four forces.
Thrust is the forward force produced by the powerplant/
propeller. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag. As a
general rule, it is said to act parallel to the longitudinal axis.
This is not always the case as explained later.
Drag is a rearward, retarding force, and is caused by
disruption of airflow by the wing, fuselage, and other
protruding objects. Drag opposes thrust, and acts rearward
parallel to the relative wind.
Pitching
Lateral Axis Longitudinal Axis
Figure 2-2. Illustrates the pitch, roll, and yaw motion of the aircraft along the lateral, longitudinal, and vertical axes, respectively.
2-2
Weight is the combined load of the airplane itself, the crew,
the fuel, and the cargo or baggage. Weight pulls the airplane
downward because of the force of gravity. It opposes lift,
and acts vertically downward through the airplanes center
of gravity (CG).
Lift opposes the downward force of weight, is produced by
the dynamic effect of the air acting on the wing, and acts
perpendicular to the ightpath through the wings center
of lift.
An aircraft moves in three dimensions and is controlled by
moving it about one or more of its axes. The longitudinal or
roll axis extends through the aircraft from nose to tail, with
the line passing through the CG. The lateral or pitch axis
extends across the aircraft on a line through the wing tips,
again passing through the CG. The vertical, or yaw, axis
passes through the aircraft vertically, intersecting the CG.
All control movements cause the aircraft to move around
one or more of these axes, and allows for the control of the
airplane in ight. [Figure 2-2]
One of the most signicant components of aircraft design is
CG. It is the specic point where the mass or weight of an
aircraft may be said to center; that is, a point around which, if
the aircraft could be suspended or balanced, the aircraft would
remain relatively level. The position of the CG of an aircraft
determines the stability of the aircraft in ight. As the CG
moves rearward (towards the tail) the aircraft becomes more
and more dynamically unstable. In aircraft with fuel tanks
situated in front of the CG, it is important that the CG is set
with the fuel tank empty. Otherwise, as the fuel is used, the
aircraft becomes unstable. [Figure 2-3] The CG is computed
during initial design and construction, and is further affected
by the installation of onboard equipment, aircraft loading,
and other factors.
Rolling Yawing
Vertical Axis
 Lift

Variable
Fixed
Nose-down force Nose-up force
independent of airspeed dependent upon airspeed

Vertical forces acting on an airplane in flight

Insufficient elevator
nose-down force Figure 2-4. Airplane components.
Lift

CG

CG too far aft

If the CG is too far aft, there might not be enough elevator nosedown
force at the low stall airspeed to get the nose down for recovery.
Lift

CG

Insufficient elevator
CG too far forward nose-up force

If the CG is too far forward, there will not be enough elevator

nose-up force to flare the airplane for landing.
Figure
Figure 2-3. Center 2-3. Center
of gravity (CG). of gravity.
Major Components
Although airplanes are designed for a variety of purposes, most
of them have the same major components. [Figure 2-4] The
overall characteristics are largely determined by the original
design objectives. Most airplane structures include a fuselage,
wings, an empennage, landing gear, and a powerplant.
Fuselage
The fuselage is the central body of an airplane and is designed
to accommodate the crew, passengers, and cargo. It also
provides the structural connection for the wings and tail
assembly. Older types of aircraft design utilized an open truss
structure constructed of wood, steel, or aluminum tubing.
[Figure 2-5] The most popular types of fuselage structures
used in todays aircraft are the monocoque (French for
single shell) and semimonocoque. These structure types
Figure 2-5. Truss-type fuselage structure.
are discussed in more detail under aircraft construction later
in the chapter.
Wings
The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage
and are the main lifting surfaces that support the airplane in
ight. There are numerous wing designs, sizes, and shapes
used by the various manufacturers. Each fullls a certain need
with respect to the expected performance for the particular
airplane. How the wing produces lift is explained in Chapter
4, Aerodynamics of Flight.
Wings may be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion
of the fuselage. These designs are referred to as high-, mid-,
and low-wing, respectively. The number of wings can also
vary. Airplanes with a single set of wings are referred to as

2-3
Figure 2-6. Monoplane (left) and biplane (right).
monoplanes, while those with two sets are called biplanes.
[Figure 2-6]
Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing
struts, which transmit the ight and landing loads through
the struts to the main fuselage structure. Since the wing struts
are usually attached approximately halfway out on the wing,
this type of wing structure is called semi-cantilever. A few
high-wing and most low-wing airplanes have a full cantilever
wing designed to carry the loads without external struts.
The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs,
and stringers. [Figure 2-7] These are reinforced by trusses,
I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the skin. The
wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing
Figure 2-7. Wing components.
2-4
(airfoil). In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks either are
an integral part of the wings structure, or consist of exible
containers mounted inside of the wing.
Attached to the rear or trailing edges of the wings are two
types of control surfaces referred to as ailerons and aps.
Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing
outward toward the tip, and move in opposite directions to
create aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane to roll.
Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint
of each wing. The aps are normally ush with the wings
surface during cruising ight. When extended, the aps move
simultaneously downward to increase the lifting force of the
wing for takeoffs and landings. [Figure 2-8]

Basic section
Plain flap
Split flap
Slotted flap
Fowler flap
Slotted Fowler flap
Figure 2-8. Types of aps.
Alternate Types of Wings
With the Federal Aviation Administrations (FAA) recent
addition of the LSA category, various methods are employed
to control ight and to produce lift. These methods are
discussed in Chapter 4, Aerodynamics of Flight, which
provides information on the effect controls have on lifting
surfaces from traditional wings to wings that use both exing
(due to billowing) and shifting (through the change of the
aircrafts CG). Handbooks specic to each category of LSA
are available for the interested pilot. LSA illustrate various
lifting surfaces and control methods. For example, the wing
of the weight-shift control aircraft is highly swept, and the
shifting of weight to provide controlled ight. [Figure 2-9]
Figure 2-9. Weight-shift control aircraft use the shifting of weight
for control.
Empennage
The empennage includes the entire tail group and consists of
xed surfaces such as the vertical stabilizer and the horizontal
stabilizer. The movable surfaces include the rudder, the
elevator, and one or more trim tabs. [Figure 2-10]
Figure 2-10. Empennage components.
The rudder is attached to the back of the vertical stabilizer.
During ight, it is used to move the airplanes nose left
and right. The elevator, which is attached to the back of the
horizontal stabilizer, is used to move the nose of the airplane
up and down during ight. Trim tabs are small, movable
portions of the trailing edge of the control surface. These
movable trim tabs, which are controlled from the ight deck,
reduce control pressures. Trim tabs may be installed on the
ailerons, the rudder, and/or the elevator.
A second type of empennage design does not require an
elevator. Instead, it incorporates a one-piece horizontal
stabilizer that pivots from a central hinge point. This type of
2-5

Leading edge stagnation point
A and the pressure increases. [Figure 3-5]
Trailing edge stagnation point
Figure 2-3.
Figure 3-4. Air circulation Air circulation.
around an airfoil occurs when the front
stagnation point is below the leading edge and the aft stagnation
point is beyond the trailing edge.
This low-pressure area produces an upward force known as
the Magnus Effect, the physical phenomenon whereby an
objects rotation affects its path through a uid, to include
air. Two early aerodynamicists, Martin Kutta and Nicolai
Joukowski, eventually measured and calculated the forces for
the lift equation on a rotating cylinder (the Kutta-Joukowski
theorem).
To summarize the Magnus effect, an airfoil with a positive
AOA develops air circulation about the upper surface of the
wing. Its sharp trailing edge forces the rear stagnation point
to be aft of the trailing edge, while the front stagnation point
falls below the leading edge. [Figure 3-4]
Bernoullis Principle of Differential Pressure
A half-century after Newton formulated his laws, Daniel
Bernoulli, a Swiss mathematician, explained how the pressure
of a moving uid (liquid or gas) varies with its speed of
motion. Bernoullis Principle states that as the velocity of a
moving uid (liquid or gas) increases, the pressure within
the uid decreases. This principle explains what happens to
air passing over the curved top of the airplane wing.
4 6 4 6
OC
VELOCITY S
PRESSURE
2 8 2 8
0 I0 0 I0
Figure 3-5. Air pressure decreases in a venturi tube.2-4. Air pressure decreases in a venturi.
Figure
A practical application of Bernoullis Principle is the venturi
tube. The venturi tube has an air inlet that narrows to a throat
(constricted point) and an outlet section that increases in
diameter toward the rear. The diameter of the outlet is the
same as that of the inlet. At the throat, the airow speeds up
and the pressure decreases; at the outlet, the airow slows
B
Since air is recognized as a body and it is accepted that it must
follow the above laws, one can begin to see how and why an
airplane wing develops lift. As the wing moves through the
air, the ow of air across the curved top surface increases in
velocity creating a low-pressure area.
Although Newton, Magnus, Bernoulli, and hundreds of other
early scientists who studied the physical laws of the universe
did not have the sophisticated laboratories available today,
they provided great insight to the contemporary viewpoint
of how lift is created.
Airfoil Design
An airfoil is a structure designed to obtain reaction upon its
surface from the air through which it moves or that moves
past such a structure. Air acts in various ways when submitted
to different pressures and velocities; but this discussion
is conned to the parts of an aircraft that a pilot is most
concerned with in ightnamely, the airfoils designed to
produce lift. By looking at a typical airfoil prole, such as
the cross section of a wing, one can see several obvious
characteristics of design. [Figure 3-6] Notice that there is
a difference in the curvatures (called cambers) of the upper
and lower surfaces of the airfoil. The camber of the upper
surface is more pronounced than that of the lower surface,
which is usually somewhat at.
NOTE: The two extremities of the airfoil prole also differ in
appearance. The end, which faces forward in ight, is called
4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6
VELOCITY PR
PRESSURE OC
VELOCITY S
PRESSURE
2 8 2 8 2 8 2 8
0 I0 0 I0 0 I0 0 I0
3-7

Mean camber line Trailing edge
Camber of upper surface
Camber of lower surface
Leading edge Chord line
Figure 3-6. Typical airfoil section.
the leading edge, and is rounded; the other end, the trailing
edge, is quite narrow and tapered.
A reference line often used in discussing the airfoil is the chord
line, a straight line drawn through the prole connecting the
extremities of the leading and trailing edges. The distance
from this chord line to the upper and lower surfaces of the
wing denotes the magnitude of the upper and lower camber at
any point. Another reference line, drawn from the leading edge
to the trailing edge, is the mean camber line. This mean line is
equidistant at all points from the upper and lower surfaces.
An airfoil is constructed in such a way that its shape takes
advantage of the airs response to certain physical laws.
This develops two actions from the air mass: a positive
pressure lifting action from the air mass below the wing,
and a negative pressure lifting action from lowered pressure
above the wing.
As the air stream strikes the relatively at lower surface of
a wing or rotor blade when inclined at a small angle to its
direction of motion, the air is forced to rebound downward,
causing an upward reaction in positive lift. At the same time,
the air stream striking the upper curved section of the leading
edge is deected upward. An airfoil is shaped to cause an
action on the air, and forces air downward, which provides
an equal reaction from the air, forcing the airfoil upward. If
a wing is constructed in such form that it causes a lift force
greater than the weight of the aircraft, the aircraft will y.
If all the lift required were obtained merely from the
deection of air by the lower surface of the wing, an aircraft
would only need a at wing like a kite. However, the balance
of the lift needed to support the aircraft comes from the ow
of air above the wing. Herein lies the key to ight.
It is neither accurate nor useful to assign specic values to
the percentage of lift generated by the upper surface of an
airfoil versus that generated by the lower surface. These are
not constant values and vary, not only with ight conditions,
but also with different wing designs.
3-8
Different airfoils have different ight characteristics. Many
thousands of airfoils have been tested in wind tunnels and in
actual ight, but no one airfoil has been found that satises
every ight requirement. The weight, speed, and purpose
of each aircraft dictate the shape of its airfoil. The most
efcient airfoil for producing the greatest lift is one that has
a concave, or scooped out lower surface. As a xed design,
this type of airfoil sacrices too much speed while producing
lift and is not suitable for high-speed ight. Advancements
in engineering have made it possible for todays high-speed
jets to take advantage of the concave airfoils high lift
characteristics. Leading edge (Kreuger) aps and trailing
edge (Fowler) aps, when extended from the basic wing
structure, literally change the airfoil shape into the classic
concave form, thereby generating much greater lift during
slow ight conditions.
On the other hand, an airfoil that is perfectly streamlined
and offers little wind resistance sometimes does not have
enough lifting power to take the airplane off the ground.
Thus, modern airplanes have airfoils that strike a medium
between extremes in design. The shape varies according to
the needs of the airplane for which it is designed. Figure 3-7
shows some of the more common airfoil sections.
Early airfoil
Later airfoil
Clark 'Y' airfoil
(Subsonic)
Laminar flow airfoil
(Subsonic)
Circular arc airfoil
(Supersonic)
Double wedge airfoil
(Supersonic)
Figure 3-7. Airfoil Figure
designs.2-6. Airfoil designs.
Low Pressure Above
In a wind tunnel or in ight, an airfoil is simply a streamlined
object inserted into a moving stream of air. If the airfoil prole
were in the shape of a teardrop, the speed and the pressure
changes of the air passing over the top and bottom would be
the same on both sides. But if the teardrop shaped airfoil were
cut in half lengthwise, a form resembling the basic airfoil
(wing) section would result. If the airfoil were then inclined so Low angle of attack
the airow strikes it at an angle (angle of attack (AOA)), the
air moving over the upper surface would be forced to move
faster than the air moving along the bottom of the airfoil. This
increased velocity reduces the pressure above the airfoil.
CP
Applying Bernoullis Principle of Pressure, the increase in
the speed of the air across the top of an airfoil produces a
drop in pressure. This lowered pressure is a component of

attack
Angle

-8
total lift. The pressure difference between the upper and

of
lower surface of a wing alone does not account for the total
lift force produced.

The downward backward ow from the top surface of an

airfoil creates a downwash. This downwash meets the ow Normal angle of attack
from the bottom of the airfoil at the trailing edge. Applying
Newtons third law, the reaction of this downward backward
ow results in an upward forward force on the airfoil.

High Pressure Below CP

A certain amount of lift is generated by pressure conditions
underneath the airfoil. Because of the manner in which air
ows underneath the airfoil, a positive pressure results,
Angle
attack

+4
of
particularly at higher angles of attack. But there is another
aspect to this airow that must be considered. At a point
close to the leading edge, the airow is virtually stopped
(stagnation point) and then gradually increases speed. At
some point near the trailing edge, it again reaches a velocity
equal to that on the upper surface. In conformance with High angle of attack
Bernoullis principle, where the airow was slowed beneath
the airfoil, a positive upward pressure was created i.e., as the
uid speed decreases, the pressure must increase. Since the
CP
pressure differential between the upper and lower surface
of the airfoil increases, total lift increases. Both Bernoullis
Principle and Newtons Laws are in operation whenever lift
is being generated by an airfoil.
attack f
o
Angle

+10

Pressure Distribution
From experiments conducted on wind tunnel models and on
full size airplanes, it has been determined that as air ows
along the surface of a wing at different angles of attack, there
are regions along the surface where the pressure is negative,
or less than atmospheric, and regions where the pressure is Figure3-8.
Figure 2-8.Pressure
Pressuredistribution
distribution on
on an
an airfoil
airfoil&and
CP changes
CP changes
positive, or greater than atmospheric. This negative pressure with an angle of attack.
with AOA.
on the upper surface creates a relatively larger force on the
wing than is caused by the positive pressure resulting from travel is very important, since it affects the position of the
the air striking the lower wing surface. Figure 3-8 shows the air loads imposed on the wing structure in both low and high
pressure distribution along an airfoil at three different angles AOA conditions. An airplanes aerodynamic balance and
of attack. The average of the pressure variation for any given controllability are governed by changes in the CP.
angle of attack is referred to as the center of pressure (CP).
Aerodynamic force acts through this CP. At high angles of
attack, the CP moves forward, while at low angles of attack
the CP moves aft. In the design of wing structures, this CP

3-9
Airfoil Behavior
Although specic examples can be cited in which each of
the principles predict and contribute to the formation of lift,
lift is a complex subject. The production of lift is much more
complex than a simple differential pressure between upper
and lower airfoil surfaces. In fact, many lifting airfoils do
not have an upper surface longer than the bottom, as in the
case of symmetrical airfoils. These are seen in high-speed
aircraft having symmetrical wings, or on symmetrical rotor
blades for many helicopters whose upper and lower surfaces
are identical. In both examples, the relationship of the airfoil
with the oncoming airstream (angle) is all that is different. A
paper airplane, which is simply a at plate, has a bottom and
top exactly the same shape and length. Yet these airfoils do
produce lift, and ow turning is partly (or fully) responsible
for creating lift.
As an airfoil moves through air, the airfoil is inclined
against the airow, producing a different ow caused by the
airfoils relationship to the oncoming air. Think of a hand
being placed outside the car window at a high speed. If the
hand is inclined in one direction or another, the hand will
move upward or downward. This is caused by deection,
which in turn causes the air to turn about the object within
the air stream. As a result of this change, the velocity about
the object changes in both magnitude and direction, in turn
resulting in a measurable velocity force and direction.
trailing edge of the airfoil. This downwash results in an overall
reduction in lift for the affected portion of the airfoil.
Manufacturers have developed different methods to
counteract this action. Winglets can be added to the tip of
an airfoil to reduce this ow. The winglets act as a dam
preventing the vortex from forming. Winglets can be on the
top or bottom of the airfoil. Another method of countering
the ow is to taper the airfoil tip, reducing the pressure
differential and smoothing the airow around the tip.
Chapter Summary
Modern general aviation aircraft have what may be considered
high performance characteristics. Therefore, it is increasingly
necessary that pilots appreciate and understand the principles
upon which the art of flying is based. For additional
information on the principles discussed in this chapter, visit
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Beginners Guide to Aerodynamics at http://www.grc.nasa.
gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/index.html.

A Third Dimension
To this point the discussion has centered on the ow across
the upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil. While most of the
lift is produced by these two dimensions, a third dimension,
the tip of the airfoil also has an aerodynamic effect. The high-
pressure area on the bottom of an airfoil pushes around the tip
to the low-pressure area on the top. [Figure 3-9] This action
creates a rotating ow called a tip vortex. The vortex ows
behind the airfoil creating a downwash that extends back to the
Ti
p
vor
tex

Figure 3-9. Tip vortex.

3-10
Chapter 4

Aerodynamics
of Flight
Forces Acting on the Aircraft
Thrust, drag, lift, and weight are forces that act upon all
aircraft in ight. Understanding how these forces work and
knowing how to control them with the use of power and
ight controls are essential to ight. This chapter discusses
the aerodynamics of ighthow design, weight, load factors,
and gravity affect an aircraft during ight maneuvers.

The four forces acting on an aircraft in straight-and-level,

unaccelerated ight are thrust, drag, lift, and weight. They
are dened as follows:
Thrustthe forward force produced by the powerplant/
propeller or rotor. It opposes or overcomes the force
of drag. As a general rule, it acts parallel to the
longitudinal axis. However, this is not always the case,
as explained later.

4-1
 Draga rearward, retarding force caused by
disruption of airow by the wing, rotor, fuselage, and
other protruding objects. Drag opposes thrust, and acts
rearward parallel to the relative wind.
Weightthe combined load of the aircraft itself, the
crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage. Weight pulls
the aircraft downward because of the force of gravity.
It opposes lift, and acts vertically downward through
the aircrafts center of gravity (CG).
Liftopposes the downward force of weight, is
produced by the dynamic effect of the air acting on
the airfoil, and acts perpendicular to the ightpath
through the center of lift.
In steady ight, the sum of these opposing forces is always
zero. There can be no unbalanced forces in steady, straight
ight based upon Newtons Third Law, which states that for
every action or force there is an equal, but opposite, reaction
or force. This is true whether ying level or when climbing
or descending.
It does not mean the four forces are equal. It means the
opposing forces are equal to, and thereby cancel, the effects
of each other. In Figure 4-1 the force vectors of thrust,
drag, lift, and weight appear to be equal in value. The usual
explanation states (without stipulating that thrust and drag
do not equal weight and lift) that thrust equals drag and lift
equals weight. Although basically true, this statement can
be misleading. It should be understood that in straight, level,
unaccelerated ight, it is true that the opposing lift/weight
forces are equal. They are also greater than the opposing
forces of thrust/drag that are equal only to each other.
Therefore, in steady ight:
The sum of all upward forces (not just lift) equals the
sum of all downward forces (not just weight).
The sum of all forward forces (not just thrust) equals
Correct
the sumrelationship of forces
of all backward acting
forces (notonjust
an airplane
drag).
Lift
Thrust Drag
Weight
Figure 4-1. Relationship of forces acting on an airplane.
4-2
This renement of the old thrust equals drag; lift equals
weight formula explains that a portion of thrust is directed
upward in climbs and acts as if it were lift while a portion
of weight is directed backward and acts as if it were drag.
[Figure 4-2]
Force vectors during a stabilized climb
Fligh
tpat
h
Rela
tive
wind
Thru
st CG
Dra
g
Component of weight
opposed to lift
Rearward component of weight
Figure 4-2. Force vectors during a stabilized climb.
In glides, a portion of the weight vector is directed forward,
and, therefore, acts as thrust. In other words, any time
the ightpath of the aircraft is not horizontal, lift, weight,
thrust, and drag vectors must each be broken down into two
components.
Discussions of the preceding concepts are frequently omitted
in aeronautical texts/handbooks/manuals. The reason is not
that they are inconsequential, but because the main ideas
with respect to the aerodynamic forces acting upon an
airplane in ight can be presented in their most essential
elements without being involved in the technicalities of the
aerodynamicist. In point of fact, considering only level ight,
and normal climbs and glides in a steady state, it is still true
that lift provided by the wing or rotor is the primary upward
force, and weight is the primary downward force.
By using the aerodynamic forces of thrust, drag, lift, and
weight, pilots can y a controlled, safe ight. A more detailed
discussion of these forces follows.
Thrust
For an aircraft to move, thrust must be exerted and be greater
than drag. The aircraft will continue to move and gain
speed until thrust and drag are equal. In order to maintain a
constant airspeed, thrust and drag must remain equal, just as
lift and weight must be equal to maintain a constant altitude.
If in level ight, the engine power is reduced, the thrust is
lessened, and the aircraft slows down. As long as the thrust
 Level high speed Level cruise speed Level low speed

1 2
6
3

Flightpath Flightpath Flightpath

Relative wind Relative wind Relative wind

Figure 4-3. Angle of attack at various speeds.

is less than the drag, the aircraft continues to decelerate until
its airspeed is insufcient to support it in the air.
Likewise, if the engine power is increased, thrust becomes
greater than drag and the airspeed increases. As long as
the thrust continues to be greater than the drag, the aircraft
continues to accelerate. When drag equals thrust, the aircraft
ies at a constant airspeed.
Straight-and-level ight may be sustained at a wide range
of speeds. The pilot coordinates angle of attack (AOA)the
acute angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the
direction of the relative windand thrust in all speed regimes
if the aircraft is to be held in level ight. Roughly, these
regimes can be grouped in three categories: low-speed ight,
cruising ight, and high-speed ight.
When the airspeed is low, the AOA must be relatively high
if the balance between lift and weight is to be maintained.
[Figure 4-3] If thrust decreases and airspeed decreases, lift
becomes less than weight and the aircraft starts to descend.
To maintain level ight, the pilot can increase the AOA
an amount which will generate a lift force again equal to
the weight of the aircraft. While the aircraft will be ying
more slowly, it will still maintain level ight if the pilot has
properly coordinated thrust and AOA.
Straight-and-level ight in the slow-speed regime provides
some interesting conditions relative to the equilibrium of forces
because with the aircraft in a nose-high attitude, there is a
vertical component of thrust that helps support it. For one thing,
wing loading tends to be less than would be expected. Most
pilots are aware that an airplane will stall, other conditions
being equal, at a slower speed with the power on than with the
power off. (Induced airow over the wings from the propeller
also contributes to this.) However, if analysis is restricted to
the four forces as they are usually dened during slow-speed
ight the thrust is equal to drag, and lift is equal to weight.
During straight-and-level ight when thrust is increased and
the airspeed increases, the AOA must be decreased. That is,
if changes have been coordinated, the aircraft will remain in
level ight, but at a higher speed when the proper relationship
between thrust and AOA is established.
If the AOA were not coordinated (decreased) with an
increase of thrust, the aircraft would climb. But decreasing
the AOA modies the lift, keeping it equal to the weight,
and the aircraft remains in level ight. Level ight at even
slightly negative AOA is possible at very high speed. It is
evident then, that level ight can be performed with any
AOA between stalling angle and the relatively small negative
angles found at high speed.
Some aircraft have the ability to change the direction of the
thrust rather than changing the AOA. This is accomplished
either by pivoting the engines or by vectoring the exhaust
gases. [Figure 4-4]

Figure 4-4. Some aircraft have the ability to change the direction of thrust.

