Forschungsbericht Agrartechnik: Optimization of Processing Technology For Commercial Drying of Bananas (Matooke)

FORSCHUNGSBERICHT AGRARTECHNIK
des Fachausschusses Forschung und Lehre der

Max-Eyth-Gesellschaft Agrartechnik im VDI (VDI-MEG) 530
John Bosco Kawongolo
Optimization of Processing Technology for

Commercial Drying of Bananas (Matooke)
Dissertation Witzenhausen 2013

Universitt Kassel
Fachbereich kologische Agrarwissenschaften
Fachgebiet Agrartechnik
Prof. Dr. sc. agr. Oliver Hensel
Optimization of Processing Technology for Commercial

Drying of Bananas (Matooke)
Dissertation
zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades
Doktor der Agrarwissenschaften (Dr. agr.)
Fachbereich kologische Agrarwissenschaften
von
John Bosco Kawongolo,
B.Sc. (Mech.) Eng, M.Sc. (Agric. Eng.) Agric.
aus Uganda
2013
Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde vom Fachbereich fr kologische Agrarwissenschaften,
Fachgebiet Agrartechnik der Universitt Kassel als Dissertation zur Erlangung des
akademischen Grades Doktor der Agrarwissenschaften angenommen.
Tag der mndlichen Prfung: 13.12.2013
Erster Gutachter : Prof. Dr. sc. agr. Oliver Hensel

Zweiter Gutachter : Prof. Dr.-Ing. Werner Hofacker
Mndliche Prfung : PD Dr. Johannes Kahl
Prof. Dr. Florence I. Muranga
Alle Rechte vorbehalten. Die Verwendung von Texten und Bildern, auch
auszugsweise, ist ohne Zustimmung des Autors urheberrechtswidrig und strafbar.
Das gilt insbesondere fr Vervielfltigung, bersetzung, Mikroverfilmung sowie die
Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen.
2013
Im Selbstverlag: John Bosco Kawongolo

Bezugsquelle: Universitt Kassel Fachbereich kologische
Agrarwissenschaften
Fachgebiet Agrartechnik
Nordbahnhofstrasse 1a
37213 Witzenhausen
Acknowledgements
The work in this manuscript was accomplished under the inspiring guidance
and dynamic supervision of Prof. Dr. Oliver Hensel, Department of Agricultural
Engineering, Faculty of Organic Agricultural Sciences, University of Kassel,
Germany, who kept his door always open for consultation and advice at all
times when required. I want to thank the staff of the Department of Agricultural
Engineering, University of Kassel, for their support. I want to acknowledge
Prof. Dr. Werner Hofacker, Environmental Process Engineering, Thermal
Processing Engineering, University of Applied Sciences, Konstanz, Germany,
for his kind advice and guidance. Special thanks to Dr. Ing. Albert Esper, M/s
Innotech, Germany, for kind academic and professional guidance during my
research.
I want to give special thanks and would like to express my gratitude to Rev.
Dr. Florence I. Muranga for both academic and parental guidance to ensure
that I keep track of my research. I would like to thank all the professionals
working at PIBID, the laboratory technician and all other staff of PIBID for their
continued support and encouragement in my academic career. I am deeply
grateful to the BMC of PIBID for taking me on as a research fellow and giving
me the opportunity to undertake my research in order to contribute to the
development of the banana processing industry in Uganda. Special thanks to
the Government of the Republic of Uganda for the financial support, through
PIBID, during the course of my study to enable me accomplish my academic
endeavors.
Special thanks to my brothers in our Lord Jesus Christ, and to my mother and
father (deceased), who tirelessly prayed and encouraged me to be focused in
life and in my career. Finally, I have no words to use to express my gratitude
to my beloved wife Mary and children Israel, Rebecca and John, for their
continued sacrifice at a time when they needed me most, for their patience,
eternal affection, support and encouragement during my academic career.
Glory be to The Almighty God for the gift of life and success. The fear of the
Lord is the beginning of wisdom and the knowledge of the Holy One is insight
(Proverbs 9:10) Amen.
2013 John Bosco Kawongolo

