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Well logging is a continuous record of measurement made in bore hole respond to variation
in some physical properties of rocks through which the bore hole is drilled.
Traditionally Logs are display on girded papers. Now the log may be taken as films, images,
and in digital format.
Logging Units:
Each unit will contain the following components:
• Logging cable.
• Winch to raise and lower the cable in the well.
• Self-contained 120-volt AC generator.
• Set of surface control panels.
• Set of downhole tools (sondes and cartridges).
• Digital recording system.
Uses of Logs:
A set of logs run on a well will usually mean different things to different people. As,
1) The Geologist:
The Geologist may ask:
• What depths are the formation tops?
• Is the environment suitable for accumulation of Hydrocarbons?
• Is there evidence of Hydrocarbon in this well?
• What type of Hydrocarbon?
• Are Hydrocarbons present in commercial quantities?
• What are the reserves?
• Could the formation be commercial in an offset well?
2) The Geophysicist:
As a Geophysicist what do you look for?
• Are the tops where you predicted?
• Are the potential zones porous as you have assumed from seismic data?
• What does a synthetic seismic section show?
A sequence of data for a sensor is called a log trace, and is typically drawn using a curve
that runs along the vertical direction. Often, this vertical direction is called the logging
direction. During logging operations, one never knows how long the log will be, so the length
of this axis is considered to be indefinite. This is also sometimes called the "continuous
rendering" direction.
Well log plots are graphs which display data obtained during various data acquisition and
processing operations. These graphs are meaningless unless they are plotted on some form of
scaled graph paper from which the data values may be read and interpreted. Timing lines, depth
lines, and grid line objects are used to draw this graph paper. In a typical log (see fig.2), tracks
run vertically from the bottom to the top of the plot. A standard log has a left track (Track_1),
2.5 inches wide, extending from the left edge of the paper. Next, a 0.75 inch wide depth track
is used to record vertical depths, typically every 10, 20, 50, or 100 feet/meters, depending on
log scale and coordinate system. Next come two 2.5 inch wide tracks, sometimes used
separately, and sometimes used in combination. In this case, Track_2 and Track_3 are divided
into ten equal increments.
Summing up these track widths gives a standard log width of 8.25 inches. Since vertically
oriented data is to be plotted in these tracks, horizontal depth lines are used to delineate the
depth scale: thin depth lines occurring most frequently (every 2 borehole feet); less thin depth
line occurring less frequently (every 10 borehole feet); thickest depth lines occurring least
frequently (every 50 borehole feet).
Borehole Environment:
When a hole is drilled into a formation, the rock and the fluids in it (rock-fluid system) are
altered in the vicinity of the borehole. A well’s borehole and the rock surrounding it are
contaminated by the drilling mud, which affects logging measurements.
The Caliper Log is a tool for measuring the diameter and shape of a borehole. It uses a tool
which has 2, 4, or more extendable arms. The arms can move in and out as the tool is
withdrawn from the borehole, and the movement is converted into an electrical signal by a
Potentiometer.
In the two arm tool (Fig. 9.1), the borehole
diameter is measured. This is shown in track 1 of the
master log together with the bit size for reference.
Borehole diameters larger and smaller than the bit
size are possible. Many boreholes can attain an oval
shape after drilling. This is due to the effect of the
pressures
in the crust being different in different directions as
a result of tectonic forces. In oval holes, the two arm
caliper will lock into the long axis of the oval cross
section, giving larger values of borehole diameter
than expected. In this case tools with more arms are
required.
In the 4 arm (dual caliper) tool, the two opposite
pairs work together to give the borehole diameter in
two perpendicular directions. An example of a 4 arm
tool is the Borehole Geometry Tool (BGT). This has
4 arms that can be opened to 30 inches (40 inches as
a special modification), and give two independent
perpendicular caliper readings. The tool also
calculates and integrates the volume of the borehole
and includes sensors that measure the direction
(azimuth) and dip of the borehole, which is useful in
plotting the trajectory of the borehole.
In the multi-arm tools, up to 30 arms are
arranged around the tool allowing the detailed shape
of the borehole to be measured.
Some of the other tools have sensors attached to
pads that are pressed against the borehole wall. The
pressing device is also a form of caliper, and so
caliper information can sometimes also be obtained from these tools.
Log Presentation:
The caliper logs are plotted in track 1 with the drilling bit size for comparison, or as a
differential caliper reading, where the reading represents the caliper value minus the drill bit
diameter (Fig. 9.2).
The scale is generally given in inches, which is standard for measuring bit sizes.
The 4 arm (or dual caliper) tools are presented in a range of formats, an example of which is
given in Fig. 9.3. Note that data from the caliper pairs are shown together, and that they are
different indicating an oval hole. Also the tool rotates in the hole (the pad 1 azimuth P1AZI
changes). The hole azimuth is reasonably constant at HAZI 180o, and the dip is almost vertical
(DEVI is about 0o).
Fig 9.3 Presntation of 4 arm caliper log data (After Rider, 1996)
The ticks represent borehole volume. This information is useful to estimate the amount of
drilling mud in the borehole, and to estimate the amount of cement required to case the hole.
There are engineering approximation formulas to calculate both of these from caliper data.
Simple Caliper Interpretation:
Table 9.1 describes the main influences on caliper values. Note that when a hole is the same
diameter as the bit-size it is called on gauge.
Figure 9.4: Results of a hollow cylinder lab test simulating borehole breakout.
Intersection of conjugate shear failure planes results in enlargement of the cross-sectional
shape of the wellbore. SH and Sh refer to the orientations of maximum and minimum
horizontal stress respectively. Around a vertical borehole stress concentration is greatest in the
direction of the minimum horizontal stress Sh. Hence, the long axes of borehole breakouts are
oriented approximately perpendicular to the maximum horizontal stress orientation SH.
However, unprocessed oriented four-arm caliper logs can also be used to interpret borehole
breakouts.
Figure 2: The four orthogonal caliper arms and its Geometry in the borehole and data used for
Interpreting borehole breakouts.
Breakout orientations can rotate in inclined boreholes and may not always directly yield the
horizontal stress orientations. Hence, the maximum horizontal stress orientation can only be
reliably estimated from breakouts in approximately vertical boreholes (less then 10° deviation
from vertical). All orientations measured from four-arm caliper tools need to be corrected for
the local magnetic declination at the time of measurement.
Figure 9.5: Four-arm caliper log plot displaying borehole breakouts. Caliper one (C1) locks
into breakout zone from 2895-2860 m (P1AZ ≈ 200°), the tool then rotates 90° and Caliper two
(C2) locks into another breakout from 2845-2835 m (P1AZ ≈ 290°). Both breakout zones are
oriented approximately 020° and suggest a SHmax direction of 110°. The borehole is deviated
4° (DEVI) towards 140° (HAZI).