4-3
Drag
Drag is the force that resists movement of an aircraft through
the air. There are two basic types: parasite drag and induced
drag. The rst is called parasite because it in no way functions
to aid ight, while the second, induced drag, is a result of an
airfoil developing lift.
Parasite Drag
Parasite drag is comprised of all the forces that work to slow
an aircrafts movement. As the term parasite implies, it is
the drag that is not associated with the production of lift.
This includes the displacement of the air by the aircraft,
turbulence generated in the airstream, or a hindrance of air
moving over the surface of the aircraft and airfoil. There are
three types of parasite drag: form drag, interference drag,
and skin friction.
Form Drag
Form drag is the portion of parasite drag generated by the
aircraft due to its shape and airow around it. Examples
include the engine cowlings, antennas, and the aerodynamic
shape of other components. When the air has to separate
to move around a moving aircraft and its components, it
eventually rejoins after passing the body. How quickly
and smoothly it rejoins is representative of the resistance
that it creates which requires additional force to overcome.
[Figure 4-5]
Form drag
FLAT PLATE
SPHERE
SPHERE WITH
A FAIRING
SPHERE INSIDE
A HOUSING
Figure 4-5. Form drag.
Notice how the at plate in Figure 4-5 causes the air to swirl
around the edges until it eventually rejoins downstream. Form
drag is the easiest to reduce when designing an aircraft. The
solution is to streamline as many of the parts as possible.
4-4
Interference Drag
Interference drag comes from the intersection of airstreams
that creates eddy currents, turbulence, or restricts smooth
airow. For example, the intersection of the wing and the
fuselage at the wing root has signicant interference drag.
Air owing around the fuselage collides with air owing
over the wing, merging into a current of air different from
the two original currents. The most interference drag is
observed when two surfaces meet at perpendicular angles.
Fairings are used to reduce this tendency. If a jet ghter
carries two identical wing tanks, the overall drag is greater
than the sum of the individual tanks because both of these
create and generate interference drag. Fairings and distance
between lifting surfaces and external components (such as
radar antennas hung from wings) reduce interference drag.
[Figure 4-6]
Figure 4-6. A wing root can cause interference drag.
Skin Friction Drag
Skin friction drag is the aerodynamic resistance due to the
contact of moving air with the surface of an aircraft. Every
surface, no matter how apparently smooth, has a rough,
ragged surface when viewed under a microscope. The air
molecules, which come in direct contact with the surface of
the wing, are virtually motionless. Each layer of molecules
above the surface moves slightly faster until the molecules
are moving at the velocity of the air moving around the
aircraft. This speed is called the free-stream velocity. The
area between the wing and the free-stream velocity level is
about as wide as a playing card and is called the boundary
layer. At the top of the boundary layer, the molecules increase
velocity and move at the same speed as the molecules
outside the boundary layer. The actual speed at which the
molecules move depends upon the shape of the wing, the
viscosity (stickiness) of the air through which the wing or
airfoil is moving, and its compressibility (how much it can
be compacted).
The airow outside of the boundary layer reacts to the
shape of the edge of the boundary layer just as it would
to the physical surface of an object. The boundary layer
gives any object an effective shape that is usually slightly
different from the physical shape. The boundary layer may
also separate from the body, thus creating an effective shape
much different from the physical shape of the object. This
change in the physical shape of the boundary layer causes a
dramatic decrease in lift and an increase in drag. When this
happens, the airfoil has stalled.
In order to reduce the effect of skin friction drag, aircraft
designers utilize flush mount rivets and remove any
irregularities which may protrude above the wing surface.
In addition, a smooth and glossy nish aids in transition of
air across the surface of the wing. Since dirt on an aircraft
disrupts the free ow of air and increases drag, keep the
surfaces of an aircraft clean and waxed.
Induced Drag
The second basic type of drag is induced drag. It is an
established physical fact that no system that does work in the
mechanical sense can be 100 percent efcient. This means
that whatever the nature of the system, the required work
is obtained at the expense of certain additional work that is
dissipated or lost in the system. The more efcient the system,
the smaller this loss.
In level ight the aerodynamic properties of a wing or rotor
produce a required lift, but this can be obtained only at the
expense of a certain penalty. The name given to this penalty
is induced drag. Induced drag is inherent whenever an airfoil
is producing lift and, in fact, this type of drag is inseparable
from the production of lift. Consequently, it is always present
if lift is produced.
An airfoil (wing or rotor blade) produces the lift force by
making use of the energy of the free airstream. Whenever
an airfoil is producing lift, the pressure on the lower surface
of it is greater than that on the upper surface (Bernoullis
Principle). As a result, the air tends to ow from the high
pressure area below the tip upward to the low pressure area
on the upper surface. In the vicinity of the tips, there is a
tendency for these pressures to equalize, resulting in a lateral
ow outward from the underside to the upper surface. This
lateral ow imparts a rotational velocity to the air at the tips,
creating vortices, which trail behind the airfoil.
When the aircraft is viewed from the tail, these vortices
circulate counterclockwise about the right tip and clockwise
about the left tip. [Figure 4-7] Bearing in mind the direction
of rotation of these vortices, it can be seen that they induce
an upward ow of air beyond the tip, and a downwash ow
behind the wings trailing edge. This induced downwash has
nothing in common with the downwash that is necessary to
produce lift. It is, in fact, the source of induced drag. The
greater the size and strength of the vortices and consequent
downwash component on the net airow over the airfoil, the
greater the induced drag effect becomes. This downwash over
the top of the airfoil at the tip has the same effect as bending
the lift vector rearward; therefore, the lift is slightly aft of
perpendicular to the relative wind, creating a rearward lift
component. This is induced drag.
Figure 4-7. Wingtip vortex from a crop duster.
In order to create a greater negative pressure on the top of an
airfoil, the airfoil can be inclined to a higher AOA. If the AOA
of a symmetrical airfoil were zero, there would be no pressure
differential, and consequently, no downwash component and
no induced drag. In any case, as AOA increases, induced
drag increases proportionally. To state this another waythe
lower the airspeed the greater the AOA required to produce
lift equal to the aircrafts weight and, therefore, the greater
induced drag. The amount of induced drag varies inversely
with the square of the airspeed.
Conversely, parasite drag increases as the square of the
airspeed. Thus, as airspeed decreases to near the stalling
speed, the total drag becomes greater, due mainly to the sharp
rise in induced drag. Similarly, as the airspeed reaches the
terminal velocity of the aircraft, the total drag again increases
rapidly, due to the sharp increase of parasite drag. As seen
in Figure 4-8, at some given airspeed, total drag is at its
minimum amount. In guring the maximum endurance and
range of aircraft, the power required to overcome drag is at
a minimum if drag is at a minimum.
4-5
 CD= Ratio of drag pressure to dynamic pressure. Typically
at low angles of attack, the drag coefcient is low and small
changes in angle of attack create only slight changes in the
drag coefcient. At high angles of attack, small changes in
Total Drag

the angle of attack cause signicant changes in drag.

g
Dra
Total Drag L = CL . . V2 . S

rm
2

Fo
Minimum
Induce
D = CD . . V2 . S
Drag d D r ag

Airspeed 2

Figure 4-8. Drag versus speed.
Lift/Drag Ratio
Drag is the price paid to obtain lift. The lift to drag ratio (L/D)
is the amount of lift generated by a wing or airfoil compared
to its drag. A ratio of L/D indicates airfoil efciency. Aircraft
with higher L/D ratios are more efcient than those with
lower L/D ratios. In unaccelerated ight with the lift and drag
data steady, the proportions of the CL and coefcient of drag
(CD) can be calculated for specic AOA. [Figure 4-9]
The L/D ratio is determined by dividing the CL by the CD,
which is the same as dividing the lift equation by the drag
equation. All terms except coefcients cancel out.
L = Lift in pounds
D = Drag
The above formulas represent the coefcient of lift (CL)
and the coefcient of drag (CD) respectively. The shape of
an airfoil and other life producing devices (i.e., aps) effect
the production of lift and alter with changes in the AOA. The
lift/drag ratio is used to express the relation between lift and
drag and is determined by dividing the lift coefcient by the
drag coefcient, CL/CD.
Notice in Figure 4-9 that the lift curve (red) reaches its
maximum for this particular wing section at 20 AOA, and
then rapidly decreases. 15 AOA is therefore the stalling
angle. The drag curve (yellow) increases very rapidly from
14 AOA and completely overcomes the lift curve at 21
AOA. The lift/drag ratio (green) reaches its maximum at 6
AOA, meaning that at this angle, the most lift is obtained for
the least amount of drag.

Where L is the lift force in pounds, CL is the lift coefcient, Note that the maximum lift/drag ratio (L/DMAX) occurs at
is density expressed in slugs per cubic feet, V is velocity one specic CL and AOA. If the aircraft is operated in steady
in feet per second, q is dynamic pressure per square feet, and ight at L/DMAX, the total drag is at a minimum. Any AOA
S is the wing area in square feet. lower or higher than that for L/DMAX reduces the L/D and

.2000 CL

.1800 1.8 18
CL
MAX
.1600 1.6 16
Coefficient of drag (CD)

L/D
.1400 MAX 1.4 14
Lift/drag

.1200 1.2 12
CL
.1000 1.0 10

.0800 L/D 0.8 8

.0600 0.6 6

.0400 0.4 4
Stall
.0200 CD 0.2 2

0 0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Critical Angle of attack

Figure 4-9. Lift coefficients at various angles of attack.

4-6
Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:46 AM Page 4-3
2.0
Coefficient of Lift (CL)
1.5
1.0
.5
-4
Figure 4-2. Critical angle of attack and stall.
STALLS
A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the
airplanes wing is disrupted, and the lift degenerates
rapidly. This is caused when the wing exceeds its
critical angle of attack. This can occur at any airspeed,
in any attitude, with any power setting. [Figure 4-2]
The practice of stall recovery and the development of
awareness of stalls are of primary importance in pilot
training. The objectives in performing intentional stalls
are to familiarize the pilot with the conditions that
produce stalls, to assist in recognizing an approaching
stall, and to develop the habit of taking prompt
preventive or corrective action.
Intentional stalls should be performed at an altitude
that will provide adequate height above the ground for
recovery and return to normal level flight. Though it
depends on the degree to which a stall has progressed,
most stalls require some loss of altitude during
recovery. The longer it takes to recognize the
approaching stall, the more complete the stall is likely
to become, and the greater the loss of altitude to
be expected.
RECOGNITION OF STALLS
Pilots must recognize the flight conditions that are
conducive to stalls and know how to apply the
necessary corrective action. They should learn to
recognize an approaching stall by sight, sound, and
feel. The following cues may be useful in recognizing
the approaching stall.
0 5 10 15 20
Angle of Attack in Degrees
Vision is useful in detecting a stall condition by
noting the attitude of the airplane. This sense can
only be relied on when the stall is the result of an
unusual attitude of the airplane. Since the airplane
can also be stalled from a normal attitude, vision
in this instance would be of little help in detecting
the approaching stall.
Hearing is also helpful in sensing a stall condition.
In the case of fixed-pitch propeller airplanes in a
power-on condition, a change in sound due to loss
of revolutions per minute (r.p.m.) is particularly
noticeable. The lessening of the noise made by the
air flowing along the airplane structure as airspeed
decreases is also quite noticeable, and when the
stall is almost complete, vibration and incident
noises often increase greatly.
Kinesthesia, or the sensing of changes in direction
or speed of motion, is probably the most important
and the best indicator to the trained and
experienced pilot. If this sensitivity is properly
developed, it will warn of a decrease in speed
or the beginning of a settling or mushing of
the airplane.
Feel is an important sense in recognizing the onset
of a stall. The feeling of control pressures is very
important. As speed is reduced, the resistance to
pressures on the controls becomes progressively
less. Pressures exerted on the controls tend to
become movements of the control surfaces. The
4-3
The Wing
To understand aerodynamic forces, a pilot needs to L R
understand basic terminology associated with airfoils.
Figure 4-1 illustrates a typical airfoil.
Ch
ord
The chord line is the straight line intersecting the leading line
and trailing edges of the airfoil, and the term chord refers
MC/4
to the chord line longitudinal length (length as viewed from C/4 D
the side).
C
The mean camber is a line located halfway between the
upper and lower surfaces. Viewing the wing edgewise, the
mean camber connects with the chord line at each end. The Relative wind
V
mean camber is important because it assists in determining
aerodynamic qualities of an airfoil. The measurement of Figure 4-2. Angle of attack and relative wind.
the maximum camber; inclusive of both the displacement
of the mean camber line and its linear measurement from
the end of the chord line, provide properties useful in Flightpath is the course or track along which the aircraft is
evaluating airfoils. flying or is intended to be flown.

Review of Basic Aerodynamics The Four Forces

The instrument pilot must understand the relationship
and differences between several factors that affect the
performance of an aircraft in flight. Also, it is crucial to
understand how the aircraft reacts to various control and
power changes, because the environment in which instrument
pilots fly has inherent hazards not found in visual flying. The
basis for this understanding is found in the four forces acting
on an aircraft and Newtons Three Laws of Motion.
Relative Wind is the direction of the airflow with respect to
an airfoil.
Angle of Attack (AOA) is the acute angle measured between
the relative wind, or flightpath and the chord of the airfoil.
[Figure 4-2]
The four basic forces [Figure 4-3] acting upon an aircraft in
flight are lift, weight, thrust, and drag.
Lift
Lift is a component of the total aerodynamic force on an
airfoil and acts perpendicular to the relative wind. Relative
wind is the direction of the airflow with respect to an airfoil.
This force acts straight up from the average (called mean)
center of pressure (CP), which is called the center of lift. It
should be noted that it is a point along the chord line of an
airfoil through which all aerodynamic forces are considered
to act. The magnitude of lift varies proportionately with
speed, air density, shape and size of the airfoil, and AOA.
During straight-and-level flight, lift and weight are equal.

Mean camber line Upper camber

Leading edge Mean chord line Lower camber Trailing edge

Figure 4-1. The airfoil.

4-2
 Right aileron
Lift
Pi
tc
h
Roll
Thrust
Wing
Yaw
z y
Weight
Figure 4-3. The four forces and three axes of rotation.
Weight
Weight is the force exerted by an aircraft from the pull of
gravity. It acts on an aircraft through its center of gravity (CG)
and is straight down. This should not be confused with the
center of lift, which can be significantly different from the
CG. As an aircraft is descending, weight is greater than lift.
Thrust
Thrust is the forward force produced by the powerplant/
propeller or rotor. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag.
As a general rule, it acts parallel to the longitudinal axis.
Drag
Drag is the net aerodynamic force parallel to the relative
wind and is generally a sum of two components: induced
drag and parasite drag.
Induced Drag
Induced drag is caused from the creation of lift and increases
with AOA. Therefore, if the wing is not producing lift, induced
drag is zero. Conversely, induced drag decreases with airspeed.
Parasite Drag
Parasite drag is all drag not caused from the production of
lift. Parasite drag is created by displacement of air by the
aircraft, turbulence generated by the airfoil, and the hindrance
of airflow as it passes over the surface of the aircraft or
components. All of these forces create drag not from the
production of lift but the movement of an object through an
air mass. Parasite drag increases with speed and includes skin
friction drag, interference drag, and form drag.
Horizontal Vertical
stabilizer stabilizer
Rudder
x Drag
Elevator
Left
aileron
Skin Friction Drag
Covering the entire wetted surface of the aircraft is a thin
layer of air called a boundary layer. The air molecules on the
surface have zero velocity in relation to the surface; however,
the layer just above moves over the stagnant molecules
below because it is pulled along by a third layer close to
the free stream of air. The velocities of the layers increase
as the distance from the surface increases until free stream
velocity is reached, but all are affected by the free stream.
The distance (total) between the skin surface and where free
stream velocity is reached is called the boundary layer. At
subsonic levels the cumulative layers are about the thickness
of a playing card, yet their motion sliding over one another
creates a drag force. This force retards motion due to the
viscosity of the air and is called skin friction drag. Because
skin friction drag is related to a large surface area its affect
on smaller aircraft is small versus large transport aircraft
where skin friction drag may be considerable.
Interference Drag
Interference drag is generated by the collision of airstreams
creating eddy currents, turbulence, or restrictions to smooth
flow. For instance, the airflow around a fuselage and around
the wing meet at some point, usually near the wings root.
These airflows interfere with each other causing a greater drag
than the individual values. This is often the case when external
items are placed on an aircraft. That is, the drag of each item
individually, added to that of the aircraft, are less than that
of the two items when allowed to interfere with one another.
4-3
 Form Drag
Form drag is the drag created because of the shape of a
component or the aircraft. If one were to place a circular
disk in an air stream, the pressure on both the top and bottom
would be equal. However, the airflow starts to break down
as the air flows around the back of the disk. This creates
turbulence and hence a lower pressure results. Because the
total pressure is affected by this reduced pressure, it creates
a drag. Newer aircraft are generally made with consideration
to this by fairing parts along the fuselage (teardrop) so that
turbulence and form drag is reduced.
Total lift must overcome the total weight of the aircraft, which
is comprised of the actual weight and the tail-down force used
to control the aircrafts pitch attitude. Thrust must overcome
total drag in order to provide forward speed with which to
produce lift. Understanding how the aircrafts relationship
between these elements and the environment provide proper
interpretation of the aircrafts instruments.
Newtons First Law, the Law of Inertia
Newtons First Law of Motion is the Law of Inertia. It states
that a body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion
will remain in motion, at the same speed and in the same
direction until affected by an outside force. The force with
which a body offers resistance to change is called the force of
inertia. Two outside forces are always present on an aircraft
in flight: gravity and drag. The pilot uses pitch and thrust
controls to counter or change these forces to maintain the
desired flightpath. If a pilot reduces power while in straight-
and-level flight, the aircraft will slow due to drag. However,
as the aircraft slows there is a reduction of lift, which causes
the aircraft to begin a descent due to gravity. [Figure 4-4]
Newtons Second Law, the Law of Momentum
Newtons Second Law of Motion is the Law of Momentum,
which states that a body will accelerate in the same direction
as the force acting upon that body, and the acceleration
will be directly proportional to the net force and inversely
proportional to the mass of the body. Acceleration refers
either to an increase or decrease in velocity, although
Outside
force
for ces Apply down
Net
elevator
Path
Figure 4-4. Newtons First Law of Motion: the Law of Inertia.
4-4
deceleration is commonly used to indicate a decrease. This
law governs the aircrafts ability to change flightpath and
speed, which are controlled by attitude (both pitch and bank)
and thrust inputs. Speeding up, slowing down, entering
climbs or descents, and turning are examples of accelerations
that the pilot controls in everyday flight. [Figure 4-5]
Time
150 hp 2,000 lb
Force
= Acceleration
Mass
300 hp 2,000 lb
Figure 4-5. Newtons Second Law of Motion: the Law of Momentum.
Newtons Third Law, the Law of Reaction
Newtons Third Law of Motion is the Law of Reaction,
which states that for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction. As shown in Figure 4-6, the action of
the jet engines thrust or the pull of the propeller lead to the
reaction of the aircrafts forward motion. This law is also
responsible for a portion of the lift that is produced by a wing,
from the downward deflection of the airflow around it. This
downward force of the relative wind results in an equal but
opposite (upward) lifting force created by the airflow over
the wing. [Figure 4-6]
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the envelope of air which surrounds the
Earth. A given volume of dry air contains about 78 percent
nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and about 1 percent other gases
such as argon, carbon dioxide, and others to a lesser degree.
Net
forces
Path

Reaction Action
Reaction
Action
Figure 4-6. Newtons Third Law of Motion: the Law of Reaction.
Although seemingly light, air does have weight and a one
square inch column of the atmosphere at sea level weighs
approximately 14.7 pounds. About one-half of the air by
weight is within the first 18,000 feet. The remainder of the
air is spread over a vertical distance in excess of 1,000 miles.
Air density is a result of the relationship between temperature
and pressure. Air density is inversely related to temperature
and directly related to pressure. For a constant pressure to be
maintained as temperature increases, density must decrease,
and vice versa. For a constant temperature to be maintained
as pressure increases, density must increase, and vice versa.
These relationships provide a basis for understanding
instrument indications and aircraft performance.
Layers of the Atmosphere
There are several layers to the atmosphere with the
troposphere being closest to the Earths surface extending to
about 60,000 feet at the equator. Following is the stratosphere,
mesosphere, ionosphere, thermosphere, and finally the
exosphere. The tropopause is the thin layer between the
troposphere and the stratosphere. It varies in both thickness
and altitude but is generally defined where the standard
lapse (generally accepted at 2C per 1,000 feet) decreases
significantly (usually down to 1C or less).
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
established the ICAO Standard Atmosphere as a way
of creating an international standard for reference and
performance computations. Instrument indications and
aircraft performance specifications are derived using this
standard as a reference. Because the standard atmosphere is
a derived set of conditions that rarely exist in reality, pilots
need to understand how deviations from the standard affect
both instrument indications and aircraft performance.
In the standard atmosphere, sea level pressure is 29.92 inches
of mercury ("Hg) and the temperature is 15C (59F). The
standard lapse rate for pressure is approximately a 1 "Hg
decrease per 1,000 feet increase in altitude. The standard
lapse rate for temperature is a 2 C (3.6 F) decrease per
1,000 feet increase, up to the top of the stratosphere. Since
all aircraft performance is compared and evaluated in
the environment of the standard atmosphere, all aircraft
performance instrumentation is calibrated for the standard
atmosphere. Because the actual operating conditions rarely,
if ever, fit the standard atmosphere, certain corrections must
apply to the instrumentation and aircraft performance. For
instance, at 10,000 ISA predicts that the air pressure should be
19.92"Hg (29.92 "Hg 10"Hg = 19.92 "Hg) and the outside
temperature at 5 C (15 C 20 C). If the temperature
or the pressure is different than the International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA) prediction an adjustment must be made to
performance predictions and various instrument indications.
Pressure Altitude
Pressure altitude is the height above the standard datum
plane (SDP). The aircraft altimeter is essentially a sensitive
barometer calibrated to indicate altitude in the standard
atmosphere. If the altimeter is set for 29.92"Hg SDP, the
altitude indicated is the pressure altitude-the altitude in the
standard atmosphere corresponding to the sensed pressure.
The SDP is a theoretical level where the pressure of the
atmosphere is 29.92"Hg and the weight of air is 14.7 psi.
As atmospheric pressure changes, the SDP may be below,
at, or above sea level. Pressure altitude is important as a
basis for determining aircraft performance, as well as for
assigning flight levels to aircraft operating at or above 18,000
feet. The pressure altitude can be determined by either of
two methods: (1) by setting the barometric scale of the
altimeter to 29.92"Hg and reading the indicated altitude, or
(2) by applying a correction factor to the indicated altitude
according to the reported altimeter setting.
Density Altitude
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard
temperature. As the density of the air increases (lower
density altitude), aircraft performance increases. Conversely,
as air density decreases (higher density altitude), aircraft
performance decreases. A decrease in air density means a
high density altitude; an increase in air density means a lower
density altitude. Density altitude is used in calculating aircraft
performance. Under standard atmospheric conditions, air at
each level in the atmosphere has a specific density; under
standard conditions, pressure altitude and density altitude
identify the same level. Density altitude, then, is the vertical
distance above sea level in the standard atmosphere at which
a given density is to be found. It can be computed using
4-5
a Koch Chart or a flight computer with a density altitude
function. [Figure 4-7] 1.8
1.6 Stall
1.5 CL-MAX