List of Tables I
Table of Contents
II List of Tables
List of Figures III
List of Figures
IV List of Figures
List of Figures V
VI List of Tables
List of Tables
List of Tables VII
VIII Nomenclature
Nomenclature
A m2 Area
aw dimensionless Water activity
c, c1, c2 & dimensionless Empirical constant
c3 cv. Cultivar
DD days Degree-days
Deff m2/s Effective diffusivity
Do m2/s Empirical constant
df Numerical Degree of freedom (n-1)
Ea kJ/mol Activation energy
i Numerical 1, 2, 3,
k dimensionless Empirical constant
k /s Drying rate constant
L mm Half thickness of slice
MR dimensionless Moisture ratio
n Numerical 1, 2, 3,
P degrees Total rotation
p kPa Equilibrium partial vapor pressure of water in the
system
P & P degrees Rotation
po kPa Equilibrium partial vapor pressure of pure liquid
water at the same temperature
qo dimensionless Empirical constant
Qst kJ/kg Total isosteric heat of sorption
qst kJ/kg Net isosteric heat of sorption
R kJ/kg K, kJ/mol K Universal gas constant
spp. Species (plural)
sp. Species (single)
t s Time
T C/K Temperature
xe kg water/kg dry matter Equilibrium moisture content
xi Experimental equilibrium moisture Content at ith
data
xm kg water/kg dry matter Monolayer
xo dimensionless Empirical constant
xpred kg water/kg dry matter Predicted moisture content
degrees Hue angle
degrees angular rotation
kJ/kg Latent heat of pure water
Introduction 1
Chapter One
Introduction
Bananas and plantains (Musa spp.) are grown worldwide in 120 -130
tropical countries and are the fourth most important food crop after
rice, wheat, and maize (Qi et al., 2000; Nelson et al., 2006; Nyombi, 2010;
Akcoaz, 2011). Bananas and plantains are a source of nutrition and household
income for 400 500 million people in Africa, Asia and South America (Nelson
et al., 2006; Adeniji et al., 2010; IITA 2009). The East African highland banana
(EAHB) is a distinct group of AAA bananas which are found in East African
highlands and a staple food for 80 million people in the Great Lakes region of
East Africa (Robinson & Saco, 2010; Adewole et al., 2012).
Banana is an important crop in Uganda; it is a staple food for more than 70%
of Ugandas population and contributes to about 42% of household income
in rural areas (Karugaba & Kimaru, 1999). According to FAO, Uganda is
the second largest producer of bananas and plantains after India, with a
production of 10.5 million metric tons of plantains and 0.5 million metric tons of
dessert bananas, giving a total production of 11 million metric tons (FAOSTAT,
2011). The most common of these plantains is the cooking type, locally called
matooke, a Musa sp. triploid acuminate genome group (AAA-EAHB), steamed
and served as a main course (Karamura et al., 1998; Nyombi et al., 2009).
Matooke are perishable and are traded in fresh form (Vinzenz, 2011). This
leads to high postharvest losses ranging from 22-45%, worth $411.9 842.5
million (Muranga et al., 2010). These high postharvest losses are attributed
to many silent factors including non-uniform level of maturity at harvest,
poor handling, bulk transportation and lack of value addition/processing
technologies, which are currently the main challenges for trade and export,
and its diversified utilization. This is evidenced by the fact that even though
Uganda is the second world producer of bananas and plantains, it does not
appear anywhere among the world exporters of bananas (Robinson & Saco,
2010).
Drying of fruits is a widely applied process to increase shelf life and reduce
bulk transportation; thus value addition/processing by drying would contribute
2 Introduction
to solving the above-mentioned challenges. Muranga (1998) demonstrated the