Lift Coefficient - CL
Altitude and Temperature Effects 1.4
TO FIND the effect of altitude temperature 1.2
CONNECT the temperature and airport altitude by straight line
1.0
READ the increase in take-off distance and the decrease in rate of
climb from standard sea level values here
0.8
120
110 0.6

Airport pressure altitudeThousand of feet

100
0.4

(read your altmeter set to 29.92 "Hg)

90
Percent decrease
80 in rate of climb 18 0.2
70
14
60 0
90 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
50 12
40 280 80 10 20
200 70 2 11
30 140 8
100 60
20
60 Angle of Attack (degrees)
40 6
10
40
0 20 20 4 Figure 4-8. Relationship of lift to AOA.
10 Add this percent to your 0 0 2
20 normal take off distance
0
reduced, pitch must be increased. The pilot controls pitch
30
2
through the elevators, which control the AOA. When back
40
pressure is applied on the elevator control, the tail lowers
Figure 4-7. Koch chart sample. and the nose rises, thus increasing the wings AOA and lift.
Under most conditions the elevator is placing downward
pressure on the tail. This pressure requires energy that is
If a chart is not available, the density altitude can be estimated
taken from aircraft performance (speed). Therefore, when
by adding 120 feet for every degree Celsius above the ISA. For
the CG is closer to the aft portion of the aircraft the elevator
example, at 3,000 feet PA, the ISA prediction is 9C (15C
downward forces are less. This results in less energy used for
[lapse rate of 2C per 1,000 feet x 3 = 6C]). However, if the
downward forces, in turn resulting in more energy applied
actual temperature is 20 C (11 C more than that predicted
to aircraft performance.
by ISA) then the difference of 11C is multiplied by 120 feet
equaling 1,320. Adding this figure to the original 3,000 feet
Thrust is controlled by using the throttle to establish or
provides a density altitude of 4,320 feet (3,000 feet + 1,320 feet).
maintain desired airspeeds. The most precise method
of controlling flightpath is to use pitch control while
Lift simultaneously using power (thrust) to control airspeed. In
Lift always acts in a direction perpendicular to the relative order to maintain a constant lift, a change in pitch requires a
wind and to the lateral axis of the aircraft. The fact that lift is change in power, and vice versa.
referenced to the wing, not to the Earths surface, is the source
of many errors in learning flight control. Lift is not always If the pilot wants the aircraft to accelerate while maintaining
up. Its direction relative to the Earths surface changes as altitude, thrust must be increased to overcome drag. As
the pilot maneuvers the aircraft. the aircraft speeds up, lift is increased. To prevent gaining
altitude, the pitch angle must be lowered to reduce the AOA
The magnitude of the force of lift is directly proportional to and maintain altitude. To decelerate while maintaining
the density of the air, the area of the wings, and the airspeed. altitude, thrust must be decreased to less than the value of
It also depends upon the type of wing and the AOA. Lift drag. As the aircraft slows down, lift is reduced. To prevent
increases with an increase in AOA up to the stalling angle, losing altitude, the pitch angle must be increased in order to
at which point it decreases with any further increase in AOA. increase the AOA and maintain altitude.
In conventional aircraft, lift is therefore controlled by varying
the AOA and speed. Drag Curves
When induced drag and parasite drag are plotted on a graph,
Pitch/Power Relationship the total drag on the aircraft appears in the form of a drag
An examination of Figure 4-8 illustrates the relationship curve. Graph A of Figure 4-9 shows a curve based on thrust
between pitch and power while controlling flightpath and versus drag, which is primarily used for jet aircraft. Graph B
airspeed. In order to maintain a constant lift, as airspeed is

4-6
 A Jet Aircraft B Propeller-Driven Aircraft

4,000 27

Power Required Inches Hg

Parasite Parasite
Total drag
Thrust Required drag Total power power
3,000 25 required required
Minimum
drag or
L/DMAX
2,000 23 L/DMAX
Minimum
power
required
1,000 18

Induced drag Induced drag

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Airspeed Airspeed

Figure 4-9. Thrust and power required curves.

of Figure 4-9 is based on power versus drag, and it is used
for propeller-driven aircraft. This chapter focuses on power
versus drag charts for propeller-driven aircraft.
Understanding the drag curve can provide valuable insight
into the various performance parameters and limitations of
the aircraft. Because power must equal drag to maintain a
steady airspeed, the curve can be either a drag curve or a
power required curve. The power required curve represents
the amount of power needed to overcome drag in order to
maintain a steady speed in level flight.
The propellers used on most reciprocating engines achieve
additional power is needed to maintain a slower airspeed. This
region exists at speeds slower than the minimum drag point
(L/DMAX on the thrust required curve, Figure 4-9) and is
primarily due to induced drag. Figure 4-10 shows how one
power setting can yield two speeds, points 1 and 2. This is
because at point 1 there is high induced drag and low parasite
drag, while at point 2 there is high parasite drag and low
induced drag.
Region of
reversed Region of
command normal
command
Power Required

peak propeller efficiencies in the range of 80 to 88 percent.

As airspeed increases, the propeller efficiency increases until
it reaches its maximum. Any airspeed above this maximum
point causes a reduction in propeller efficiency. An engine
1 2
that produces 160 horsepower will have only about 80
percent of that power converted into available horsepower,
approximately 128 horsepower. The remainder is lost energy.
This is the reason the thrust and power available curves
change with speed. Airspeed

Figure 4-10. Regions of command.

Regions of Command
The drag curve also illustrates the two regions of command:
the region of normal command, and the region of reversed
command. The term region of command refers to the
relationship between speed and the power required to
maintain or change that speed. Command refers to the input
the pilot must give in terms of power or thrust to maintain a
new speed once reached.
The region of normal command occurs where power must
be added to increase speed. This region exists at speeds higher
than the minimum drag point primarily as a result of parasite
drag. The region of reversed command occurs where
Control Characteristics
Most flying is conducted in the region of normal command:
for example, cruise, climb, and maneuvers. The region of
reversed command may be encountered in the slow-speed
phases of flight during takeoff and landing; however, for
most general aviation aircraft, this region is very small and
is below normal approach speeds.
Flight in the region of normal command is characterized
by a relatively strong tendency of the aircraft to maintain
the trim speed. Flight in the region of reversed command is

4-7
characterized by a relatively weak tendency of the aircraft to
maintain the trim speed. In fact, it is likely the aircraft exhibits
no inherent tendency to maintain the trim speed in this area.
For this reason, the pilot must give particular attention to
precise control of airspeed when operating in the slow-speed
phases of the region of reversed command.
Operation in the region of reversed command does not imply
that great control difficulty and dangerous conditions exist.
However, it does amplify errors of basic flying technique
making proper flying technique and precise control of the
aircraft very important.
Speed Stability
Normal Command
The characteristics of flight in the region of normal command
are illustrated at point A on the curve in Figure 4-11. If
the aircraft is established in steady, level flight at point A,
lift is equal to weight, and the power available is set equal
to the power required. If the airspeed is increased with no
changes to the power setting, a power deficiency exists.
The aircraft has a natural tendency to return to the initial
speed to balance power and drag. If the airspeed is reduced
with no changes to the power setting, an excess of power
exists. The aircraft has a natural tendency to speed up to
regain the balance between power and drag. Keeping the
aircraft in proper trim enhances this natural tendency. The
static longitudinal stability of the aircraft tends to return the
aircraft to the original trimmed condition.
Region of
reversed
command Region of
normal
command Power
Power Required
A deficit
Excess
Power power
deficit
Excess
power C
B Little or no excess
power or power deficit
Airspeed
Figure 4-11. Region of speed stability.
An aircraft flying in steady, level flight at point C is in
equilibrium. [Figure 4-11] If the speed were increased
or decreased slightly, the aircraft would tend to remain at
that speed. This is because the curve is relatively flat and
a slight change in speed does not produce any significant
excess or deficiency in power. It has the characteristic of
neutral stability (i.e., the aircrafts tendency is to remain at
the new speed).
4-8
Reversed Command
The characteristics of flight in the region of reversed command
are illustrated at point B on the curve in Figure 4-10. If the
aircraft is established in steady, level flight at point B, lift is
equal to weight, and the power available is set equal to the
power required. When the airspeed is increased greater than
point B, an excess of power exists. This causes the aircraft
to accelerate to an even higher speed. When the aircraft is
slowed to some airspeed lower than point B, a deficiency
of power exists. The natural tendency of the aircraft is to
continue to slow to an even lower airspeed.
This tendency toward instability happens because the
variation of excess power to either side of point B magnifies
the original change in speed. Although the static longitudinal
stability of the aircraft tries to maintain the original trimmed
condition, this instability is more of an influence because of
the increased induced drag due to the higher AOA in slow-
speed flight.
Trim
The term trim refers to employing adjustable aerodynamic
devices on the aircraft to adjust forces so the pilot does not
have to manually hold pressure on the controls. One means is
to employ trim tabs. A trim tab is a small, adjustable hinged
surface, located on the trailing edge of the elevator, aileron,
or rudder control surfaces. (Some aircraft use adjustable
stabilizers instead of trim tabs for pitch trim.) Trimming is
accomplished by deflecting the tab in the direction opposite
to that in which the primary control surface must be held.
The force of the airflow striking the tab causes the main
control surface to be deflected to a position that corrects the
unbalanced condition of the aircraft.
Because the trim tabs use airflow to function, trim is a function
of speed. Any change in speed results in the need to re-trim the
aircraft. An aircraft properly trimmed in pitch seeks to return
to the original speed before the change. It is very important
for instrument pilots to keep the aircraft in constant trim. This
reduces the pilots workload significantly, allowing attention
to other duties without compromising aircraft control.
Slow-Speed Flight
Anytime an aircraft is flying near the stalling speed or the
region of reversed command, such as in final approach for a
normal landing, the initial part of a go around, or maneuvering
in slow flight, it is operating in what is called slow-speed flight.
If the aircraft weighs 4,000 pounds, the lift produced by the
aircraft must be 4,000 pounds. When lift is less than 4,000
pounds, the aircraft is no longer able to sustain level flight, and
consequently descends. During intentional descents, this is an
important factor and is used in the total control of the aircraft.
However, because lift is required during low speed flight
and is characterized by high AOA, flaps or other high lift
devices are needed to either change the camber of the airfoil,
or delay the boundary level separation. Plain and split flaps
[Figure 4-12] are most commonly used to change the camber
of an airfoil. It should be noted that with the application of
flaps, the aircraft will stall at a lower AOA. For example,
if the basic wing stalls at 18 without flaps, then with the
addition of flaps to the CL-MAX position, the new AOA that
the wing will stall is 15. However, the value of lift (flaps
extended to the CL-MAX position) produces more lift than lift
at 18 on the basic wing.

Uncontrolled Turbulence

Plain

Split

Figure 4-12. Plain and split flaps.

Delaying the boundary layer separation is another way to

increase CL-Max. Several methods are employed (such as
suction and use of a blowing boundary layer control), but the
most common device used on general aviation light aircraft
Fowler
is the vortex generator. Small strips of metal placed along Controlled Vortices
the wing (usually in front of the control surfaces) create
turbulence. The turbulence in turn mixes high energy air from Figure 4-13. Vortex generators.
outside the boundary layer with boundary layer air. The effect
accept minor speed changes knowing that when the pitch is
is similar to other boundary layer devices. [Figure 4-13]
returned to the initial setting, the speed returns to the original
setting. This reduces the pilots workload.
Small Airplanes
Most small airplanes maintain a speed well in excess of 1.3
Slotted Aircraft are usually slowed to a normal landing speed when
times VSO on an instrument approach. An airplane with a
on the final approach just prior to landing. When slowed to
stall speed of 50 knots (VSO) has a normal approach speed
65 knots, (1.3 VSO), the airplane will be close to point C.
of 65 knots. However, this same airplane may maintain 90
[Figure 4-14] At this point, precise control of the pitch and
knots (1.8 VSO) while on the final segment of an instrument
power becomes more crucial for maintaining the correct speed.
approach. The landing gear will most likely be extended at
Pitch and power coordination is necessary because the speed
the beginning of the descent to the minimum descent altitude,
stability is relatively neutral since the speed tends to remain
or upon intercepting the glideslope of the instrument landing
at the new value and not return to the original setting. In
system. The pilot may also select an intermediate flap setting
addition to the need for more precise airspeed control, the pilot
for this phase of the approach. The airplane at this speed has
normally changes the aircrafts configuration by extending
good positive speed stability, as represented by point A on
landing flaps. This configuration change means the pilot must
Figure 4-11. Flying in this regime permits the pilot to make
be alert to unwanted pitch changes at a low altitude.
slight pitch changes without changing power settings, and

4-9

L Vertical
component of lift
Resultant lift
L when considering climb performance. Work is the product of
Horizontal
component of lift
L
Weight
W
Figure 4-14. Forces in a turn.
If allowed to slow several knots, the airplane could enter
the region of reversed command. At this point, the airplane
could develop an unsafe sink rate and continue to lose speed
unless the pilot takes a prompt corrective action. Proper pitch
and power coordination is critical in this region due to speed
instability and the tendency of increased divergence from
the desired speed.
Large Airplanes
Pilots of larger airplanes with higher stall speeds may find the
speed they maintain on the instrument approach is near 1.3
VSO, putting them near point C [Figure 4-11] the entire time
the airplane is on the final approach segment. In this case,
precise speed control is necessary throughout the approach. It
may be necessary to temporarily select excessive, or deficient
thrust in relation to the target thrust setting in order to quickly
correct for airspeed deviations.
For example, a pilot is on an instrument approach at 1.3
VSO, a speed near L/DMAX, and knows that a certain power
setting maintains that speed. The airplane slows several knots
below the desired speed because of a slight reduction in the
power setting. The pilot increases the power slightly, and the
airplane begins to accelerate, but at a slow rate. Because the
airplane is still in the flat part of the drag curve, this slight
increase in power will not cause a rapid return to the desired
speed. The pilot may need to increase the power higher
than normally needed to maintain the new speed, allow the
airplane to accelerate, then reduce the power to the setting
that maintains the desired speed.
Climbs
The ability for an aircraft to climb depends upon an excess
power or thrust over what it takes to maintain equilibrium.
4-10
Excess power is the available power over and above that
required to maintain horizontal flight at a given speed.
Although the terms power and thrust are sometimes
used interchangeably (erroneously implying they are
synonymous), distinguishing between the two is important
a force moving through a distance and is usually independent
of time. Power implies work rate or units of work per unit
of time, and as such is a function of the speed at which the
force is developed. Thrust, also a function of work, means
the force which imparts a change in the velocity of a mass.
During takeoff, the aircraft does not stall even though it
may be in a climb near the stall speed. The reason is that
excess power (used to produce thrust) is used during this
flight regime. Therefore, it is important if an engine fails
after takeoff, to compensate the loss of thrust with pitch
and airspeed.
For a given weight of the aircraft, the angle of climb depends
on the difference between thrust and drag, or the excess
thrust. When the excess thrust is zero, the inclination of the
flightpath is zero, and the aircraft is in steady, level flight.
When thrust is greater than drag, the excess thrust allows a
climb angle depending on the amount of excess thrust. When
thrust is less than drag, the deficiency of thrust induces an
angle of descent.
Acceleration in Cruise Flight
Aircraft accelerate in level flight because of an excess of
power over what is required to maintain a steady speed. This
is the same excess power used to climb. Upon reaching the
desired altitude with pitch being lowered to maintain that
altitude, the excess power now accelerates the aircraft to its
cruise speed. However, reducing power too soon after level
off results in a longer period of time to accelerate.
Turns
Like any moving object, an aircraft requires a sideward force
to make it turn. In a normal turn, this force is supplied by
banking the aircraft in order to exert lift inward, as well as
upward. The force of lift is separated into two components
at right angles to each other. [Figure 4-14] The upward
acting lift together with the opposing weight becomes the
vertical lift component. The horizontally acting lift and its
opposing centrifugal force are the horizontal lift component,
or centripetal force. This horizontal lift component is the
sideward force that causes an aircraft to turn. The equal and
opposite reaction to this sideward force is centrifugal force,
which is merely an apparent force as a result of inertia.
The relationship between the aircrafts speed and bank angle
to the rate and radius of turns is important for instrument
pilots to understand. The pilot can use this knowledge to
properly estimate bank angles needed for certain rates of turn,
or to determine how much to lead when intercepting a course.
Rate of Turn
The rate of turn, normally measured in degrees per second,
is based upon a set bank angle at a set speed. If either one
of these elements changes, the rate of turn changes. If the
aircraft increases its speed without changing the bank angle,
the rate of turn decreases. Likewise, if the speed decreases
without changing the bank angle, the rate of turn increases.
Changing the bank angle without changing speed also causes
the rate of turn to change. Increasing the bank angle without
changing speed increases the rate of turn, while decreasing
the bank angle reduces the rate of turn.
The standard rate of turn, 3 per second, is used as the main
reference for bank angle. Therefore, the pilot must understand
how the angle of bank varies with speed changes, such
as slowing down for holding or an instrument approach.
Figure 4-15 shows the turn relationship with reference to a
constant bank angle or a constant airspeed, and the effects on
rate of turn and radius of turn. A rule of thumb for determining
the standard rate turn is to divide the airspeed by ten and
add 7. An aircraft with an airspeed of 90 knots takes a bank
angle of 16 to maintain a standard rate turn (90 divided by
10 plus 7 equals 16).
Radius of Turn
The radius of turn varies with changes in either speed or
bank. If the speed is increased without changing the bank
angle, the radius of turn increases, and vice versa. If the speed
is constant, increasing the bank angle reduces the radius of
Radius1,500 Radius3,500 Radius6,500
Figure 4-15. Turns.
turn, while decreasing the bank angle increases the radius of
turn. This means that intercepting a course at a higher speed
requires more distance, and therefore, requires a longer lead.
If the speed is slowed considerably in preparation for holding
or an approach, a shorter lead is needed than that required for
cruise flight.
Coordination of Rudder and Aileron Controls
Any time ailerons are used, adverse yaw is produced. Adverse
yaw is caused when the ailerons are deflected as a roll motion
(as in turn) is initiated. In a right turn, the right aileron is
deflected upward while the left is deflected downward. Lift is
increased on the left side and reduced on the right, resulting
in a bank to the right. However, as a result of producing lift
on the left, induced drag is also increased on the left side.
The drag causes the left wing to slow down, in turn causing
the nose of the aircraft to initially move (left) in the direction
opposite of the turn. Correcting for this yaw with rudder, when
entering and exiting turns, is necessary for precise control of
the airplane when flying on instruments. The pilot can tell if
the turn is coordinated by checking the ball in the turn-and-
slip indicator or the turn coordinator. [Figure 4-16]
As the aircraft banks to enter a turn, a portion of the wings
vertical lift becomes the horizontal component; therefore,
without an increase in back pressure, the aircraft loses altitude
during the turn. The loss of vertical lift can be offset by
increasing the pitch in one-half bar width increments. Trim
may be used to relieve the control pressures; however, if used,
it has to be removed once the turn is complete.
In a slipping turn, the aircraft is not turning at the rate
appropriate to the bank being used, and the aircraft falls to
the inside of the turn. The aircraft is banked too much for the
rate of turn, so the horizontal lift component is greater than
the centrifugal force. A skidding turn results from excess of
Radius8,000 Radius3,500 Radius2,000
4-11
Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-8
Steep turns are those resulting from a degree of
bank (45 or more) at which the overbanking
tendency of an airplane overcomes stability, and
the bank increases unless aileron is applied to
prevent it.
Changing the direction of the wings lift toward one
side or the other causes the airplane to be pulled in that
direction. [Figure 3-6] Applying coordinated aileron
and rudder to bank the airplane in the direction of the
desired turn does this.
Figure 3-6. Change in lift causes airplane to turn.
When an airplane is flying straight and level, the total lift
is acting perpendicular to the wings and to the Earth. As
the airplane is banked into a turn, the lift then becomes
the resultant of two components. One, the vertical lift
component, continues to act perpendicular to the Earth
and opposes gravity. Second, the horizontal lift compo-
nent (centripetal) acts parallel to the Earths surface and
opposes inertia (apparent centrifugal force). These two
lift components act at right angles to each other, causing
the resultant total lifting force to act perpendicular to the
banked wing of the airplane. It is the horizontal lift com-
ponent that actually turns the airplanenot the rudder.
When applying aileron to bank the airplane, the lowered
aileron (on the rising wing) produces a greater drag than
the raised aileron (on the lowering wing). [Figure 3-7]
This increased aileron yaws the airplane toward the rising
wing, or opposite to the direction of turn. To counteract
this adverse yawing moment, rudder pressure must be
applied simultaneously with aileron in the desired
direction of turn. This action is required to produce a
coordinated turn.
After the bank has been established in a medium
banked turn, all pressure applied to the aileron may be
relaxed. The airplane will remain at the selected bank
3-8
More lift
Additional
induced drag
Reduced lift
Rudder overcomes
adverse yaw to
coordinate the turn
Figure 3-7. Forces during a turn.
with no further tendency to yaw since there is no
longer a deflection of the ailerons. As a result, pres-
sure may also be relaxed on the rudder pedals, and the
rudder allowed to streamline itself with the direction
of the slipstream. Rudder pressure maintained after the
turn is established will cause the airplane to skid to the
outside of the turn. If a definite effort is made to center
the rudder rather than let it streamline itself to the turn,
it is probable that some opposite rudder pressure will
be exerted inadvertently. This will force the airplane to
yaw opposite its turning path, causing the airplane to
slip to the inside of the turn. The ball in the turn-and-
slip indicator will be displaced off-center whenever
the airplane is skidding or slipping sideways. [Figure
3-8] In proper coordinated flight, there is no skidding
or slipping. An essential basic airmanship skill is the
ability of the pilot to sense or feel any uncoordinated
condition (slip or skid) without referring to instrument
reference. During this stage of training, the flight
instructor should stress the development of this ability
and insist on its use to attain perfect coordination in all
subsequent training.
In all constant altitude, constant airspeed turns, it is
necessary to increase the angle of attack of the wing
when rolling into the turn by applying up elevator.
This is required because part of the vertical lift has
been diverted to horizontal lift. Thus, the total lift must
be increased to compensate for this loss.
To stop the turn, the wings are returned to level flight
by the coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder
applied in the opposite direction. To understand the
relationship between airspeed, bank, and radius of
turn, it should be noted that the rate of turn at any
given true airspeed depends on the horizontal lift com-
ponent. The horizontal lift component varies in pro-
portion to the amount of bank. Therefore, the rate of
turn at a given true airspeed increases as the angle of
bank is increased. On the other hand, when a turn is
made at a higher true airspeed at a given bank angle,
the inertia is greater and the horizontal lift component
required for the turn is greater, causing the turning rate
Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-9
SKID
Ball to outside Ball centered
of turn
Pilot feels
sideways force
to outside of turn
Pilot feels
force straight
down into seat
Figure 3-8. Indications of a slip and skid.
to become slower. [Figure 3-9 on next page] Therefore,
at a given angle of bank, a higher true airspeed will
make the radius of turn larger because the airplane will
be turning at a slower rate.
When changing from a shallow bank to a medium
bank, the airspeed of the wing on the outside of the turn
increases in relation to the inside wing as the radius of
turn decreases. The additional lift developed because
of this increase in speed of the wing balances the
inherent lateral stability of the airplane. At any given
airspeed, aileron pressure is not required to maintain
the bank. If the bank is allowed to increase from a
medium to a steep bank, the radius of turn decreases
further. The lift of the outside wing causes the bank to
steepen and opposite aileron is necessary to keep the
bank constant.
As the radius of the turn becomes smaller, a significant
difference develops between the speed of the inside
wing and the speed of the outside wing. The wing on
the outside of the turn travels a longer circuit than the
inside wing, yet both complete their respective circuits
in the same length of time. Therefore, the outside wing
travels faster than the inside wing, and as a result, it
develops more lift. This creates an overbanking
tendency that must be controlled by the use of the
ailerons. [Figure 3-10] Because the outboard wing is
developing more lift, it also has more induced drag.
This causes a slight slip during steep turns that must be
corrected by use of the rudder.
Sometimes during early training in steep turns, the
nose may be allowed to get excessively low resulting
in a significant loss in altitude. To recover, the pilot
should first reduce the angle of bank with coordinated
use of the rudder and aileron, then raise the nose of the
airplane to level flight with the elevator. If recovery
from an excessively nose-low steep bank condition is
COORDINATED SLIP
TURN
Ball to inside
of turn
Pilot feels
sideways force
to inside of turn
attempted by use of the elevator only, it will cause a
steepening of the bank and could result in overstress-
ing the airplane. Normally, small corrections for pitch
during steep turns are accomplished with the elevator,
and the bank is held constant with the ailerons.
To establish the desired angle of bank, the pilot should
use outside visual reference points, as well as the bank
indicator on the attitude indicator.
OVERBANKING TENDENCY
Outer wing travels greater distance
Higher Speed
More Lift
Inner wing travels shorter distance
Lower speed
Less lift
Figure 3-10. Overbanking tendency during a steep turn.
The best outside reference for establishing the degree of
bank is the angle formed by the raised wing of low-wing
airplanes (the lowered wing of high-wing airplanes) and
the horizon, or the angle made by the top of the engine
cowling and the horizon. [Figure 3-11 on page 3-11]
Since on most light airplanes the engine cowling is fairly
flat, its horizontal angle to the horizon will give some
indication of the approximate degree of bank. Also,
information obtained from the attitude indicator will
show the angle of the wing in relation to the horizon.
Information from the turn coordinator, however, will not.
3-9
Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-10

CONSTANT AIRSPEED

10 Angle of Bank

When airspeed is
held constant, a 20 Angle of Bank
larger angle of bank
will result in a
smaller turn radius
and a greater turn
rate. 30 Angle of Bank

CONSTANT ANGLE OF BANK

100 kts

When angle of bank

is held constant, a 90 kts
slower airspeed will
result in a smaller
turn radius and
greater turn rate.
80 kts

Figure 3-9. Angle of bank and airspeed regulate rate and radius of turn.

3-10
because the pilot controls the aircraft by shifting the CG.
For more information on weight-shift control aircraft, see
the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Weight-Shift
Control Flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-5. In the case of
powered parachutes, aircraft control is accomplished by
altering the airfoil via steering lines.
A powered parachute wing is a parachute that has a cambered
upper surface and a atter under surface. The two surfaces are
separated by ribs that act as cells, which open to the airow
at the leading edge and have internal ports to allow lateral
airow. The principle at work holds that the cell pressure is
greater than the outside pressure, thereby forming a wing that
maintains its airfoil shape in ight. The pilot and passenger
sit in tandem in front of the engine which is located at the
rear of a vehicle. The airframe is attached to the parachute
via two attachment points and lines. Control is accomplished
by both power and the changing of the airfoil via the control
lines. [Figure 4-17]
Figure 4-17. A powered parachute.
Moment and Moment Arm
A study of physics shows that a body that is free to rotate
will always turn about its CG. In aerodynamic terms, the
mathematical measure of an aircrafts tendency to rotate
about its CG is called a moment. A moment is said to be
equal to the product of the force applied and the distance at
which the force is applied. (A moment arm is the distance
from a datum [reference point or line] to the applied force.)
For aircraft weight and balance computations, moments
are expressed in terms of the distance of the arm times the
aircrafts weight, or simply, inch-pounds.
Aircraft designers locate the fore and aft position of the
aircrafts CG as nearly as possible to the 20 percent point
of the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC). If the thrust line
is designed to pass horizontally through the CG, it will not
cause the aircraft to pitch when power is changed, and there
will be no difference in moment due to thrust for a power-on
4-12
or power-off condition of ight. Although designers have
some control over the location of the drag forces, they are not
always able to make the resultant drag forces pass through the
CG of the aircraft. However, the one item over which they
have the greatest control is the size and location of the tail.
The objective is to make the moments (due to thrust, drag, and
lift) as small as possible and, by proper location of the tail,
to provide the means of balancing an aircraft longitudinally
for any condition of ight.
The pilot has no direct control over the location of forces
acting on the aircraft in ight, except for controlling the
center of lift by changing the AOA. Such a change, however,
immediately involves changes in other forces. Therefore,
the pilot cannot independently change the location of one
force without changing the effect of others. For example,
a change in airspeed involves a change in lift, as well as a
change in drag and a change in the up or down force on the
tail. As forces such as turbulence and gusts act to displace
the aircraft, the pilot reacts by providing opposing control
forces to counteract this displacement.
Some aircraft are subject to changes in the location of the
CG with variations of load. Trimming devices are used to
counteract the forces set up by fuel burnoff, and loading or
off-loading of passengers or cargo. Elevator trim tabs and
adjustable horizontal stabilizers comprise the most common
devices provided to the pilot for trimming for load variations.
Over the wide ranges of balance during ight in large aircraft,
the force which the pilot has to exert on the controls would
become excessive and fatiguing if means of trimming were
not provided.
Aircraft Design Characteristics
Each aircraft handles somewhat differently because each
resists or responds to control pressures in its own way. For
example, a training aircraft is quick to respond to control
applications, while a transport aircraft feels heavy on the
controls and responds to control pressures more slowly.
These features can be designed into an aircraft to facilitate
the particular purpose of the aircraft by considering certain
stability and maneuvering requirements. The following
discussion summarizes the more important aspects of an
aircrafts stability, maneuverability and controllability
qualities; how they are analyzed; and their relationship to
various ight conditions.
Stability
Stability is the inherent quality of an aircraft to correct for
conditions that may disturb its equilibrium, and to return to
or to continue on the original ightpath. It is primarily an
aircraft design characteristic. The ightpaths and attitudes an
aircraft ies are limited by the aerodynamic characteristics of
the aircraft, its propulsion system, and its structural strength.
These limitations indicate the maximum performance and
maneuverability of the aircraft. If the aircraft is to provide
maximum utility, it must be safely controllable to the full
extent of these limits without exceeding the pilots strength
or requiring exceptional ying ability. If an aircraft is to y
straight and steady along any arbitrary ightpath, the forces
acting on it must be in static equilibrium. The reaction of
any body when its equilibrium is disturbed is referred to as
stability. The two types of stability are static and dynamic.
Static Stability
Static stability refers to the initial tendency, or direction of
movement, back to equilibrium. In aviation, it refers to the
aircrafts initial response when disturbed from a given AOA,
slip, or bank.
Positive static stabilitythe initial tendency of the
aircraft to return to the original state of equilibrium
after being disturbed [Figure 4-18]
Neutral static stabilitythe initial tendency of
the aircraft to remain in a new condition after its
equilibrium has been disturbed [Figure 4-18]
Negative static stabilitythe initial tendency of the
aircraft to continue away from the original state of
equilibrium after being disturbed [Figure 4-18]
Dynamic Stability
Static stability has been dened as the initial tendency to
return to equilibrium that the aircraft displays after being
disturbed from its trimmed condition. Occasionally, the
initial tendency is different or opposite from the overall
tendency, so a distinction must be made between the two.
Positive static stability Neutral static stability
Applied Applied
Force Force
CG
CG
Figure 4-18. Types of static stability.
Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft response over time
when disturbed from a given AOA, slip, or bank. This type
of stability also has three subtypes: [Figure 4-19]
Positive dynamic stabilityover time, the motion
of the displaced object decreases in amplitude and,
because it is positive, the object displaced returns
toward the equilibrium state.
Neutral dynamic stabilityonce displaced, the
displaced object neither decreases nor increases in
amplitude. A worn automobile shock absorber exhibits
this tendency.
Negative dynamic stabilityover time, the motion
of the displaced object increases and becomes more
divergent.
Stability in an aircraft affects two areas signicantly:
Maneuverabilitythe quality of an aircraft that
permits it to be maneuvered easily and to withstand
the stresses imposed by maneuvers. It is governed by
the aircrafts weight, inertia, size and location of ight
controls, structural strength, and powerplant. It too is
an aircraft design characteristic.
Controllabilitythe capability of an aircraft to
respond to the pilots control, especially with regard to
ightpath and attitude. It is the quality of the aircrafts
response to the pilots control application when
maneuvering the aircraft, regardless of its stability
characteristics.
Negative static stability
Applied
Force
CG
CG
4-13

Displacement
Positive static
(neutral dynamic)
Figure 4-19. Damped versus undamped stability.
Longitudinal Stability (Pitching)
In designing an aircraft, a great deal of effort is spent in
developing the desired degree of stability around all three
axes. But longitudinal stability about the lateral axis is
considered to be the most affected by certain variables in
various ight conditions.
Longitudinal stability is the quality that makes an aircraft
stable about its lateral axis. It involves the pitching motion
as the aircrafts nose moves up and down in flight. A
longitudinally unstable aircraft has a tendency to dive or
climb progressively into a very steep dive or climb, or even
a stall. Thus, an aircraft with longitudinal instability becomes
difcult and sometimes dangerous to y.
Static longitudinal stability or instability in an aircraft, is
dependent upon three factors:
1. Location of the wing with respect to the CG
2. Location of the horizontal tail surfaces with respect
to the CG
3. Area or size of the tail surfaces
In analyzing stability, it should be recalled that a body free
to rotate always turns about its CG.
To obtain static longitudinal stability, the relation of the
wing and tail moments must be such that, if the moments
are initially balanced and the aircraft is suddenly nose up,
the wing moments and tail moments change so that the sum
of their forces provides an unbalanced but restoring moment
which, in turn, brings the nose down again. Similarly, if the
aircraft is nose down, the resulting change in moments brings
the nose back up.
4-14
Damped oscillation
Undamped oscillation
Positive static Divergent oscillation
(positive dynamic)
Time
Positive Static
(negative dynamic)
The CL in most asymmetrical airfoils has a tendency to
change its fore and aft positions with a change in the AOA.
The CL tends to move forward with an increase in AOA and
to move aft with a decrease in AOA. This means that when the
AOA of an airfoil is increased, the CL, by moving forward,
tends to lift the leading edge of the wing still more. This
tendency gives the wing an inherent quality of instability.
(NOTE: CL is also known as the center of pressure (CP).)
Figure 4-20 shows an aircraft in straight-and-level ight. The
line CG-CL-T represents the aircrafts longitudinal axis from
the CG to a point T on power
Reduced the horizontal stabilizer.
allows pitch down
CL
CG
CL
CG
Figure 4-20. Longitudinal stability.
Most aircraft are designed so that the wings CL is to the rear
of the CG. This makes the aircraft nose heavy and requires
that there be a slight downward force on the horizontal
stabilizer in order to balance the aircraft and keep the nose
from continually pitching downward. Compensation for this
nose heaviness is provided by setting the horizontal stabilizer
at a slight negative AOA. The downward force thus produced
holds the tail down, counterbalancing the heavy nose. It
 Reduced power allows pitch down
is as if the line CG-CL-T were a lever with an upward force
at CL and two downward forces balancing each other, one

Lift
a strong force at the CG point and the other, a much lesser
Thrust CG
force, at point T (downward air pressure on the stabilizer).

Weight
To better visualize this physics principle: If an iron bar were
suspended at point CL, with a heavy weight hanging on it at
the CG, it would take downward pressure at point T to keep
the lever in balance. Normal downwash

Even though the horizontal stabilizer may be level when the

Lift
aircraft is in level ight, there is a downwash of air from the
wings. This downwash strikes the top of the stabilizer and CG
Thrust
produces a downward pressure, which at a certain speed is

Weight
just enough to balance the lever. The faster the aircraft
is ying, the greater this downwash and the greater the
downward force on the horizontal stabilizer (except T-tails). Reduced downwash
[Figure 4-21] In aircraft with xed-position horizontal
stabilizers, the aircraft manufacturer sets the stabilizer at an Figure 4-22. Reduced power allows pitch down.
angle that provides the best stability (or balance) during ight
the downward force on the horizontal stabilizer is once again
at the design cruising speed and power setting.
increased. Consequently, the tail is again pushed downward
Reduced power allows pitch down
and the nose rises into a climbing attitude.

As this climb continues, the airspeed again decreases, causing

CG the downward force on the tail to decrease until the nose
lowers once more. Because the aircraft is dynamically stable,
Balanced tail load
the nose does not lower as far this time as it did before. The
Cruise speed aircraft acquires enough speed in this more gradual dive to
start it into another climb, but the climb is not as steep as
the preceding one.
CG
After several of these diminishing oscillations, in which
Lesser downward tail load the nose alternately rises and lowers, the aircraft nally
settles down to a speed at which the downward force on the
Low speed
tail exactly counteracts the tendency of the aircraft to dive.
When this condition is attained, the aircraft is once again in
balanced ight and continues in stabilized ight as long as
this attitude and airspeed are not changed.
CG

Greater downward tail load A similar effect is noted upon closing the throttle. The
downwash of the wings is reduced and the force at T in
High speed
Figure 4-20 is not enough to hold the horizontal stabilizer
Figure 4-21. Effect of speed on downwash. down. It seems as if the force at T on the lever were allowing
the force of gravity to pull the nose down. This is a desirable
characteristic because the aircraft is inherently trying to
If the aircrafts speed decreases, the speed of the airow
regain airspeed and reestablish the proper balance.
over the wing is decreased. As a result of this decreased
ow of air over the wing, the downwash is reduced, causing
Power or thrust can also have a destabilizing effect in that
a lesser downward force on the horizontal stabilizer. In turn,
an increase of power may tend to make the nose rise. The
the characteristic nose heaviness is accentuated, causing the
aircraft designer can offset this by establishing a high
aircrafts nose to pitch down more. [Figure 4-22] This places
thrust line wherein the line of thrust passes above the CG.
the aircraft in a nose-low attitude, lessening the wings AOA
[Figures 4-23 and 4-24] In this case, as power or thrust is
and drag and allowing the airspeed to increase. As the aircraft
increased a moment is produced to counteract the down
continues in the nose-low attitude and its speed increases,

4-15
 Thrust line affect longitudinal stability
Conclusion: with CG forward of the CL and with an
aerodynamic tail-down force, the aircraft usually tries to
return to a safe ying attitude.
Thrust CG

The following is a simple demonstration of longitudinal

stability. Trim the aircraft for hands off control in level
Below center of gravity ight. Then, momentarily give the controls a slight push to
nose the aircraft down. If, within a brief period, the nose rises
to the original position and then stops, the aircraft is statically
stable. Ordinarily, the nose passes the original position (that
Thrust CG
of level ight) and a series of slow pitching oscillations
follows. If the oscillations gradually cease, the aircraft has
positive stability; if they continue unevenly, the aircraft has
neutral stability; if they increase, the aircraft is unstable.
Through center of gravity

Lateral Stability (Rolling)

Stability about the aircrafts longitudinal axis, which extends
from the nose of the aircraft to its tail, is called lateral
Thrust
CG stability. This helps to stabilize the lateral or rolling effect
when one wing gets lower than the wing on the opposite side
of the aircraft. There are four main design factors that make
Above center of gravity an aircraft laterally stable: dihedral, sweepback, keel effect,
and weight distribution.
Figure 4-23. Thrust line affects longitudinal stability.
Power changes affect longitudinal stability
Dihedral
The most common procedure for producing lateral stability
Lift

is to build the wings with an angle of one to three degrees

Thrust CG above perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. The wings on
either side of the aircraft join the fuselage to form a slight V or
angle called dihedral. The amount of dihedral is measured
by the angle made by each wing above a line parallel to the
Cruise power
lateral axis.
Lift

Dihedral involves a balance of lift created by the wings AOA

Thrust CG on each side of the aircrafts longitudinal axis. If a momentary
gust of wind forces one wing to rise and the other to lower, the
aircraft banks. When the aircraft is banked without turning,
the tendency to sideslip or slide downward toward the lowered
Idle power wing occurs. [Figure 4-25] Since the wings have dihedral,
the air strikes the lower wing at a much greater AOA than the
Lift

higher wing. The increased AOA on the lower wing creates

more lift than the higher wing. Increased lift causes the lower
Thrust CG wing to begin to rise upward. As the wings approach the
level position, the AOA on both wings once again are equal,
causing the rolling tendency to subside. The effect of dihedral
Full power is to produce a rolling tendency to return the aircraft to a
laterally balanced ight condition when a sideslip occurs.
Figure 4-24. Power changes affect longitudinal stability.
The restoring force may move the low wing up too far, so
load on the tail. On the other hand, a very low thrust line that the opposite wing now goes down. If so, the process
would tend to add to the nose-up effect of the horizontal tail is repeated, decreasing with each lateral oscillation until a
surface. balance for wings-level ight is nally reached.