stabilization of raw matooke flour and showed that it possesses good properties
for the food industry which include among others: more than 80% starch (db),
extensive shelf life due to low sugar and fat, high levels of potassium and
negligible levels of condensed tannins (therefore, non-astringent). In addition,
research on banana flour has shown that the properties of banana flour are
important for their utilization in industrial food products and non-food products
as stabilizers and tablet binders in pharmaceutical industries (Adewole et al.,
2012; Vatanausuchart et al., 2012; Niba et al., 2002).
Drying is one of the oldest technologies employed in the processing of

agricultural produce and a lot of research has been carried out on the drying of
different crops. The objective of drying is to remove water to a level such that
microbial spoilage and deterioration reactions are greatly minimized (Doymaz,
2007). Drying is a complex process in which heat and mass transfer occur
simultaneously. It is important to understand the parameters controlling this
complex process and to understand the drying behavior of a given product for
use in improving the existing drying systems, controlling the drying process
and improving on the quality of the dried product.
A number of studies have been conducted in order to understand the drying

behavior of bananas. Baini & Langrish, (2007) reported that the diffusion
model suited the moisture content better than the empirical model. It has been
reported that drying of bananas takes place in three drying regimes, i.e., one
warming-up and two falling periods, implying that diffusion was the dominant
physical mechanism controlling the moisture movement during the drying
process. The diffusion model was, therefore, used to evaluate the drying
(Demirel & Turhan, 2003; Prachayawarakorn et al., 2008; Kaddumukasa
et al., 2005). Prachayawarakorn et al., (2008) also reported that drying
temperature significantly affects the quality attributes of ripe bananas: color,
shrinkage and texture of dried banana slices. Banana maturity (ripeness)
has little influence on the drying kinetics, despite there being a significant
difference in morphology and chemical composition between green and ripe
bananas (Nguyen & Price, 2007; Baini & Langrish, 2007). However, there is
little information available on the drying behavior of matooke (Musa sp. triploid
acuminate AAA EAHB). Also no information is available relating the drying
conditions to the physiochemical properties and quality attributes of matooke
flour for industrial application.
Introduction 3
Due to the increased market demand of quality products (Sablani, 2006) and
consistency of product quality on the market, drying of fruits should comply
with certain specifications like degree of maturity and use of healthy fruits,
since drying does not improve the initial quality (Leite et al., 2007). Matooke,
like any other fruit, undergoes a developmental process by which the fruit
attains maturity. During the fruit development, starch grains are deposited
initially in the pulp cells which form in the vicinity of the vascular bundles,
and thereafter starch deposition moves centripetally and continues until fruit
maturity (Robinson & Saco, 2010). This indicates that maturity directly
affects the quality of the final product. As Kader (1999) reported, maturity at
harvest is the most important factor that determines storage life and final fruit
quality. Traditionally, matooke maturity is judged by the visual appearance of
the fingers, particularly the angularity (the fingers being full and rounded), the
color (the color of the fingers being lighter) and the finger tips turning black
(Dadzie, 1998). At present there are no specifications and procedures for
estimating the harvest maturity age for commercial processing of matooke.
On the other hand, moisture sorption isotherms of dried products are important
for understanding the uptake of moisture during storage and distribution of
dried commodities (Yan et al., 2008). They are also employed in process
design and control, such as in predicting the end-point of drying (Sablani et al.,
2007; Wang & Brennan, 1991). The moisture sorption isotherms can be used
to obtain information on microbiological and shelf-stability of a product, as it
was reported that microorganisms do not grow on food products with water
activity below 0.6 (Iglesias and Chirife, 1982; Yan et al., 2008; Bezerra et al.,
2013). In addition, moisture sorption isotherm characteristics of a product are
important when introducing a new product on the market (Mujumdar, 2000).
No moisture sorption isotherm has been reported for dried matooke.
The functional application of the flour for use in food and non food industry
depends on the physicochemical properties and quality attributes of the flour
such as pasting properties and starch content (Niba et al., 2002; Zhang et
al., 2005). Little information is available on the influence of maturity on starch
content and pasting properties of matooke flour.
The Government of Uganda in 2005 commissioned the pilot plant for the
processing of matooke to flour under the Presidential Initiative on Banana
4 Introduction
Industrial Development (PIBID). PIBID is centered on adopting the research