4-16
 Normal angle of attack
Dihedral lateral stability
Greater angle
of attack
Lesser angle
of attack
Figure 4-25. Dihedral for lateral stability.
Conversely, excessive dihedral has an adverse effect on
lateral maneuvering qualities. The aircraft may be so stable
laterally that it resists an intentional rolling motion. For this
reason, aircraft that require fast roll or banking characteristics
usually have less dihedral than those designed for less
maneuverability.
Sweepback
Sweepback is an addition to the dihedral that increases the
lift created when a wing drops from the level position. A
sweptback wing is one in which the leading edge slopes
backward. When a disturbance causes an aircraft with
sweepback to slip or drop a wing, the low wing presents its
leading edge at an angle that is perpendicular to the relative
airow. As a result, the low wing acquires more lift, rises,
and the aircraft is restored to its original ight attitude.
Sweepback also contributes to directional stability. When
turbulence or rudder application causes the aircraft to yaw
to one side, the right wing presents a longer leading edge
perpendicular to the relative airow. The airspeed of the right
wing increases and it acquires more drag than the left wing.
The additional drag on the right wing pulls it back, turning
the aircraft back to its original path.
Keel Effect and Weight Distribution
An aircraft always has the tendency to turn the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft into the relative wind. This weather vane
tendency is similar to the keel of a ship and exerts a steadying
inuence on the aircraft laterally about the longitudinal
axis. When the aircraft is disturbed and one wing dips, the
fuselage weight acts like a pendulum returning the airplane
to its original attitude.
Laterally stable aircraft are constructed so that the greater
portion of the keel area is above and behind the CG.
[Figure 4-26] Thus, when the aircraft slips to one side, the
combination of the aircrafts weight and the pressure of the
airow against the upper portion of the keel area (both acting
about the CG) tends to roll the aircraft back to wings-level
ight.
Keel area for lateral stability
CG
CG centerline
CG
Figure 4-26. Keel area for lateral stability.
Vertical Stability (Yawing)
Stability about the aircrafts vertical axis (the sideways
moment) is called yawing or directional stability. Yawing or
directional stability is the most easily achieved stability in
aircraft design. The area of the vertical n and the sides of
the fuselage aft of the CG are the prime contributors which
make the aircraft act like the well known weather vane or
arrow, pointing its nose into the relative wind.
In examining a weather vane, it can be seen that if exactly the
same amount of surface were exposed to the wind in front
of the pivot point as behind it, the forces fore and aft would
be in balance and little or no directional movement would
result. Consequently, it is necessary to have a greater surface
aft of the pivot point than forward of it.
Similarly, the aircraft designer must ensure positive
directional stability by making the side surface greater aft
than ahead of the CG. [Figure 4-27] To provide additional
positive stability to that provided by the fuselage, a vertical
n is added. The n acts similar to the feather on an arrow
in maintaining straight ight. Like the weather vane and the
arrow, the farther aft this n is placed and the larger its size,
the greater the aircrafts directional stability.
If an aircraft is ying in a straight line, and a sideward gust
of air gives the aircraft a slight rotation about its vertical
axis (i.e., the right), the motion is retarded and stopped by
the n because while the aircraft is rotating to the right, the
air is striking the left side of the n at an angle. This causes
pressure on the left side of the n, which resists the turning
motion and slows down the aircrafts yaw. In doing so, it
4-17
 Fuselage and fin for vertical stability
CG
Area
forward Area after center of gravity (CG)
of CG
CG
yaw
yaw
Relative w
ind
Figure 4-27. Fuselage and fin for vertical stability.
acts somewhat like the weather vane by turning the aircraft
into the relative wind. The initial change in direction of the
aircrafts ightpath is generally slightly behind its change
of heading. Therefore, after a slight yawing of the aircraft
to the right, there is a brief moment when the aircraft is still
moving along its original path, but its longitudinal axis is
pointed slightly to the right.
The aircraft is then momentarily skidding sideways, and
during that moment (since it is assumed that although the
yawing motion has stopped, the excess pressure on the left
side of the n still persists) there is necessarily a tendency
for the aircraft to be turned partially back to the left. That is,
there is a momentary restoring tendency caused by the n.
This restoring tendency is relatively slow in developing and
ceases when the aircraft stops skidding. When it ceases, the
aircraft is ying in a direction slightly different from the
original direction. In other words, it will not return of its own
accord to the original heading; the pilot must reestablish the
initial heading.
A minor improvement of directional stability may be obtained
through sweepback. Sweepback is incorporated in the design
of the wing primarily to delay the onset of compressibility
during high-speed ight. In lighter and slower aircraft,
sweepback aids in locating the center of pressure in the
correct relationship with the CG. A longitudinally stable
aircraft is built with the center of pressure aft of the CG.
4-18
Because of structural reasons, aircraft designers sometimes
cannot attach the wings to the fuselage at the exact desired
point. If they had to mount the wings too far forward, and at
right angles to the fuselage, the center of pressure would not
be far enough to the rear to result in the desired amount of
longitudinal stability. By building sweepback into the wings,
however, the designers can move the center of pressure
toward the rear. The amount of sweepback and the position
of the wings then place the center of pressure in the correct
location.
The contribution of the wing to static directional stability is
usually small. The swept wing provides a stable contribution
depending on the amount of sweepback, but the contribution
is relatively small when compared with other components.
Free Directional Oscillations (Dutch Roll)
Dutch roll is a coupled lateral/directional oscillation that is
usually dynamically stable but is unsafe in an aircraft because
of the oscillatory nature. The damping of the oscillatory mode
may be weak or strong depending on the properties of the
particular aircraft.
If the aircraft has a right wing pushed down, the positive
sideslip angle corrects the wing laterally before the nose is
realigned with the relative wind. As the wing corrects the
position, a lateral directional oscillation can occur resulting
in the nose of the aircraft making a gure eight on the
horizon as a result of two oscillations (roll and yaw), which,
although of about the same magnitude, are out of phase with
each other.
In most modern aircraft, except high-speed swept wing
designs, these free directional oscillations usually die out
automatically in very few cycles unless the air continues to
be gusty or turbulent. Those aircraft with continuing Dutch
roll tendencies are usually equipped with gyro-stabilized yaw
dampers. Manufacturers try to reach a midpoint between too
much and too little directional stability. Because it is more
desirable for the aircraft to have spiral instability than
Dutch roll tendencies, most aircraft are designed with that
characteristic.
Spiral Instability
Spiral instability exists when the static directional stability
of the aircraft is very strong as compared to the effect of its
dihedral in maintaining lateral equilibrium. When the lateral
equilibrium of the aircraft is disturbed by a gust of air and a
sideslip is introduced, the strong directional stability tends
to yaw the nose into the resultant relative wind while the
comparatively weak dihedral lags in restoring the lateral
balance. Due to this yaw, the wing on the outside of the
turning moment travels forward faster than the inside wing
and, as a consequence, its lift becomes greater. This produces
an overbanking tendency which, if not corrected by the pilot,
results in the bank angle becoming steeper and steeper. At
the same time, the strong directional stability that yaws the
aircraft into the relative wind is actually forcing the nose
to a lower pitch attitude. A slow downward spiral begins
which, if not counteracted by the pilot, gradually increases
into a steep spiral dive. Usually the rate of divergence in the
spiral motion is so gradual the pilot can control the tendency
without any difculty.
All aircraft are affected to some degree by this characteristic,
although they may be inherently stable in all other normal
parameters. This tendency explains why an aircraft cannot
be own hands off indenitely.
Much research has gone into the development of control
devices (wing leveler) to correct or eliminate this instability.
The pilot must be careful in application of recovery controls
during advanced stages of this spiral condition or excessive
loads may be imposed on the structure. Improper recovery
from spiral instability leading to inight structural failures
has probably contributed to more fatalities in general aviation
aircraft than any other factor. Since the airspeed in the spiral
condition builds up rapidly, the application of back elevator
force to reduce this speed and to pull the nose up only
tightens the turn, increasing the load factor. The results
of the prolonged uncontrolled spiral are inight structural
failure or crashing into the ground, or both. The most common
recorded causes for pilots who get into this situation are:
loss of horizon reference, inability to control the aircraft by
reference to instruments, or a combination of both.
Aerodynamic Forces in Flight Maneuvers
Forces in Turns
If an aircraft were viewed in straight-and-level ight from
the front [Figure 4-28], and if the forces acting on the aircraft
Level flight Medium banked turn
Tota
Lift
ll
ift
Horizontal
component
Weight
Weight
Figure 4-28. Forces during normal coordinated turn.
could be seen, lift and weight would be apparent: two forces.
If the aircraft were in a bank it would be apparent that lift
did not act directly opposite to the weight, rather it now acts
in the direction of the bank. A basic truth about turns: when
the aircraft banks, lift acts inward toward the center of the
turn, as well as upward.
Newtons First Law of Motion, the Law of Inertia, states
that an object at rest or moving in a straight line remains
at rest or continues to move in a straight line until acted on
by some other force. An aircraft, like any moving object,
requires a sideward force to make it turn. In a normal turn,
this force is supplied by banking the aircraft so that lift is
exerted inward, as well as upward. The force of lift during a
turn is separated into two components at right angles to each
other. One component, which acts vertically and opposite
to the weight (gravity), is called the vertical component of
lift. The other, which acts horizontally toward the center
of the turn, is called the horizontal component of lift, or
centripetal force. The horizontal component of lift is the force
that pulls the aircraft from a straight ightpath to make it
turn. Centrifugal force is the equal and opposite reaction
of the aircraft to the change in direction and acts equal and
opposite to the horizontal component of lift. This explains
why, in a correctly executed turn, the force that turns the
aircraft is not supplied by the rudder. The rudder is used to
correct any deviation between the straight track of the nose
and tail of the aircraft. A good turn is one in which the nose
and tail of the aircraft track along the same path. If no rudder
is used in a turn, the nose of the aircraft yaws to the outside
of the turn. The rudder is used to bring the nose back in line
with the relative wind.
An aircraft is not steered like a boat or an automobile. In
order for an aircraft to turn, it must be banked. If it is not
banked, there is no force available to cause it to deviate from
a straight ightpath. Conversely, when an aircraft is banked,
it turns, provided it is not slipping to the inside of the turn.
Steeply banked turn
component
Vertical
component
Vertical
To
ta
ll
ift
Centrifugal
force
Centrifugal
force
Horizontal
component
R
Res
es
ul
Weight
ta
ulta
nt
lo
nt lo
ad
ad
4-19
Good directional control is based on the fact that the aircraft
attempts to turn whenever it is banked. Pilots should keep
this fact in mind when attempting to hold the aircraft in
straight-and-level ight.
Merely banking the aircraft into a turn produces no change
in the total amount of lift developed. Since the lift during the
bank is divided into vertical and horizontal components, the
amount of lift opposing gravity and supporting the aircrafts
weight is reduced. Consequently, the aircraft loses altitude
unless additional lift is created. This is done by increasing
the AOA until the vertical component of lift is again equal
to the weight. Since the vertical component of lift decreases
as the bank angle increases, the AOA must be progressively
increased to produce sufcient vertical lift to support the
aircrafts weight. An important fact for pilots to remember
when making constant altitude turns is that the vertical
component of lift must be equal to the weight to maintain
altitude.
At a given airspeed, the rate at which an aircraft turns depends
upon the magnitude of the horizontal component of lift. It is
found that the horizontal component of lift is proportional
to the angle of bankthat is, it increases or decreases
respectively as the angle of bank increases or decreases. As
the angle of bank is increased, the horizontal component of
lift increases, thereby increasing the ROT. Consequently, at
any given airspeed, the ROT can be controlled by adjusting
the angle of bank.
To provide a vertical component of lift sufcient to hold
altitude in a level turn, an increase in the AOA is required.
Since the drag of the airfoil is directly proportional to its
AOA, induced drag increases as the lift is increased. This,
in turn, causes a loss of airspeed in proportion to the angle
of bank. A small angle of bank results in a small reduction
in airspeed while a large angle of bank results in a large
reduction in airspeed. Additional thrust (power) must be
Normal turn
Vertical lift
Lif
t
Centrifugal
force
Horizontal Horizontal
lift lift
Weight
Centrifugal Centrifugal
Lo
ad
force equals force less than
horizontal lift horizontal lift
Figure 4-29. Normal, slipping, and skidding turns.
4-20
applied to prevent a reduction in airspeed in level turns. The
required amount of additional thrust is proportional to the
angle of bank.
To compensate for added lift, which would result if the
airspeed were increased during a turn, the AOA must be
decreased, or the angle of bank increased, if a constant altitude
is to be maintained. If the angle of bank is held constant and
the AOA decreased, the ROT decreases. In order to maintain
a constant-ROT as the airspeed is increased, the AOA must
remain constant and the angle of bank increased.
An increase in airspeed results in an increase of the turn
radius, and centrifugal force is directly proportional to the
radius of the turn. In a correctly executed turn, the horizontal
component of lift must be exactly equal and opposite to the
centrifugal force. As the airspeed is increased in a constant-
rate level turn, the radius of the turn increases. This increase
in the radius of turn causes an increase in the centrifugal
force, which must be balanced by an increase in the horizontal
component of lift, which can only be increased by increasing
the angle of bank.
In a slipping turn, the aircraft is not turning at the rate
appropriate to the bank being used, since the aircraft is
yawed toward the outside of the turning ightpath. The
aircraft is banked too much for the ROT, so the horizontal lift
component is greater than the centrifugal force. [Figure 4-29]
Equilibrium between the horizontal lift component and
centrifugal force is reestablished by either decreasing the
bank, increasing the ROT, or a combination of the two
changes.
A skidding turn results from an excess of centrifugal force
over the horizontal lift component, pulling the aircraft
toward the outside of the turn. The ROT is too great for the
angle of bank. Correction of a skidding turn thus involves a
Slipping turn Skidding turn
Vertical lift
Vertical lift
Lif
Lif
t
t
Centrifugal force
Centrifugal
force
Horizontal
lift
Weight
Weight
Centrifugal force
Lo
ad
greater than
Load
horizontal lift
Atmospheric Pressure temperature is considered constant up to 80,000 feet. A
Although there are various kinds of pressure, pilots are standard pressure lapse rate is one in which pressure decreases
mainly concerned with atmospheric pressure. It is one of at a rate of approximately 1 "Hg per 1,000 feet of altitude gain
the basic factors in weather changes, helps to lift an aircraft, to 10,000 feet. [Figure 3-2] The International Civil Aviation
and actuates some of the important ight instruments. These Organization (ICAO) has established this as a worldwide
instruments are the altimeter, airspeed indicator, vertical standard, and it is often referred to as International Standard
speed indicator, and manifold pressure gauge. Atmosphere (ISA) or ICAO Standard Atmosphere. Any
temperature or pressure that differs from the standard lapse
Air is very light, but it has mass and is affected by the rates is considered nonstandard temperature and pressure.
attraction of gravity. Therefore, like any other substance, it
has weight, and because of its weight, it has force. Since it is Standard Atmosphere
a uid substance, this force is exerted equally in all directions, Temperature
and its effect on bodies within the air is called pressure. Under Altitude (ft) Pressure (Hg)
(C) (F)
standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure exerted 0 29.92 15.0 59.0
by the weight of the atmosphere is approximately 14.70 1,000 28.86 13.0 55.4
pounds per square inch (psi) of surface, or 1,013.2 millibars 2,000 27.82 11.0 51.9
(mb). Its thickness is limited; therefore, the higher the altitude, 3,000 26.82 9.1 48.3
the less air there is above. For this reason, the weight of the 4,000 25.84 7.1 44.7
atmosphere at 18,000 feet is one-half what it is at sea level. 5,000 24.89 5.1 41.2
6,000 23.98 3.1 37.6
7,000 23.09 1.1 34.0
The pressure of the atmosphere varies with time and location.
8,000 22.22 -0.9 30.5
Due to the changing atmospheric pressure, a standard
9,000 21.38 -2.8 26.9
reference was developed. The standard atmosphere at sea 10,000 20.57 -4.8 23.3
level is a surface temperature of 59 F or 15 C and a surface 11,000 19.79 -6.8 19.8
pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury ("Hg), or 1,013.2 mb. 12,000 19.02 -8.8 16.2
[Figure 3-1] 13,000 18.29 -10.8 12.6
14,000 17.57 -12.7 9.1
15,000 16.88 -14.7 5.5
16,000 16.21 -16.7 1.9
Inches of 17,000 15.56 -18.7 -1.6
Standard Millibars Standard
Mercury
Sea Level Sea Level 18,000 14.94 -20.7 -5.2
Pressure 30 1016 Pressure 19,000 14.33 -22.6 -8.8
29.92 Hg 25 847 1013 mb 20,000 13.74 -24.6 -12.3
20 677
Figure Figure 2-2. Properties
3-2. Properties of standard
of standard atmosphere.
atmosphere.
15 508
10 339 Since aircraft performance is compared and evaluated with
respect to the standard atmosphere, all aircraft instruments
5 170
Atmospheric Pressure are calibrated for the standard atmosphere. In order to account
0 0 properly for the nonstandard atmosphere, certain related
terms must be dened.

Figure 3-1. Standard sea level
Figure 2-1. pressure.
Standard sea level pressure.
A standard temperature lapse rate is one in which the
temperature decreases at the rate of approximately 3.5 F
or 2 C per thousand feet up to 36,000 feet which is
approximately -65 F or -55 C. Above this point, the
Pressure Altitude
Pressure altitude is the height above a standard datum plane
(SDP), which is a theoretical level where the weight of the
atmosphere is 29.92 "Hg (1,013.2 mb) as measured by a
barometer. An altimeter is essentially a sensitive barometer
calibrated to indicate altitude in the standard atmosphere. If
the altimeter is set for 29.92 "Hg SDP, the altitude indicated
is the pressure altitude. As atmospheric pressure changes, the
SDP may be below, at, or above sea level. Pressure altitude
is important as a basis for determining airplane performance,
as well as for assigning ight levels to airplanes operating at
or above 18,000 feet.

3-2
The pressure altitude can be determined by either of two
methods:
1. Setting the barometric scale of the altimeter to 29.92
and reading the indicated altitude.
2. Applying a correction factor to the indicated altitude
according to the reported altimeter setting.
Density Altitude
SDP is a theoretical pressure altitude, but aircraft operate in a
nonstandard atmosphere and the term density altitude is used
for correlating aerodynamic performance in the nonstandard
atmosphere. Density altitude is the vertical distance above sea
level in the standard atmosphere at which a given density is
to be found. The density of air has signicant effects on the
aircrafts performance because as air becomes less dense,
it reduces:
Power because the engine takes in less air.
Thrust because a propeller is less efcient in thin
air.
Lift because the thin air exerts less force on the
airfoils.
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard
temperature. As the density of the air increases (lower density
altitude), aircraft performance increases and conversely
as air density decreases (higher density altitude), aircraft
performance decreases. A decrease in air density means
a high density altitude; an increase in air density means a
lower density altitude. Density altitude is used in calculating
aircraft performance, because under standard atmospheric
conditions, air at each level in the atmosphere not only has
a specic density, its pressure altitude and density altitude
identify the same level.
The computation of density altitude involves consideration
of pressure (pressure altitude) and temperature. Since aircraft
performance data at any level is based upon air density
under standard day conditions, such performance data
apply to air density levels that may not be identical with
altimeter indications. Under conditions higher or lower than
standard, these levels cannot be determined directly from
the altimeter.
Density altitude is determined by first finding pressure
altitude, and then correcting this altitude for nonstandard
temperature variations. Since density varies directly with
pressure, and inversely with temperature, a given pressure
altitude may exist for a wide range of temperature by allowing
the density to vary. However, a known density occurs for any
one temperature and pressure altitude. The density of the air
has a pronounced effect on aircraft and engine performance.
Regardless of the actual altitude at which the aircraft is
operating, it will perform as though it were operating at an
altitude equal to the existing density altitude.
Air density is affected by changes in altitude, temperature,
and humidity. High density altitude refers to thin air while
low density altitude refers to dense air. The conditions that
result in a high density altitude are high elevations, low
atmospheric pressures, high temperatures, high humidity, or
some combination of these factors. Lower elevations, high
atmospheric pressure, low temperatures, and low humidity
are more indicative of low density altitude.
Effect of Pressure on Density
Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded. When
air is compressed, a greater amount of air can occupy a given
volume. Conversely, when pressure on a given volume of air
is decreased, the air expands and occupies a greater space.
At a lower pressure, the original column of air contains
a smaller mass of air. The density is decreased because
density is directly proportional to pressure. If the pressure is
doubled, the density is doubled; if the pressure is lowered, the
density is lowered. This statement is true only at a constant
temperature.
Effect of Temperature on Density
Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density.
Conversely, decreasing the temperature increases the density.
Thus, the density of air varies inversely with temperature.
This statement is true only at a constant pressure.
In the atmosphere, both temperature and pressure decrease
with altitude, and have conicting effects upon density.
However, the fairly rapid drop in pressure as altitude is
increased usually has the dominating effect. Hence, pilots
can expect the density to decrease with altitude.
Effect of Humidity (Moisture) on Density
The preceding paragraphs refer to air that is perfectly dry. In
reality, it is never completely dry. The small amount of water
vapor suspended in the atmosphere may be almost negligible
under certain conditions, but in other conditions humidity
may become an important factor in the performance of an
aircraft. Water vapor is lighter than air; consequently, moist
air is lighter than dry air. Therefore, as the water content
of the air increases, the air becomes less dense, increasing
density altitude and decreasing performance. It is lightest or
least dense when, in a given set of conditions, it contains the
maximum amount of water vapor.
Humidity, also called relative humidity, refers to the amount
of water vapor contained in the atmosphere, and is expressed
3-3
Chapter 5

Flight Instruments
Introduction
Aircraft became a practical means of transportation when
accurate flight instruments freed the pilot from the necessity
of maintaining visual contact with the ground. Flight
instruments are crucial to conducting safe flight operations
and it is important that the pilot have a basic understanding
of their operation. The basic flight instruments required
for operation under visual flight rules (VFR) are airspeed
indicator (ASI), altimeter, and magnetic direction indicator.
In addition to these, operation under instrument flight rules
(IFR) requires a gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator, slip-skid
indicator, sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric
pressure, clock displaying hours, minutes, and seconds with
a sweep-second pointer or digital presentation, gyroscopic
pitch-and-bank indicator (artificial horizon), and gyroscopic
direction indicator (directional gyro or equivalent).

5-1
Aircraft that are flown in instrument meteorological
conditions (IMC) are equipped with instruments that provide
attitude and direction reference, as well as navigation
instruments that allow precision flight from takeoff to landing
with limited or no outside visual reference.
The instruments discussed in this chapter are those required
by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)
part 91, and are organized into three groups: pitot-static
instruments, compass systems, and gyroscopic instruments.
The chapter concludes with a discussion of how to preflight
these systems for IFR flight. This chapter addresses additional
avionics systems such as Electronic Flight Information
Systems (EFIS), Ground Proximity Warning System
(GPWS), Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS),
Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS),
Head Up Display (HUD), etc., that are increasingly being
incorporated into general aviation aircraft.
Pitot/Static Systems
Pitot pressure, or impact air pressure, is sensed through an
open-end tube pointed directly into the relative wind flowing
around the aircraft. The pitot tube connects to the ASI or an
air data computer depending on your aircraft's configuration.
Static Pressure
Static pressure is also used by the ASI as well as the other
pitot static instruments for determining altitude and vertical
speed. Static pressure may be sensed at one or more locations
on an aircraft. Some may be flush mounted on the fuselage or
Drain hole
Pitot pressure chamber
Baffle plate
Static hole
Ram air
Pitot tube
Drain hole
Static hole
Heater (100 watts)
Heater (35 watts)
Static chamber
Pitot heater switch
Figure 5-1. A typical electrically heated pitot-static head.
Figure 3-1. A typical electrically heated poitot-static head.
5-2
integrated into the electrically heated pitot tube. [Figure 5-1]
These ports are in locations proven by flight tests to be in
undisturbed air, and they may be paired, one on either side of
the aircraft. This dual location prevents lateral movement of
the aircraft from giving erroneous static pressure indications.
The areas around the static ports may be heated with electric
heater elements to prevent ice forming over the port and
blocking the entry of the static air.
Three basic pressure-operated instruments are found in
aircraft instrument panels flown under IFR. These are the
ASI, sensitive altimeter, and vertical speed indicator (VSI).
All three instruments receive static air pressure for operation
with only the ASI receiving both pitot and static pressure.
[Figure 5-2]
Blockage of the Pitot-Static System
Errors in the ASI and VSI almost always indicate a blockage
of the pitot tube, the static port(s), or both. Moisture
(including ice), dirt, or even insects can cause a blockage in
both systems. During preflight, it is very important to make
sure the pitot tube cover is removed and that static port
openings are checked for blockage and damage.
Blocked Pitot System
If the pitot tube drain hole becomes obstructed, the pitot
system can become partially or completely blocked. When
dynamic pressure cannot enter the pitot tube opening, the ASI
no longer operates. If the drain hole is open, static pressure
equalizes on both sides of the diaphram in the ASI and the
29.8
29.9
30.0
Static port
Alternate static source

29.8
29.9
30.0
Figure 5-2. A typical3-2.
pitot-static
Figure A typicalsystem.
pitot-static system.
indicated airspeed slowly drops to zero. If the pitot tube ram
pressure hole and drain hole become obstructed, the ASI
operates like an altimeter as the aircraft climbs and descends.
Refer to the Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
(FAA-H-8083-25A) for more in depth information on
blocked pitot systems along with different scenarios and
how they effect the ASI.
Blocked Static System
When a static system becomes blocked but the pitot tube
remains clear the ASI continues to operate but is inaccurate.
When the aircraft is operated above the altitude where the
static ports became blocked the airspeed indicates lower
than the actual airspeed because the trapped static pressure
is higher than normal for that altitude. The opposite holds
true for operations at lower altitudes; a faster than actual
airspeed is displayed due to the relatively low static pressure
trapped in the system.
A blockage of the static system can also affect the altimeter
and VSI. Trapped static pressure causes the altimeter to
freeze at the altitude where the blockage occurred. In the case
of the VSI, a blocked static system produces a continuous
zero indication.
An alternate static source is provided in some aircraft to
provide static pressure should the primary static source
become blocked. The alternate static source is normally found
inside of the flight deck. Due to the venturi effect of the air
flowing around the fuselage, the air pressure inside the flight
deck is lower than the exterior pressure.
When the alternate static source pressure is used, the
following instrument indications are observed:
1. The altimeter indicates a slightly higher altitude than
actual.
2. The ASI indicates an airspeed greater than the actual
airspeed.
3. The VSI shows a momentary climb and then stabilizes
if the altitude is held constant.
For more information on static system blockages and how to
best react to such situations, refer to the Pilots Handbook of
Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25A).
Effects of Flight Conditions
The static ports are located in a position where the air at
their surface is as undisturbed as possible. But under some
flight conditions, particularly at a high angle of attack with
the landing gear and flaps down, the air around the static
port may be disturbed to the extent that it can cause an error
in the indication of the altimeter and ASI. Because of the
importance of accuracy in these instruments, part of the
certification tests for an aircraft is a check of position error
in the static system.
The Pilots Operating Handbook (POH)/Aircraft Flight
Manual (AFM) contains any corrections that must be applied
to the airspeed for the various configurations of flaps and
landing gear.
Pitot/Static Instruments
Sensitive Altimeter
A sensitive altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures
the absolute pressure of the ambient air and displays it in
terms of feet or meters above a selected pressure level.
Principle of Operation
The sensitive element in a sensitive altimeter is a stack of
evacuated, corrugated bronze aneroid capsules. [Figure 5-3]
The air pressure acting on these aneroids tries to compress
them against their natural springiness, which tries to expand
them. The result is that their thickness changes as the air
pressure changes. Stacking several aneroids increases the
dimension change as the pressure varies over the usable
range of the instrument.
Below 10,000 feet, a striped segment is visible. Above this
altitude, a mask begins to cover it, and above 15,000 feet,
all of the stripes are covered. [Figure 5-4]
Another configuration of the altimeter is the drum-type.
[Figure 5-5] These instruments have only one pointer that
5-3
 1,000 ft. pointer

100 ft. pointer

Aneroid 10,000 ft. pointer

Altimeter setting window

Altitude indication scale

Static port
Barometric scale adjustment knob Crosshatch flag
A crosshatched area appears on some
altimeters when displaying an altitude
below 10,000 feet MSL.

Figure 5-3. Sensitive altimeter components.

Figure 3-3. Sensitive altimeter componements.
marked in thousands of feet, is geared to the mechanism that
drives the pointer. To read this type of altimeter, first look at
I0 0 FEET the drum to get the thousands of feet, and then at the pointer

9 0
to get the feet and hundreds of feet.
I
8 ALT 2
29.8
A sensitive altimeter is one with an adjustable barometric scale
CALIBRATED
TO
29.9 allowing the pilot to set the reference pressure from which the
20,000 FEET
30.0
altitude is measured. This scale is visible in a small window
7 3 called the Kollsman window. A knob on the instrument adjusts
6
5 4
the scale. The range of the scale is from 28.00 to 31.00 inches
of mercury ("Hg), or 948 to 1,050 millibars.

Figure 5-4. Three-pointer
Figure 3-4.altimeter.
Three-pointer altimeter.
9 0
8 0 6, 5 0 0
Rotating the knob changes both the barometric scale and the
altimeter pointers in such a way that a change in the barometric
scale of 1 "Hg changes the pointer indication by 1,000 feet.
This is the standard pressure lapse rate below 5,000 feet.
When the barometric scale is adjusted to 29.92 "Hg or 1,013.2
millibars, the pointers indicate the pressure altitude. The pilot
I
displays indicate altitude by adjusting the barometric scale
to the local altimeter setting. The altimeter then indicates the
2 height above the existing sea level pressure.

ALT Altimeter Errors

7 MB INHG
2 992
3 A sensitive altimeter is designed to indicate standard changes
from standard conditions, but most flying involves errors
6 4 caused by nonstandard conditions and the pilot must be able
5 to modify the indications to correct for these errors. There
are two types of errors: mechanical and inherent.

Figure 5-5. Drum-type altimeter. Mechanical Altimeter Errors

Figure 3-5. Drum-type altimeter.
makes one revolution for every 1,000 feet. Each number A preflight check to determine the condition of an altimeter
represents 100 feet and each mark represents 20 feet. A drum, consists of setting the barometric scale to the local altimeter

5-4
setting. The altimeter should indicate the surveyed elevation
of the airport. If the indication is off by more than 75 feet from
the surveyed elevation, the instrument should be referred
to a certificated instrument repair station for recalibration.
Differences between ambient temperature and/or pressure
causes an erroneous indication on the altimeter.
Inherent Altimeter Error
When the aircraft is flying in air that is warmer than standard,
the air is less dense and the pressure levels are farther apart.
When the aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude of 5,000
feet, the pressure level for that altitude is higher than it would
be in air at standard temperature, and the aircraft is higher
than it would be if the air were cooler. If the air is colder
than standard, it is denser and the pressure levels are closer
together. When the aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude
of 5,000 feet, its true altitude is lower than it would be if the
air were warmer. [Figure 5-6]
Cold Weather Altimeter Errors
A correctly calibrated pressure altimeter indicates true
altitude above mean sea level (MSL) when operating within
the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) parameters of
pressure and temperature. Nonstandard pressure conditions are
corrected by applying the correct local area altimeter setting.
Temperature errors from ISA result in true altitude being
higher than indicated altitude whenever the temperature is
warmer than ISA and true altitude being lower than indicated
altitude whenever the temperature is colder than ISA.
True altitude variance under conditions of colder than ISA
temperatures poses the risk of inadequate obstacle clearance.
Under extremely cold conditions, pilots may need to add an
appropriate temperature correction determined from the chart
in Figure 5-7 to charted IFR altitudes to ensure terrain and
obstacle clearance with the following restrictions:
Altitudes specifically assigned by Air Traffic Control
(ATC), such as maintain 5,000 feet shall not be
corrected. Assigned altitudes may be rejected if the
pilot decides that low temperatures pose a risk of
inadequate terrain or obstacle clearance.
If temperature corrections are applied to charted
IFR altitudes (such as procedure turn altitudes, final
approach fix crossing altitudes, etc.), the pilot must
advise ATC of the applied correction.
ICAO Cold Temperature Error Table
The cold temperature induced altimeter error may be
significant when considering obstacle clearances when
temperatures are well below standard. Pilots may wish to
increase their minimum terrain clearance altitudes with a
corresponding increase in ceiling from the normal minimum
when flying in extreme cold temperature conditions. Higher
altitudes may need to be selected when flying at low terrain
clearances. Most flight management systems (FMS) with
air data computers implement a capability to compensate
for cold temperature errors. Pilots flying with these systems
should ensure they are aware of the conditions under which
the system automatically compensates. If compensation is
applied by the FMS or manually, ATC must be informed
that the aircraft is not flying the assigned altitude. Otherwise,
vertical separation from other aircraft may be reduced creating
a potentially hazardous situation. The table in Figure 5-7,
derived from International Civil Aviation Organization

5,00
0 foo
t pre
ssur
e lev
el

4,000
foot p
ressu
re lev
el

3,000 fo
ot pres
sure le
vel

2,000 foot
pressure le
vel

1,000 foot pressure

level

Sea level
30C 15C 0C

Figure 5-6. The loss of altitude experienced

Figurewhen
3-6. flying
Effectsinto an area where
of nonstandard the air is colder
temperature on an (more dense) than standard.
altimeter.

5-5
 Height Above Airport in Feet
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,500 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
+10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 40 60 80 90
Reported Temp C

0 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 90 120 170 230 280

-10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 290 390 490
-20 30 50 60 70 90 100 120 130 140 210 280 420 570 710
-30 40 60 80 100 120 130 150 170 190 280 380 570 760 950
-40 50 80 100 120 150 170 190 220 240 360 480 720 970 1,210
-50 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 450 590 890 1,190 1,500

Figure 5-7. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) cold temperature error table.
Figure 3-7. ICAO Cold Temperature Error.
(ICAO) standard formulas, shows how much error can exist altitude of 1,800 feet minus the airport elevation of 500 feet
when the temperature is extremely cold. To use the table, find equals 1,300 feet. The altitude difference of 1,300 feet falls
the reported temperature in the left column, and then read between the correction chart elevations of 1,000 feet and 1,500
across the top row to the height above the airport/reporting feet. At the station temperature of 50 C, the correction falls
station. Subtract the airport elevation from the altitude of the between 300 feet and 450 feet. Dividing the difference in
final approach fix (FAF). The intersection of the column and compensation values by the difference in altitude above the
row is the amount of possible error. airport gives the error value per foot.

Example: The reported temperature is 10 degrees Celsius
(C) and the FAF is 500 feet above the airport elevation. The
reported current altimeter setting may place the aircraft as
much as 50 feet below the altitude indicated by the altimeter.
When using the cold temperature error table, the altitude
error is proportional to both the height above the reporting
station elevation and the temperature at the reporting
station. For IFR approach procedures, the reporting station
elevation is assumed to be airport elevation. It is important
to understand that corrections are based upon the temperature
at the reporting station, not the temperature observed at the
aircrafts current altitude and height above the reporting
station and not the charted IFR altitude.
To see how corrections are applied, note the following example:
Airport Elevation 496 feet
Airport Temperature 50 C
In this case, 150 feet divided by 500 feet = 0.33 feet for each
additional foot of altitude above 1,000 feet. This provides a
correction of 300 feet for the first 1,000 feet and an additional
value of 0.33 times 300 feet, or 99 feet, which is rounded to
100 feet. 300 feet + 100 feet = total temperature correction
of 400 feet. For the given conditions, correcting the charted
value of 1,800 feet above MSL (equal to a height above the
reporting station of 1,300 feet) requires the addition of 400
feet. Thus, when flying at an indicated altitude of 2,200 feet,
the aircraft is actually flying a true altitude of 1,800 feet.
Minimum Procedure Turn Altitude
1,800 feet charted = 2,200 feet corrected
Minimum FAF Crossing Altitude
1,200 feet charted = 1,500 feet corrected
Straight-in MDA
800 feet charted = 900 feet corrected
Circling MDA
1,000 feet charted = 1,200 feet corrected

A charted IFR approach to the airport provides the following
data:
Minimum Procedure Turn Altitude 1,800 feet
Minimum FAF Crossing Altitude 1,200 feet
Straight-in Minimum Descent Altitude 800 feet
Circling Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) 1,000 feet
The Minimum Procedure Turn Altitude of 1,800 feet is used
as an example to demonstrate determination of the appropriate
temperature correction. Typically, altitude values are rounded
up to the nearest 100-foot level. The charted procedure turn
Nonstandard Pressure on an Altimeter
Maintaining a current altimeter setting is critical because the
atmosphere pressure is not constant. That is, in one location
the pressure might be higher than the pressure just a short
distance away. Take an aircraft whose altimeter setting is set
to 29.92" of local pressure. As the aircraft moves to an area
of lower pressure (Point A to B in Figure 5-8) and the pilot
fails to readjust the altimeter setting (essentially calibrating
it to local pressure), then as the pressure decreases, the true
altitude is lower. Adjusting the altimeter settings compensates
for this. When the altimeter shows an indicated altitude of
5,000 feet, the true altitude at Point A (the height above

5-6
mean sea level) is only 3,500 feet at Point B. The fact that altitudes. 14 CFR part 91 requires the altitude transmitted by
the altitude indication is not always true lends itself to the the transponder to be within 125 feet of the altitude indicated
memory aid, When flying from hot to cold or from a high on the instrument used to maintain flight altitude.
to a low, look out below. [Figure 5-8]
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)
Below 31,000 feet, a 1,000 foot separation is the minimum
required between usable flight levels. Flight levels (FLs)
24.9
0 "H generally start at 18,000 feet where the local pressure is
g 5,0
00 fe
et
29.92 "Hg or greater. All aircraft 18,000 feet and above use
a standard altimeter setting of 29.92 "Hg, and the altitudes
25.8
4 "H
g 4,0 are in reference to a standard hence termed FL. Between FL
00 fe
et 180 and FL 290, the minimum altitude separation is 1,000
26.8
feet between aircraft. However, for flight above FL 290
2 "H
g 3,0
00 fe
(primarily due to aircraft equipage and reporting capability;
et potential error) ATC applied the requirement of 2,000 feet of
27.8
2 "H
separation. FL 290, an altitude appropriate for an eastbound
g 2,0 aircraft, would be followed by FL 310 for a westbound
00 fe
et
aircraft, and so on to FL 410, or seven FLs available for flight.
28.8 With 1,000-foot separation, or a reduction of the vertical
6 "H
g 1,0
00 fe separation between FL 290 and FL410, an additional six
et
28.2
FLs become available. This results in normal flight level and
29.8 28.3
29.9 29.9
2 "H 28.4 direction management being maintained from FL 180 through
30.0 g 28.5 FL 410. Hence the name is Reduced Vertical Separation
Minimum (RVSM). Because it is applied domestically, it is
Figure 5-8. Effects of nonstandard pressure on an altimeter of an
called United States Domestic Reduced Vertical Separation
Figure
aircraft 3-9.into
flown Effects oflower
air of nonstandard pressurepressure
than standard on an altimeter.
(air is less
Minimum (DRVSM).
dense).
However, there is a cost to participate in the DRVSM program
Altimeter Enhancements (Encoding) which relates to both aircraft equipage and pilot training. For
It is not sufficient in the airspace system for only the pilot example, altimetry error must be reduced significantly and
to have an indication of the aircrafts altitude; the air traffic operators using RVSM must receive authorization from the
controller on the ground must also know the altitude of the appropriate civil aviation authority. RVSM aircraft must meet
aircraft. To provide this information, the aircraft is typically required altitude-keeping performance standards. Additionally,
equipped with an encoding altimeter. operators must operate in accordance with RVSM policies/
procedures applicable to the airspace where they are flying.
When the ATC transponder is set to Mode C, the encoding
altimeter supplies the transponder with a series of pulses The aircraft must be equipped with at least one automatic
identifying the flight level (in increments of 100 feet) at altitude control
which the aircraft is flying. This series of pulses is transmitted
Within a tolerance band of 65 feet about an acquired
to the ground radar where they appear on the controllers
altitude when the aircraft is operated in straight-and-
scope as an alphanumeric display around the return for the
level flight.
aircraft. The transponder allows the ground controller to
identify the aircraft and determine the pressure altitude at Within a tolerance band of 130 feet under no
which it is flying. turbulent, conditions for aircraft for which application
for type certification occurred on or before April 9,
A computer inside the encoding altimeter measures the 1997 that are equipped with an automatic altitude
pressure referenced from 29.92 "Hg and delivers this data to control system with flight management/performance
the transponder. When the pilot adjusts the barometric scale system inputs.
to the local altimeter setting, the data sent to the transponder
is not affected. This is to ensure that all Mode C aircraft are That aircraft must be equipped with an altitude alert system
transmitting data referenced to a common pressure level. ATC that signals an alert when the altitude displayed to the flight
equipment adjusts the displayed altitudes to compensate for crew deviates from the selected altitude by more than (in most
local pressure differences allowing display of targets at correct cases) 200 feet. For each condition in the full RVSM flight

5-7
envelope, the largest combined absolute value for residual
static source error plus the avionics error may not exceed 200
feet. Aircraft with TCAS must have compatibility with RVSM
Operations. Figure 5-9 illustrates the increase in aircraft
permitted between FL 180 and FL 410. Most noteworthy,
however, is the economization that aircraft can take advantage
of by the higher FLs being available to more aircraft.

FL Without RVSM With RVSM

410

400

390

380
Figure 5-10. Rate of climb or descent in thousands of feet per minute.
370
the aneroid, and the pointer returns to its horizontal, or
360 zero, position. When the aircraft descends, the static
pressure increases. The aneroid expands, moving the pointer
350
downward, indicating a descent.
340
The pointer indication in a VSI lags a few seconds behind the
330
actual change in pressure. However, it is more sensitive than
320 an altimeter and is useful in alerting the pilot of an upward or
downward trend, thereby helping maintain a constant altitude.
310

300
290
7 Usable Flight Levels 13 Usable Flight Levels
Figure 5-9. Increase in aircraft permitted between FL 180 and FL 410.
Figure 3-9. Increase aircraft permitted between FL180 to FL410.
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
The VSI in Figure 5-10 is also called a vertical velocity
indicator (VVI), and was formerly known as a rate-of-climb
indicator. It is a rate-of-pressure change instrument that gives
an indication of any deviation from a constant pressure level.
Inside the instrument case is an aneroid very much like the one
in an ASI. Both the inside of this aneroid and the inside of the
instrument case are vented to the static system, but the case
is vented through a calibrated orifice that causes the pressure
inside the case to change more slowly than the pressure inside
the aneroid. As the aircraft ascends, the static pressure becomes
lower. The pressure inside the case compresses the aneroid,
moving the pointer upward, showing a climb and indicating
the rate of ascent in number of feet per minute (fpm).
When the aircraft levels off, the pressure no longer changes.
The pressure inside the case becomes equal to that inside
Some of the more complex VSIs, called instantaneous vertical
speed indicators (IVSI), have two accelerometer-actuated air
pumps that sense an upward or downward pitch of the aircraft
and instantaneously create a pressure differential. By the time
the pressure caused by the pitch acceleration dissipates, the
altitude pressure change is effective.
Dynamic Pressure Type Instruments
Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
An ASI is a differential pressure gauge that measures the
dynamic pressure of the air through which the aircraft is
flying. Dynamic pressure is the difference in the ambient
static air pressure and the total, or ram, pressure caused by
the motion of the aircraft through the air. These two pressures
are taken from the pitot-static system.
The mechanism of the ASI in Figure 5-11 consists of a thin,
corrugated phosphor bronze aneroid, or diaphragm, that
receives its pressure from the pitot tube. The instrument
case is sealed and connected to the static ports. As the
pitot pressure increases or the static pressure decreases, the
diaphragm expands. This dimensional change is measured by
a rocking shaft and a set of gears that drives a pointer across
the instrument dial. Most ASIs are calibrated in knots, or
nautical miles per hour; some instruments show statute miles
per hour, and some instruments show both.

5-8
 Sector

Long lever

Pitot connection

50

100

150
Ram air Pitot tube

200

Static air line

Handstaff pinion
Diaphragm

Figure 5-11. Mechanism of an ASI.

Figure 3-11. Mechanism of an airspeed indicator.
Types of Airspeed Some aircraft are equipped with true ASIs that have a
Just as there are several types of altitude, there are multiple temperature-compensated aneroid bellows inside the
types of airspeed: indicated airspeed (IAS), calibrated instrument case. This bellows modifies the movement of
airspeed (CAS), equivalent airspeed (EAS), and true airspeed the rocking shaft inside the instrument case so the pointer
(TAS). shows the actual TAS.

Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
IAS is shown on the dial of the instrument, uncorrected for
instrument or system errors.
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)
CAS is the speed at which the aircraft is moving through
the air, which is found by correcting IAS for instrument
and position errors. The POH/AFM has a chart or graph to
correct IAS for these errors and provide the correct CAS for
the various flap and landing gear configurations.
The TAS indicator provides both true and IAS. These
instruments have the conventional airspeed mechanism,
with an added subdial visible through cutouts in the regular
dial. A knob on the instrument allows the pilot to rotate the
subdial and align an indication of the outside air temperature
with the pressure altitude being flown. This alignment causes
the instrument pointer to indicate the TAS on the subdial.
[Figure 5-12]
2 4 6

Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) 30 + 0 - 30

40
I80 TEMP
EAS is CAS corrected for compression of the air inside the 40 60
pitot tube. EAS is the same as CAS in standard atmosphere I60 I40
AIRSPEED
60
at sea level. As the airspeed and pressure altitude increase, 80
TRUE SPEED
the CAS becomes higher than it should be, and a correction I20 KNOTS 80
for compression must be subtracted from the CAS.
150

I40
100
I00
I20 MPH
14
0

True Airspeed (TAS) 13

0
120
TAS is CAS corrected for nonstandard pressure and
temperature. TAS and CAS are the same in standard
atmosphere at sea level. Under nonstandard conditions, TAS
is found by applying a correction for pressure altitude and FigureFigure A trueA true
5-12. 3-12. ASI airspeed
allows the pilot allows
indicator to correct IAStofor
the pilot
temperature to the CAS. nonstandard
correcttemperature and pressure.
indicated airspeed for nonstandard temperature and
pressure.

5-9
Mach Number
As an aircraft approaches the speed of sound, the air flowing
over certain areas of its surface speeds up until it reaches
the speed of sound, and shock waves form. The IAS at 240 40
which these conditions occur changes with temperature. 220 60
Therefore, in this case, airspeed is not entirely adequate to KNOTS
warn the pilot of the impending problems. Mach number 200 80
is more useful. Mach number is the ratio of the TAS of
the aircraft to the speed of sound in the same atmospheric I80 I00
conditions. An aircraft flying at the speed of sound is flying I60 I20
I40
at Mach 1.0. Some older mechanical Machmeters not driven
from an air data computer use an altitude aneroid inside
the instrument that converts pitot-static pressure into Mach
number. These systems assume that the temperature at any
Figure
Figure 3-14.
5-14. A maximum
A maximum allowable
allowable airspeed
ASI has indicator
a movable hasthat
pointer a
altitude is standard; therefore, the indicated Mach number is
movable pointer that indicates the never-exceed speed, which
inaccurate whenever the temperature deviates from standard. indicates the never-exceed speed, which changes with altitude to
changes with altitude to avoid the onset of transonic shock waves.
These systems are called indicated Machmeters. Modern avoid the onset of transonic shock waves.
electronic Machmeters use information from an air data or striped. The maximum airspeed pointer is actuated by an
computer system to correct for temperature errors. These aneroid, or altimeter mechanism, that moves it to a lower
systems display true Mach number. value as air density decreases. By keeping the airspeed pointer
at a lower value than the maximum pointer, the pilot avoids
Most high-speed aircraft are limited to a maximum Mach the onset of transonic shock waves.
number at which they can fly. This is shown on a Machmeter
as a decimal fraction. [Figure 5-13] For example, if the
Airspeed Color Codes
Machmeter indicates .83 and the aircraft is flying at 30,000
The dial of an ASI is color coded to alert the pilot, at a
feet where the speed of sound under standard conditions is
glance, of the significance of the speed at which the aircraft
589.5 knots, the airspeed is 489.3 knots. The speed of sound
is flying. These colors and their associated airspeeds are
varies with the air temperature. If the aircraft were flying at
shown in Figure 5-15.
Mach .83 at 10,000 feet where the air is much warmer, its

airspeed would be 530 knots.
Magnetism
The Earth is a huge magnet, spinning in space, surrounded
by a magnetic field made up of invisible lines of flux. These
lines leave the surface at the magnetic North Pole and reenter
at the magnetic South Pole.

Lines of magnetic flux have two important characteristics:

any magnet that is free to rotate aligns with them, and an
electrical current is induced into any conductor that cuts
across them. Most direction indicators installed in aircraft
make use of one of these two characteristics.

The Basic Aviation Magnetic Compass

One of the oldest and simplest instruments for indicating
direction is the magnetic compass. It is also one of the basic
Figure
Figure 5-13.3-13. A Machmeter
A Machmeter showsshows the of
the ratio ratio
theof the speed
speed of to
of sound instruments required by 14 CFR part 91 for both VFR and
sound
the TAS thetoaircraft
the trueisairspeed
flying. the aircraft is flying. IFR flight.

Maximum Allowable Airspeed Magnetic Compass Overview

Some aircraft that fly at high subsonic speeds are equipped A magnet is a piece of material, usually a metal containing
with maximum allowable ASIs like the one in Figure 5-14. iron, which attracts and holds lines of magnetic flux.
This instrument looks much like a standard ASI, calibrated Regardless of size, every magnet has two poles: a north
in knots, but has an additional pointer colored red, checkered, pole and a south pole. When one magnet is placed in the

5-10
 60

80 Red radial line

I00 240 40

I20 I00
220
KNOTS
60

200 80
I80 I00
I20 Airspeed for best single-engine rate-of-climb
I40 at gross weight and Sea Level
I60
I40
I20

Blue radial line

I60 Green arc

White arc
Yellow arc

200
I80
Figure 5-15. Color codes for an ASI.
Figure 3-15. Color codes for an airspeed indicator.
field of another, the unlike poles attract each other and like
poles repel.
An aircraft magnetic compass, such as the one in Figure 5-16,
has two small magnets attached to a metal float sealed inside a
bowl of clear compass fluid similar to kerosene. A graduated
scale, called a card, is wrapped around the float and viewed
through a glass window with a lubber line across it. The card
is marked with letters representing the cardinal directions,
north, east, south, and west, and a number for each 30
between these letters. The final 0 is omitted from these
directions; for example, 3 = 30, 6 = 60, and 33 = 330.
There are long and short graduation marks between the letters
and numbers, with each long mark representing 10 and each
short mark representing 5.
Magnetic Compass Construction
The float and card assembly has a hardened steel pivot in its
center that rides inside a special, spring-loaded, hard-glass
jewel cup. The buoyancy of the float takes most of the weight
off the pivot, and the fluid damps the oscillation of the float
and card. This jewel-and-pivot type mounting allows the float
freedom to rotate and tilt up to approximately 18 angle of
bank. At steeper bank angles, the compass indications are
erratic and unpredictable.
The compass housing is entirely full of compass fluid. To
prevent damage or leakage when the fluid expands and
contracts with temperature changes, the rear of the compass
case is sealed with a flexible diaphragm, or with a metal
bellows in some compasses.

Magnetic Compass Theory of Operations

The magnets align with the Earths magnetic field and the
pilot reads the direction on the scale opposite the lubber line.
Note that in Figure 5-16, the pilot sees the compass card from
its backside. When the pilot is flying north as the compass
shows, east is to the pilots right, but on the card 33, which
represents 330 (west of north), is to the right of north. The
reason for this apparent backward graduation is that the card
remains stationary, and the compass housing and the pilot
turn around it, always viewing the card from its backside.
N-S E-W

Magnetic fields caused by aircraft electronics and wiring

can effect the accuracy of the magnetic compass. This
Figure 5-16. A Figure 3-16.
magnetic A Magnetic
compass. compass.
The vertical line is called the induced error is called compass deviation. Compensator
lubber line. assemblies mounted on the compass allow aviation

5-11
maintenance technicians (AMTs) to calibrate the compass the two poles are aligned, and there is no variation. East of
by creating magnetic fields inside of the compass housing. this line, the magnetic pole is to the west of the geographic
The compensator assembly has two shafts whose ends have pole and a correction must be applied to a compass indication
screwdriver slots accessible from the front of the compass. to get a true direction.
Each shaft rotates one or two small compensating magnets.
The end of one shaft is marked E-W, and its magnets affect Flying in the Washington, D.C. area, for example, the
the compass when the aircraft is pointed east or west. The variation is 10 west. If the pilot wants to fly a true course of
other shaft is marked N-S and its magnets affect the compass south (180), the variation must be added to this resulting in
when the aircraft is pointed north or south. a magnetic course to fly of 190. Flying in the Los Angeles,
CA area, the variation is 14 east. To fly a true course of 180
Magnetic Compass Errors there, the pilot would have to subtract the variation and fly a
The magnetic compass is the simplest instrument in the panel, magnetic course of 166. The variation error does not change
but it is subject to a number of errors that must be considered. with the heading of the aircraft; it is the same anywhere along
the isogonic line.
Variation
The Earth rotates about its geographic axis; maps and charts Deviation
are drawn using meridians of longitude that pass through the The magnets in a compass align with any magnetic field.
geographic poles. Directions measured from the geographic Local magnetic fields in an aircraft caused by electrical
poles are called true directions. The north magnetic pole to current flowing in the structure, in nearby wiring or any
which the magnetic compass points is not collocated with magnetized part of the structure, conflict with the Earths
the geographic north pole, but is some 1,300 miles away; magnetic field and cause a compass error called deviation.
directions measured from the magnetic poles are called
magnetic directions. In aerial navigation, the difference Deviation, unlike variation, is different on each heading, but
between true and magnetic directions is called variation. This it is not affected by the geographic location. Variation error
same angular difference in surveying and land navigation is cannot be reduced or changed, but deviation error can be
called declination. minimized when a pilot or AMT performs the maintenance
task known as swinging the compass.
Figure 5-17 shows the isogonic lines that identify the number
of degrees of variation in their area. The line that passes near Some airports have a compass rose, which is a series of lines
Chicago is called the agonic line. Anywhere along this line marked out on a taxiway or ramp at some location where there

180W 165W 150W 135W 120W 105W 90W 75W 60W 45W 30W 15W 0 15E 30E 45E 60E 75E 90E 105E 120E 135E 150E 165E 180W
70N -40 70N
-10
-10

10

0 20
-3
10
0

60N 60N
-10
0
-2

20

45N 45N
0

30N 30N
0

10
15N 15N
0
-1
0
-10

-20
0 10 0

-10
0

15S -20 15S

10

-30
20
30S 30S
20

Main field declination (D)

30 30
45S Contour interval: 2 degrees 45S
0
red contours positive (east) -6
10

40 40
blue negative (west)
20

0
-7
50
pink (agonic) zero line. 50
60N 0 -90 60 60N
Mercator Projection. -8 -100 70
100 9
60 Position of dip poles 80
30

20 0
70 10 13
-1

-1 -1 0 11
-30

-50
-20

-40

80 0
70N 70N
180W 165W 150W 135W 120W 105W 90W 75W 60W 45W 30W 15W 0 15E 30E 45E 60E 75E 90E 105E 120E 135E 150E 165E 180W

Figure 5-17. Isogonic lines are lines of equal variation.

5-12
 is no magnetic interference. Lines, oriented to magnetic north, Step 2: Determine the Compass Course
are painted every 30, as shown in Figure 5-18. Magnetic Course (190, from step 1) Deviation (2, from
correction card) = Compass Course (188)
True north
NOTE: Intermediate magnetic courses between those listed
330 N on the compass card need to be interpreted. Therefore, to
300 030 steer a true course of 180, the pilot would follow a compass
course of 188.
W 060

To find true course when the compass course is known, remove

240 E
the variation and deviation corrections previously applied:
210 120
Compass Course Deviation = Magnetic Course Variation
S 150
= True Course

Northerly Turning Errors

The center of gravity of the float assembly is located lower
FigureFigure
3-18. 5-18.
A Compass rose upon
Utilization which deviation
of a compass error
rose aids is compensated
compensation for for.
than the pivotal point. As the airplane turns, the force that
deviation errors. results from the magnetic dip causes the float assembly to
swing in the same direction that the float turns. The result
The pilot or AMT aligns the aircraft on each magnetic is a false northerly turn indication. Because of this lead of
heading and adjusts the compensating magnets to minimize the compass card, or float assembly, a northerly turn should
the difference between the compass indication and the actual be stopped prior to arrival at the desired heading. This
magnetic heading of the aircraft. Any error that cannot be compass error is amplified with the proximity to either pole.
removed is recorded on a compass correction card, like the One rule of thumb to correct for this leading error is to stop
one in Figure 5-19, and placed in a cardholder near the the turn 15 plus half of the latitude (i.e., if the airplane is
compass. If the pilot wants to fly a magnetic heading of being operated in a position around the 40 of latitude, the
120 and the aircraft is operating with the radios on, the pilot turn should be stopped 15 + 20 = 35 prior to the desired
should fly a compass heading of 123. heading). [Figure 5-20A]

Southerly Turning Errors

When turning in a southerly direction, the forces are such that
the compass float assembly lags rather than leads. The result
is a false southerly turn indication. The compass card, or float
assembly, should be allowed to pass the desired heading prior
to stopping the turn. As with the northerly error, this error is
amplified with the proximity to either pole. To correct this
lagging error, the aircraft should be allowed to pass the desired
Figure 5-19.
Figure A compass
3-19. A compasscorrection cardshows
correction card showsthe
the deviation
deviation
correction heading prior to stopping the turn. The same rule of 15 plus
correction forfor
anyany heading.
heading.
half of the latitude applies here (i.e., if the airplane is being
operated in a position around the 30 of latitude, the turn
The corrections for variation and deviation must be applied should be stopped 15 + 15 + 30 after passing the desired
in the correct sequence as shown below starting from the heading). [Figure 5-20B]
true course desired.
Acceleration Error
Step 1: Determine the Magnetic Course
The magnetic dip and the forces of inertia cause magnetic
True Course (180) Variation (+10) = Magnetic Course (190)
compass errors when accelerating and decelerating on Easterly
and westerly headings. Because of the pendulous-type
The Magnetic Course (190) is steered if there is no deviation
mounting, the aft end of the compass card is tilted upward
error to be applied. The compass card must now be considered
when accelerating, and downward when decelerating during
for the compass course of 190.

5-13
 A Left turn No error Right turn
DIP DIP
DIP

30 3
33 3 N 33 30 N
3 N 33 30

ct
D fe ip
R ef CA

D
CA p e ff
Di ec RD
t

B
Left turn No error Right turn

DIP DIP DIP

12 21
15 21 S 15 12 S
21 S
ct

fe C

Di
RD ef AR 15
CA

p
p ffe 12
Di D

e
ct

Figure 5-20. Northerly turning error.

changes of airspeed. When accelerating on either an easterly Oscillation Error

or westerly heading , the error appears as a turn indication
toward north. When decelerating on either of these headings,
the compass indicates a turn toward south. The word "ANDS"
(Acceleration-North/Deceleration-South) may help you to
remember the acceleration error. [Figure 5-21]
Oscillation is a combination of all of the other errors, and it
results in the compass card swinging back and forth around
the heading being flown. When setting the gyroscopic
heading indicator to agree with the magnetic compass, use
the average indication between the swings.

th
Sou

NOR
TH

N 3
33
6
30

GS
W

E
12
24

NAV
15
OBS
21 S

View is from the pilots

perspective, and the
movable card is reset
after each turn

Figure 5-21. The effects of acceleration error.

Figure 3-21. The effects of acceleration error.

5-14
The Vertical Card Magnetic Compass
The floating magnet type of compass not only has all the
errors just described, but also lends itself to confused reading.
It is easy to begin a turn in the wrong direction because its card
appears backward. East is on what the pilot would expect to be
the west side. The vertical card magnetic compass eliminates
some of the errors and confusion. The dial of this compass
is graduated with letters representing the cardinal directions,
numbers every 30, and marks every 5. The dial is rotated by
a set of gears from the shaft-mounted magnet, and the nose
of the symbolic airplane on the instrument glass represents
the lubber line for reading the heading of the aircraft from
the dial. Eddy currents induced into an aluminum-damping
cup damp oscillation of the magnet. [Figure 5-22]

N 3
33
W 30

6
E 12

Figure 5-23. The soft iron frame of the flux valve accepts the flux from
Figuremagnetic
3-23. Thefieldsoft each
iron frame of the flux valve accepts thecoil
24

the Earths time the current in the center

15 flux from the Earths magnetic field each time the current in the
S 21 reverses. This
center coilflux causes
reverse. Thiscurrent to flow
flux causes in the
current tothree
flow inpickup coils.
the three
picked coils.
such a way that the current flowing in them changes as the
heading of the aircraft changes. [Figure 5-24]

Figure 3-22. A vertical card magnetic compass.

Figure 5-22. Vertical card magnetic compass.

The Flux Gate Compass System

As mentioned earlier, the lines of flux in the Earths magnetic
field have two basic characteristics: a magnet aligns with
these lines, and an electrical current is induced, or generated,
in any wire crossed by them.

The flux gate compass that drives slaved gyros uses the
characteristic of current induction. The flux valve is a small,
segmented ring, like the one in Figure 5-23, made of soft iron
that readily accepts lines of magnetic flux. An electrical coil
is wound around each of the three legs to accept the current
induced in this ring by the Earths magnetic field. A coil
wound around the iron spacer in the center of the frame has
400-Hz alternating current (A.C.) flowing through it. During
the times when this current reaches its peak, twice during each
cycle, there is so much magnetism produced by this coil that
the frame cannot accept the lines of flux from the Earths field.
But as the current reverses between the peaks, it demagnetizes
the frame so it can accept the flux from the Earths field. As
this flux cuts across the windings in the three coils, it causes
current to flow in them. These three coils are connected in
Figure 5-24. The current in each of the three pickup coils changes
Figure
with the 3-24.ofThe
heading thecurrent in each of the three pickup coils
aircraft.
changes with the heading of the aircraft.
The three coils are connected to three similar but smaller coils
in a synchro inside the instrument case. The synchro rotates
the dial of a radio magnetic indicator (RMI) or a horizontal
situation indicator (HSI).
Remote Indicating Compass
Remote indicating compasses were developed to compensate
for the errors and limitations of the older type of heading
indicators. The two panel-mounted components of a typical

5-15
system are the pictorial navigation indicator and the slaving
control and compensator unit. [Figure 5-25] The pictorial
navigation indicator is commonly referred to as an HSI.
Pictorial navigation indicator (HSI)
2I
I5
I2
There are a number of designs of the remote indicating
compass; therefore, only the basic features of the system are
covered here. Instrument pilots must become familiar with
the characteristics of the equipment in their aircraft.
As instrument panels become more crowded and the pilots
available scan time is reduced by a heavier flight deck
workload, instrument manufacturers have worked toward
combining instruments. One good example of this is the
RMI in Figure 5-26. The compass card is driven by signals

24
from the flux valve, and the two pointers are driven by an
automatic direction finder (ADF) and a very high frequency
omnidirectional range (VOR).
6

30

3 33

S
I5 2I

I2

24
E

W
6
Slaving meter

30
Slaving control compensator unit
3 33
Figure 5-25. The pictorial navigation indicator is commonly N
referred to as an HSI.

The slaving control and compensator unit has a pushbutton

that provides a means of selecting either the slaved gyro Figure 5-26. Driven by signals from a flux valve, the compass card
or free gyro mode. This unit also has a slaving meter in this RMI indicates the heading of the aircraft opposite the upper
and two manual heading-drive buttons. The slaving meter center index mark. The green pointer is driven by the ADF. The
indicates the difference between the displayed heading yellow pointer is driven by the VOR receiver.
and the magnetic heading. A right deflection indicates a
clockwise error of the compass card; a left deflection indicates Gyroscopic Systems
a counterclockwise error. Whenever the aircraft is in a turn
Flight without reference to a visible horizon can be safely
and the card rotates, the slaving meter shows a full deflection
accomplished by the use of gyroscopic instrument systems
to one side or the other. When the system is in free gyro
and the two characteristics of gyroscopes, which are rigidity
mode, the compass card may be adjusted by depressing the
and precession. These systems include attitude, heading,
appropriate heading-drive button.
and rate instruments, along with their power sources. These
instruments include a gyroscope (or gyro) that is a small wheel
A separate unit, the magnetic slaving transmitter is mounted
with its weight concentrated around its periphery. When this
remotely; usually in a wingtip to eliminate the possibility of
wheel is spun at high speed, it becomes rigid and resists tilting
magnetic interference. It contains the flux valve, which is
or turning in any direction other than around its spin axis.
the direction-sensing device of the system. A concentration
of lines of magnetic force, after being amplified, becomes
Attitude and heading instruments operate on the principle
a signal relayed to the heading indicator unit, which is also
of rigidity. For these instruments, the gyro remains rigid
remotely mounted. This signal operates a torque motor in
in its case and the aircraft rotates about it. Rate indicators,
the heading indicator unit that processes the gyro unit until
such as turn indicators and turn coordinators, operate on the
it is aligned with the transmitter signal. The magnetic slaving
principle of precession. In this case, the gyro precesses (or
transmitter is connected electrically to the HSI.
rolls over) proportionate to the rate the aircraft rotates about
one or more of its axes.

5-16
Power Sources
Aircraft and instrument manufacturers have designed
redundancy in the flight instruments so that any single failure
does not deprive the pilot of the ability to safely conclude
the flight. Gyroscopic instruments are crucial for instrument
flight; therefore, they are powered by separate electrical or
pneumatic sources.
Pneumatic Systems
Pneumatic gyros are driven by a jet of air impinging on
buckets cut into the periphery of the wheel. On many aircraft
this stream of air is obtained by evacuating the instrument
case with a vacuum source and allowing filtered air to flow
into the case through a nozzle to spin the wheel.
Venturi Tube Systems
Aircraft that do not have a pneumatic pump to evacuate the
instrument case can use venturi tubes mounted on the outside
of the aircraft, similar to the system shown in Figure 5-27. Air
flowing through the venturi tube speeds up in the narrowest
part and, according to Bernoullis principle, the pressure
drops. This location is connected to the instrument case by
a piece of tubing. The two attitude instruments operate on
approximately 4 "Hg of suction; the turn-and-slip indicator
needs only 2 "Hg, so a pressure-reducing needle valve is
used to decrease the suction. Air flows into the instruments
through filters built into the instrument cases. In this system,
ice can clog the venturi tube and stop the instruments when
they are most needed.
L R
2 MIN TURN
DC ELEC
- -
Figure 3-27. A venturi tube provides the low pressure inside the
Figure 5-27. A venturi
instrument tube system
case to drive that provides necessary vacuum
the gyros.
to operate key instruments.
Vacuum Pump Systems
Wet-Type Vacuum Pump
Steel-vane air pumps have been used for many years to
evacuate the instrument cases. The vanes in these pumps
are lubricated by a small amount of engine oil metered into
the pump and discharged with the air. In some aircraft the
discharge air is used to inflate rubber deicer boots on the
wing and empennage leading edges. To keep the oil from
deteriorating the rubber boots, it must be removed with an
oil separator like the one in Figure 5-28.
The vacuum pump moves a greater volume of air than is
needed to supply the instruments with the suction needed,
so a suction-relief valve is installed in the inlet side of the
pump. This spring-loaded valve draws in just enough air to
maintain the required low pressure inside the instruments,
as is shown on the suction gauge in the instrument panel.
Filtered air enters the instrument cases from a central air
filter. As long as aircraft fly at relatively low altitudes, enough
air is drawn into the instrument cases to spin the gyros at a
sufficiently high speed.
Dry Air Vacuum Pump
As flight altitudes increase, the air is less dense and more air
must be forced through the instruments. Air pumps that do not
mix oil with the discharge air are used in high flying aircraft.
Steel vanes sliding in a steel housing need to be lubricated,
but vanes made of a special formulation of carbon sliding
inside carbon housing provide their own lubrication in a
microscopic amount as they wear.
Pressure Indicating Systems
Figure 5-29 is a diagram of the instrument pneumatic system
of a twin-engine general aviation airplane. Two dry air
pumps are used with filters in their inlets to filter out any
contaminants that could damage the fragile carbon vanes in
the pump. The discharge air from the pump flows through
a regulator, where excess air is bled off to maintain the
pressure in the system at the desired level. The regulated air
then flows through inline filters to remove any contamination
that could have been picked up from the pump, and from
there into a manifold check valve. If either engine should
become inoperative or either pump should fail, the check
valve isolates the inoperative system and the instruments are
driven by air from the operating system. After the air passes
through the instruments and drives the gyros, it is exhausted
from the case. The gyro pressure gauge measures the pressure
drop across the instruments.
Electrical Systems
Many general aviation aircraft that use pneumatic attitude
indicators use electric rate indicators and/or the reverse. Some
5-17
Figure 5-28. Single-engine instrument vacuum system using a steel-vane, wet-type vacuum pump.
Figure 3-28. Single-engine instrument vacuum system using a steel-vane wet-type vacuum pump.

Figure 5-29. Twin-engine instrument pressure system using a carbon-vane, dry-type air pump.
Figure 3-29. Twin-engine instrument pressure system using a carbon-vane dry-type air pump.
5-18
instruments identify their power source on their dial, but it
is extremely important that pilots consult the POH/AFM to
determine the power source of all instruments to know what
action to take in the event of an instrument failure. Direct
current (D.C.) electrical instruments are available in 14- or
28-volt models, depending upon the electrical system in
the aircraft. A.C. is used to operate some attitude gyros and
autopilots. Aircraft with only D.C. electrical systems can use
A.C. instruments via installation of a solid-state D.C. to A.C.
inverter, which changes 14 or 28 volts D.C. into three-phase
115-volt, 400-Hz A.C.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Attitude Indicators
The first attitude instrument (AI) was originally referred to as
an artificial horizon, later as a gyro horizon; now it is more
properly called an attitude indicator. Its operating mechanism
is a small brass wheel with a vertical spin axis, spun at a high
speed by either a stream of air impinging on buckets cut into
its periphery, or by an electric motor. The gyro is mounted in
a double gimbal, which allows the aircraft to pitch and roll
about the gyro as it remains fixed in space.
A horizon disk is attached to the gimbals so it remains in
the same plane as the gyro, and the aircraft pitches and
rolls about it. On early instruments, this was just a bar that
represented the horizon, but now it is a disc with a line
representing the horizon and both pitch marks and bank-angle
lines. The top half of the instrument dial and horizon disc
is blue, representing the sky; and the bottom half is brown,
representing the ground. A bank index at the top of the
instrument shows the angle of bank marked on the banking
scale with lines that represent 10, 20, 30, 45, and 60.
[Figure 5-30]
10
20
30
45
60
2 0
I 0
I0 I0
20 20
Figure 5-30. The dial of this attitude indicator has reference lines
to Figure 3-30.
show pitch andThe dial of this attitude indicator has reference
roll.
lines to show pitch and roll.
A small symbolic aircraft is mounted in the instrument case
so it appears to be flying relative to the horizon. A knob at the
bottom center of the instrument case raises or lowers the aircraft
to compensate for pitch trim changes as the airspeed changes.
The width of the wings of the symbolic aircraft and the dot in the
center of the wings represent a pitch change of approximately 2.
For an AI to function properly, the gyro must remain
vertically upright while the aircraft rolls and pitches around
it. The bearings in these instruments have a minimum of
friction; however, even this small amount places a restraint
on the gyro producing precession and causing the gyro to tilt.
To minimize this tilting, an erection mechanism inside the
instrument case applies a force any time the gyro tilts from
its vertical position. This force acts in such a way to return
the spinning wheel to its upright position.
The older artificial horizons were limited in the amount of
pitch or roll they could tolerate, normally about 60 in pitch
and 100 in roll. After either of these limits was exceeded,
the gyro housing contacted the gimbals, applying such a
precessing force that the gyro tumbled. Because of this
limitation, these instruments had a caging mechanism that
locked the gyro in its vertical position during any maneuvers
that exceeded the instrument limits. Newer instruments do
not have these restrictive tumble limits; therefore, they do
not have a caging mechanism.
When an aircraft engine is first started and pneumatic or electric
power is supplied to the instruments, the gyro is not erect. A
self-erecting mechanism inside the instrument actuated by the
force of gravity applies a precessing force, causing the gyro to
rise to its vertical position. This erection can take as long as 5
minutes, but is normally done within 2 to 3 minutes.
Attitude indicators are free from most errors, but depending
upon the speed with which the erection system functions,
there may be a slight nose-up indication during a rapid
acceleration and a nose-down indication during a rapid
deceleration. There is also a possibility of a small bank angle
and pitch error after a 180 turn. These inherent errors are
small and correct themselves within a minute or so after
returning to straight-and-level flight.
Heading Indicators
A magnetic compass is a dependable instrument used as a
backup instrument. Although very reliable, it has so many
inherent errors that it has been supplemented with gyroscopic
heading indicators.
The gyro in a heading indicator is mounted in a double gimbal,
as in an attitude indicator, but its spin axis is horizontal
permitting sensing of rotation about the vertical axis of the
5-19
aircraft. Gyro heading indicators, with the exception of slaved
gyro indicators, are not north seeking, therefore they must
be manually set to the appropriate heading by referring to
a magnetic compass. Rigidity causes them to maintain this
heading indication, without the oscillation and other errors
inherent in a magnetic compass.
the instrument glass, which serves as the lubber line. A knob
in the front of the instrument may be pushed in and turned
to rotate the gyro and dial. The knob is spring loaded so it
disengages from the gimbals as soon as it is released. This
instrument should be checked about every 15 minutes to see
if it agrees with the magnetic compass.

Older directional gyros use a drum-like card marked in the Turn Indicators
same way as the magnetic compass card. The gyro and the Attitude and heading indicators function on the principle
card remain rigid inside the case with the pilot viewing the of rigidity, but rate instruments such as the turn-and-
card from the back. This creates the possibility the pilot might slip indicator operate on precession. Precession is the
start a turn in the wrong direction similar to using a magnetic characteristic of a gyroscope that causes an applied force to
compass. A knob on the front of the instrument, below the produce a movement, not at the point of application, but at
dial, can be pushed in to engage the gimbals. This locks the a point 90 from the point of application in the direction of
gimbals allowing the pilot to rotate the gyro and card until rotation. [Figure 5-32]
the number opposite the lubber line agrees with the magnetic
compass. When the knob is pulled out, the gyro remains rigid Pla
ne
and the aircraft is free to turn around the card. of
Ro
tat
ion ce
of For
Directional gyros are almost all air-driven by evacuating the Plane
case and allowing filtered air to flow into the case and out FOR
CE

through a nozzle, blowing against buckets cut in the periphery

P
of the wheel. The Earth constantly rotates at 15 per hour

la
n
e
o
f
while the gyro is maintaining a position relative to space, thus

P
re
ce
ss
causing an apparent drift in the displayed heading of 15 per

io
n
hour. When using these instruments, it is standard practice to
compare the heading indicated on the directional gyro with
the magnetic compass at least every 15 minutes and to reset
the heading as necessary to agree with the magnetic compass.

Heading indicators like the one in Figure 5-31 work on the

same principle as the older horizontal card indicators, except
that the gyro drives a vertical dial that looks much like the
dial of a vertical card magnetic compass. The heading of the
aircraft is shown against the nose of the symbolic aircraft on
30 33
2I 24
Figure 5-32. Precession causes a force applied to a spinning
wheel to be felt 90 from the point of application in the direction
Figure 3-32. Precession causes a force applied to a spinning
of rotation.
wheel to be felt 90 degree from the point of application in the
direction of rotation.
Turn-and-Slip Indicator
The first gyroscopic aircraft instrument was the turn indicator
in the needle and ball, or turn-and-bank indicator, which
has more recently been called a turn-and-slip indicator.

[Figure 5-33]
3

The inclinometer in the instrument is a black glass ball sealed

inside a curved glass tube that is partially filled with a liquid
6

for damping. This ball measures the relative strength of the

I2 I5 force of gravity and the force of inertia caused by a turn.
When the aircraft is flying straight-and-level, there is no
inertia acting on the ball, and it remains in the center of the
tube between two wires. In a turn made with a bank angle
that is too steep, the force of gravity is greater than the inertia
Figure The heading
5-31.3-31.
Figure indicator
The heading is notis north
indicator seeking, but but
not north-seeking, must and the ball rolls down to the inside of the turn. If the turn is
be set periodically
must (about
be set to agree withevery 15 minutes)
the magnetic to agree with the
compass.
magnetic compass.

5-20
 Horizontal gyro
L R Gyro rotation
Gimbal rotation

Standard rate
turn index

2 MIN TURN
DC ELEC

Inclinometer

Figure 5-33. Figure 3-33 Turn-and

Turn-and-slip indicator. slip indicator.

made with too shallow a bank angle, the inertia is greater than
gravity and the ball rolls upward to the outside of the turn. Gimbal Gimbal rotation
Gyro rotation
The inclinometer does not indicate the amount of bank, nor
does it indicate slip; it only indicates the relationship between
the angle of bank and the rate of yaw.

The turn indicator is a small gyro spun either by air or by an Standard rate
electric motor. The gyro is mounted in a single gimbal with its turn index
spin axis parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft and the axis
of the gimbal parallel with the longitudinal axis. [Figure 5-34]
When the aircraft yaws, or rotates about its vertical axis, it
produces a force in the horizontal plane that, due to precession, Canted gyro

causes the gyro and its gimbal to rotate about the gimbals
axis. It is restrained in this rotation plane by a calibration Figure 5-34. The rate gyro in both turn-and-slip indicator and turn
spring; it rolls over just enough to cause the pointer to deflect coordinator.
until it aligns with one of the doghouse-shaped marks on the Figure 3-34. The rate gyro in a turn-and-slip indicator and turn coordinator.
A turn coordinator operates on precession, the same as the
dial, when the aircraft is making a standard rate turn. turn indicator, but its gimbals frame is angled upward about
30 from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. [Figure 5-34]
The dial of these instruments is marked 2 MIN TURN. This allows it to sense both roll and yaw. Therefore during
Some turn-and-slip indicators used in faster aircraft are a turn, the indicator first shows the rate of banking and once
marked 4 MIN TURN. In either instrument, a standard stabilized, the turn rate. Some turn coordinator gyros are
rate turn is being made whenever the needle aligns with a dual-powered and can be driven by either air or electricity.
doghouse. A standard rate turn is 3 per second. In a 2 minute
instrument, if the needle is one needle width either side of Rather than using a needle as an indicator, the gimbal moves
the center alignment mark, the turn is 3 per second and the a dial that is the rear view of a symbolic aircraft. The bezel
turn takes 2 minutes to execute a 360 turn. In a 4 minute of the instrument is marked to show wings-level flight and
instrument, the same turn takes two widths deflection of the bank angles for a standard rate turn. [Figure 5-35]
needle to achieve 3 per second.
The inclinometer, similar to the one in a turn-and-slip
Turn Coordinator indicator, is called a coordination ball, which shows the
The major limitation of the older turn-and-slip indicator is that relationship between the bank angle and the rate of yaw. The
it senses rotation only about the vertical axis of the aircraft. turn is coordinated when the ball is in the center, between the
It tells nothing of the rotation around the longitudinal axis, marks. The aircraft is skidding when the ball rolls toward the
which in normal flight occurs before the aircraft begins to turn. outside of the turn and is slipping when it moves toward the

5-21
 The function of an AHRS is the same as gyroscopic systems;
D.C.
that is, to determine which way is level and which way is
ELEC. north. By knowing the initial heading the AHRS can determine
both the attitude and magnetic heading of the aircraft.

The genesis of this system was initiated by the development

of the ring-LASAR gyroscope developed by Kearfott located
in Little Falls, New Jersey. [Figure 5-36] Their development
TURN COORDINATOR of the Ring-LASAR gyroscope in the 1960s/1970s was
in support of Department of Defense (DOD) programs to
L R include cruise missile technology. With the precision of
2 MIN. these gyroscopes, it became readily apparent that they could
NO PITCH be leveraged for multiple tasks and functions. Gyroscopic
INFORMATION
miniaturization has become so common that solid-state
gyroscopes are found in products from robotics to toys.

Figure A turn
5-35.3-35.
Figure coordinator
A turn senses
coordinator rotation
senses about
rotation both roll
about Because the AHRS system replaces separate gyroscopes,
and yaw
bothaxes.
the roll and yaw axes. such as those associated with an attitude indicator, magnetic
inside of the turn. A turn coordinator does not sense pitch. heading indicator and turn indicator these individual systems
This is indicated on some instruments by placing the words are no longer needed. As with many systems today, AHRS
NO PITCH INFORMATION on the dial. itself had matured with time. Early AHRS systems used
expensive inertial sensors and flux valves. However, today the
Flight Support Systems AHRS for aviation and general aviation in particular are small
Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) solid-state systems integrating a variety of technology such
as low cost inertial sensors, rate gyros, and magnetometers,
As aircraft displays have transitioned to new technology,
and have capability for satellite signal reception.
the sensors that feed them have also undergone significant
change. Traditional gyroscopic flight instruments have
Air Data Computer (ADC)
been replaced by Attitude and Heading Reference Systems
(AHRS) improving reliability and thereby reducing cost and An Air Data Computer (ADC) [Figure 5-37] is an aircraft
maintenance. computer that receives and processes pitot pressure, static

Figure 5-36. The Kearfott Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) on the left incorporates a Monolithic Ring Laser Gyro (MRLG)
(center), which is housed in an Inertial Sensor Assembly (ISA) on the right.

5-22
 Compass warning flag

Lubber line
Heading select bug

TO/FROM indicator

G
Course select pointer

HD
Symbolic aircraft
3 NAV warning flag
33
G
Compass card

30

NAV

6
S

Dual glideslope
pointers

24

I2
Glideslope I5
2I
deviation scale

Heading select knob

Course select knob

Figure 5-37. Air data computer (Collins).
pressure, and temperature to calculate very precise altitude,
IAS, TAS, and air temperature. The ADC outputs this
information in a digital format that can be used by a variety
of aircraft systems including an EFIS. Modern ADCs are
small solid-state units. Increasingly, aircraft systems such as
autopilots, pressurization, and FMS utilize ADC information
for normal operations.
NOTE: In most modern general aviation systems, both the
AHRS and ADC are integrated within the electronic displays
themselves thereby reducing the number of units, reducing
weight, and providing simplification for installation resulting
in reduced costs.
Analog Pictorial Displays
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
The HSI is a direction indicator that uses the output from
a flux valve to drive the dial, which acts as the compass
card. This instrument, shown in Figure 5-38, combines the
magnetic compass with navigation signals and a glideslope.
This gives the pilot an indication of the location of the aircraft
with relationship to the chosen course.
In Figure 5-38, the aircraft heading displayed on the rotating
azimuth card under the upper lubber line is North or 360.
The course-indicating arrowhead shown is set to 020; the
tail indicates the reciprocal, 200. The course deviation bar
operates with a VOR/Localizer (VOR/LOC) navigation
receiver to indicate left or right deviations from the course
selected with the course-indicating arrow, operating in the
same manner that the angular movement of a conventional
VOR/LOC needle indicates deviation from course.
The desired course is selected by rotating the course-indicating
arrow in relation to the azimuth card by means of the course
select knob. This gives the pilot a pictorial presentation: the
fixed aircraft symbol and course deviation bar display the
Course deviation bar (CDI)
Course deviation scale
Figure 5-38. Horizontal situation indicator
Figure 3-37. HSI (HSI).
aircraft relative to the selected course, as though the pilot were
above the aircraft looking down. The TO/FROM indicator is
a triangular pointer. When the indicator points to the head of
the course arrow, it shows that the course selected, if properly
intercepted and flown, takes the aircraft to the selected facility.
When the indicator points to the tail of the course arrow, it
shows that the course selected, if properly intercepted and
flown, takes the aircraft directly away from the selected facility.
The glideslope deviation pointer indicates the relation of
the aircraft to the glideslope. When the pointer is below the
center position, the aircraft is above the glideslope, and an
increased rate of descent is required. In most installations,
the azimuth card is a remote indicating compass driven by
a fluxgate; however, in few installations where a fluxgate is
not installed, or in emergency operation, the heading must
be checked against the magnetic compass occasionally and
reset with the course select knob.
Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI)
Advances in attitude instrumentation combine the gyro
horizon with other instruments such as the HSI, thereby
reducing the number of separate instruments to which the
pilot must devote attention. The attitude direction indicator
(ADI) is an example of such technological advancement.
A flight director incorporates the ADI within its system,
which is further explained below (Flight Director System).
However, an ADI need not have command cues; however,
it is normally equipped with this feature.
Flight Director System (FDS)
A Flight Director System (FDS) combines many instruments
into one display that provides an easily interpreted
understanding of the aircrafts flightpath. The computed
solution furnishes the steering commands necessary to obtain
and hold a desired path.

5-23
Major components of an FDS include an ADI, also called
a Flight Director Indicator (FDI), an HSI, a mode selector,
and a flight director computer. It should be noted that a flight
director in use does not infer the aircraft is being manipulated
by the autopilot (coupled), but is providing steering
commands that the pilot (or the autopilot, if coupled) follows.

Typical flight directors use one of two display systems for

steerage. The first is a set of command bars, one horizontal
and one vertical. The command bars in this configuration
are maintained in a centered position (much like a centered
glideslope). The second uses a miniature aircraft aligned to NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT ______DIS __._NM DTK ___T TRK 360T 134.000 118.000 COM1
NAV2 108.00 110.60 123.800 118.000 COM2
a command cue. TRAFFIC 4000
130 4300
2

A flight director displays steerage commands to the pilot on 120 4200

1
110
the ADI. As previously mentioned, the flight director receives 1
4100
20
100 4000
3900
its signals from one of various sources and provides that to the 9
90
80
3900 1

ADI for steerage commands. The mode controller provides 80 3800

270
signals through the ADI to drive the steering bars, e.g., the
2

70
TAS 100KT 4300

pilot flies the aircraft to place the delta symbol in the V of the 3600

steering bars. Command indicators tell the pilot in which TRAFFIC VOR 1
3500

direction and how much to change aircraft attitude to achieve 3400

the desired result. OAT 7C

3300
XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34
3200

3100
The computed command indications relieve the pilot of
many of the mental calculations required for instrument
flight. The yellow cue in the ADI [Figure 5-39] provides all Figure 5-39. A typical cue that a pilot would follow.
steering commands to the pilot. It is driven by a computer that Figure 3-39. A typical cue that the pilot would follow
receives information from the navigation systems, the ADC,
AHRS, and other sources of data. The computer processes this
G
HD

information, providing the pilot with a single cue to follow. 3

33
Following the cue provides the pilot with the necessary three- G
30

NAV

S
dimensional flight trajectory to maintain the desired path.
24

I2

One of the first widely used flight directors was developed 2I I5

by Sperry and was called the Sperry Three Axis Attitude

Reference System (STARS). Developed in the 1960s, it was
commonly found on both commercial and business aircraft
alike. STARS (with a modification) and successive flight
directors were integrated with the autopilots and aircraft
providing a fully integrated flight system.

The flight director/autopilot system described below is

typical of installations in many general aviation aircraft.
The components of a typical flight director include the mode
Figure 5-40. Components of a typical FDS.
controller, ADI, HSI, and annunciator panel. These units are
illustrated in Figure 5-40. automatic pitchFigure 3-40 Integrated
selection computerflight
thatsystem.
takes into account
aircraft performance and wind conditions, and operates once
The pilot may choose from among many modes including the pilot has reached the ILS glideslope. More sophisticated
the HDG (heading) mode, the VOR/LOC (localizer tracking) systems allow more flight director modes.
mode, or the AUTO Approach (APP) or G/S (automatic
capture and tracking of instrument landing system (ILS)
localizers and glidepath) mode. The auto mode has a fully

5-24
Integrated Flight Control System
The integrated flight control system integrates and merges
various systems into a system operated and controlled by one
principal component. Figure 5-41 illustrates key components
of the flight control system that was developed from the
onset as a fully integrated system comprised of the airframe,
autopilot, and FDS. This trend of complete integration, once
seen only in large commercial aircraft, is now becoming
common in general aviation.
Autopilot Systems
An autopilot is a mechanical means to control an aircraft
using electrical, hydraulic, or digital systems. Autopilots can
control three axes of the aircraft: roll, pitch, and yaw. Most
autopilots in general aviation control roll and pitch.
two of the aircrafts three axes: movement about the vertical
axis (heading change or yaw) and about the longitudinal
axis (roll). This combined information from a single sensor
is made possible by the 30 offset in the gyros axis to the
longitudinal axis.
Other systems use a combination of both position and rate-
based information to benefit from the attributes of both systems
while newer autopilots are digital. Figure 5-42 illustrates an
autopilot by Century.

Autopilots also function using different methods. The first

is position based. That is, the attitude gyro senses the degree
of difference from a position such as wings level, a change
in pitch, or a heading change.

Determining whether a design is position based and/or rate

based lies primarily within the type of sensors used. In order
for an autopilot to possess the capability of controlling an
aircrafts attitude (i.e., roll and pitch), that system must be
provided with constant information on the actual attitude
of that aircraft. This is accomplished by the use of several Figure 5-42. An Autopilot by Century.
different types of gyroscopic sensors. Some sensors are
designed to indicate the aircrafts attitude in the form of Figure 5-43 is a diagram layout of a rate-based autopilot by
position in relation to the horizon, while others indicate rate S-Tec, which permits the purchaser to add modular capability
(position change over time). form basic wing leveling to increased capability.

Rate-based systems use the turn-and-bank sensor for the

autopilot system. The autopilot uses rate information on

Figure 5-41. The S-TEC/Meggit Corporation Integrated Autopilot installed in the Cirrus.

5-25
 PWR

CH I NF ORMAT
P IT IO UP

NO N
LO HI
ALT TRIM
ST HD TRK
RDY DN

TURN COORDINATOR
2 MIN.
L R

2 0
I 0

I0 I0
20 20

Figure 3-43. S-Tec auto pilot

Figure 5-43. A diagram layout of an autopilot by S-Tec.

Flight Management Systems (FMS) The concept employed a master computer interfaced with all
of the navigation sensors on the aircraft. A common control
In the mid-1970s, visionaries in the avionics industry such
display unit (CDU) interfaced with the master computer
as Hubert Naimer of Universal, and followed by others such
would provide the pilot with a single control point for all
as Ed King, Jr., were looking to advance the technology of
navigation systems, thereby reducing the number of required
aircraft navigation. As early as 1976, Naimer had a vision
flight deck panels. Management of the various individual
of a Master Navigation System that would accept inputs
sensors would be transferred from the pilot to the new
from a variety of different types of sensors on an aircraft
computer.
and automatically provide guidance throughout all phases
of flight.
Since navigation sensors rarely agree exactly about position,
Naimer believed that blending all available sensor position
At that time aircraft navigated over relatively short distances
data through a highly sophisticated, mathematical filtering
with radio systems, principally VOR or ADF. For long-range
system would produce a more accurate aircraft position. He
flight inertial navigation systems (INS), Omega, Doppler,
called the process output the Best Computed Position.
and Loran were in common use. Short-range radio systems
By using all available sensors to keep track of position, the
usually did not provide area navigation (RNAV) capability.
system could readily provide area navigation capability.
Long-range systems were only capable of en route point-
The master computer, not the individual sensors, would
to-point navigation between manually entered waypoints
be integrated into the airplane, greatly reducing wiring
described as longitude and latitude coordinates, with typical
complexity.
systems containing a limited number of waypoints.
To solve the problems of manual waypoint entry, a pre-
The laborious process of manually entering cryptic latitude
loaded database of global navigation information would
and longitude data for each flight waypoint created high
be readily accessible by the pilot through the CDU. Using
crew workloads and frequently resulted in incorrect data
such a system a pilot could quickly and accurately construct
entry. The requirement of a separate control panel for each
a flight plan consisting of dozens of waypoints, avoiding
long-range system consumed precious flight deck space and
the tedious typing of data and the error potential of latitude/
increased the complexity of interfacing the systems with
longitude coordinates. Rather than simply navigating point-
display instruments, flight directors, and autopilots.

5-26
to-point, the master system would be able to maneuver the
aircraft, permitting use of the system for terminal procedures
including departures, arrivals, and approaches. The system
would be able to automate any aspect of manual pilot
navigation of the aircraft. When the first system, called the
UNS-1, was released by Universal in 1982, it was called a
flight management system (FMS). [Figure 5-44]
Figure 5-44. A Control Display Unit (CDU) used to control the
flight management system (FMS).
An FMS uses an electronic database of worldwide
navigational data including navigation aids, airways and
intersections, Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs),
STARs, and Instrument Approach Procedures (IAPs) together
with pilot input through a CDU to create a flight plan. The
FMS provides outputs to several aircraft systems including
desired track, bearing and distance to the active waypoint,
lateral course deviation and related data to the flight guidance
system for the HSI displays, and roll steering command for
the autopilot/flight director system. This allows outputs from
the FMS to command the airplane where to go and when and
how to turn. To support adaptation to numerous aircraft types,
an FMS is usually capable of receiving and outputting both
analog and digital data and discrete information. Currently,
electronic navigation databases are updated every 28 days.
The introduction of the Global Positioning System (GPS) has
provided extremely precise position at low cost, making GPS
the dominant FMS navigation sensor today. Currently, typical
FMS installations require that air data and heading information
be available electronically from the aircraft. This limits FMS
usage in smaller aircraft, but emerging technologies allow
this data from increasingly smaller and less costly systems.
Some systems interface with a dedicated Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME) receiver channel under the control of the
FMS to provide an additional sensor. In these systems, the
FMS determines which DME sites should be interrogated
for distance information using aircraft position and the
navigation database to locate appropriate DME sites. The
FMS then compensates aircraft altitude and station altitude
with the aid of the database to determine the precise distance
to the station. With the distances from a number of sites the
FMS can compute a position nearly as accurately as GPS.
Aimer visualized three-dimensional aircraft control with an
FMS. Modern systems provide Vertical Navigation (VNAV) as
well as Lateral Navigation (LNAV) allowing the pilot to create
a vertical flight profile synchronous with the lateral flight plan.
Unlike early systems, such as Inertial Reference Systems (IRS)
that were only suitable for en route navigation, the modern
FMS can guide an aircraft during instrument approaches.
Today, an FMS provides not only real-time navigation
capability but typically interfaces with other aircraft systems
providing fuel management, control of cabin briefing and
display systems, display of uplinked text and graphic weather
data and air/ground data link communications.
Electronic Flight Instrument Systems
Modern technology has introduced into aviation a new
method of displaying flight instruments, such as electronic
flight instrument systems, integrated flight deck displays, and
others. For the purpose of the practical test standards, any
flight instrument display that utilizes LCD or picture tube like
displays is referred to as electronic flight instrument display
and/or a glass flight deck. In general aviation there is typically
a primary flight display (PFD) and a multi-function display
(MFD). Although both displays are in many cases identical,
the PFD provides the pilot instrumentation necessary for
flight to include altitude, airspeed, vertical velocity, attitude,
heading and trim and trend information.
Glass flight decks (a term coined to describe electronic flight
instrument systems) are becoming more widespread as cost
falls and dependability continually increases. These systems
provide many advantages such as being lighter, more reliable,
no moving parts to wear out, consuming less power, and
replacing numerous mechanical indicators with a single glass
display. Because the versatility offered by glass displays is
much greater than that offered by analog displays, the use of
such systems only increases with time until analog systems
are eclipsed.
Primary Flight Display (PFD)
PFDs provide increased situational awareness (SA) to the
pilot by replacing the traditional six instruments used for
instrument flight with an easy-to-scan display that provides
the horizon, airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, trend, trim,
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rate of turn among other key relevant indications. Examples
of PFDs are illustrated in Figure 5-45.

Synthetic Vision
Synthetic vision provides a realistic depiction of the aircraft
in relation to terrain and flightpath. Systems such as those
produced by Chelton Flight Systems, Universal Flight
Systems, and others provide for depictions of terrain and
course. Figure 5-46 is an example of the Chelton Flight
System providing both 5-dimensional situational awareness
and a synthetic highway in the sky, representing the desired
flightpath. Synthetic vision is used as a PFD, but provides
guidance in a more normal, outside reference format.

Multi-Function Display (MFD)

In addition to a PFD directly in front of the pilot, an MFD
that provides the display of information in addition to primary
flight information is used within the flight deck. [Figure 5-47]
Information such as a moving map, approach charts, Terrain
Awareness Warning System, and weather depiction can all
be illustrated on the MFD. For additional redundancy both
the PFD and MFD can display all critical information that
the other normally presents thereby providing redundancy
(using a reversionary mode) not normally found in general
aviation flight decks.
Advanced Technology Systems
Automatic Dependent SurveillanceBroadcast
(ADS-B)
Although standards for Automatic Dependent Surveillance
(Broadcast) (ADS-B) are still under continuing development,
the concept is simple: aircraft broadcast a message on
a regular basis, which includes their position (such as
latitude, longitude and altitude), velocity, and possibly
other information. Other aircraft or systems can receive this
information for use in a wide variety of applications. The
Figure 5-46. The benefits of realistic visualization imagery, as
illustrated by Synthetic Vision manufactured by Chelton Flight
Systems. The system provides the pilot a realistic, real-time, three-
dimensional depiction of the aircraft and its relation to terrain
around it.
key to ADS-B is GPS, which provides three-dimensional
position of the aircraft.
As an simplified example, consider air-traffic radar. The radar
measures the range and bearing of an aircraft. The bearing is
measured by the position of the rotating radar antenna when it
receives a reply to its interrogation from the aircraft, and the
range by the time it takes for the radar to receive the reply.
An ADS-B based system, on the other hand, would listen
for position reports broadcast by the aircraft. [Figure 5-48]
These position reports are based on satellite navigation
systems. These transmissions include the transmitting
aircrafts position, which the receiving aircraft processes into

NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT ______DIS __._NM DTK ___ TRK 360 134.000 118.000 COM1
NAV2 108.00 110.60 123.800 118.000 COM2

4000
130 4300
2

120 4200
1
110 4100
1 20
100 4000
3900
9 80
90 3900 1

80 3800
270 2

70
TAS 106KT 4300
OAT 6C

3600
VOR 1
3500

3400

3300
OAT 6C XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL10:12:34
INSET PFD CDI XPDR 3200 TMR/REF NRST
IDENT ALERTS

3100

Figure 5-45. Two primary flight displays (Avidyne on the left and Garmin on the right).

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