findings on matooke flour (Muranga 1998), in order to diversify its utilization.
PIBID has gone a step further to brand the matooke product as Tooke,
received two patents: Patent No. AP/P/2005/003308, for Raw Tooke Flour
(RTF), which is used for bakery, confectionery and extruded products; and
Patent No. UG/P/04/00011, for Instant Tooke Flour (ITF), which is used for
porridge and as a vehicle food for soups and instant foods for infants. This
study has focused on Raw Tooke Four (referred to as matooke flour) because
of its good starch properties and diverse utilization.
However, there is still limited information available on the processing of

matooke into flour. It was therefore imperative to carry out in-depth study to
bridge the following gaps:
Lack of information on estimating the maturity window, in order to process

flour of consistent quality at all times on the market.
Lack of information on moisture sorption isotherm.
Lack of information on drying behavior.
Lack of standardized process parameters in relation to physicochemical
properties of flour.
The main objective of the study was therefore to establish the optimum
harvest maturity window and optimize the processing parameters for
obtaining microbiologically shelf-stable matooke flour with good starch quality
attributes.
The specific objectives of the study on matooke were:
1. To establish the optimum harvest maturity window.

2. To establish the moisture sorption isotherms.
3. To establish the effect of process parameters on drying
characteristics.
4. To optimize the process parameters.
5. Validation of the models of maturity and optimum process
parameters.
Literature review
Literature Review 5
Chapter Two
Chapter Two
Literature Review
Literature Review
2.1 Banana fruit maturity
The physiological maturity is the stage of development when a plant or part of the plan
2.1 Banana fruit maturity
continue ontogeny even if detached (Shewfelt, 2009; Kader, 1999). Harvest maturity,
The physiological maturity is the stage of development when a plant or
referred to as horticultural maturity or commercial maturity, is defined as the stag
part of the plant will continue ontogeny even if detached (Shewfelt, 2009;
development
Kader, 1999). Harvestwhen a maturity,
plant or part
also of the plant
referred possesses
to as the maturity
horticultural prerequisites
or for utilizatio
commercial
consumers maturity, is defined
for a particular as the
purpose stage1999).
(Kader, of development
The harvest when a plant
maturity or study refers
in this
part
timeoffrom
the when
plant possesses
inflorescence theemerges
prerequisites for stem
from the utilization
to theby consumers
time when the for
sample is harves
ahasparticular purpose (Kader, 1999). The harvest maturity in this study
been reported that matooke and bananas are generally harvested between three-quartrefers
tofull
thematurity
time from when inflorescence
(Muranga emerges from
et al., 2007; Robinson the stem
& Saco, 2010).to the
Thetime when period is depe
maturity
the sample is harvested. It has been reported that matooke and bananas are
on various environmental conditions that include: temperatures, rainfall, soil moisture, lat
generally harvested between three-quarters to full maturity (Muranga et al.,
altitude and nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium-(NPK), type of soil, cultiva
2007; Robinson & Saco, 2010). The maturity period is dependent on various
many other factors).
environmental conditionsTemperature hastemperatures,
that include: a strong influence on soil
rainfall, the moisture,
physiological maturity p
(Karugaba
latitude, & Kimaru,
altitude 1999). (nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium-(NPK),
and nutrients
type of soil, cultivar and many other factors). Temperature has a strong
influence on the physiological maturity period (Karugaba & Kimaru, 1999).
Chilletetetal.,
Chillet al.,(2006),
(2006),reported
reported aa close
close relationship
relationship between
between the temperatures accumulated b
accumulated by the
fruit during growth andfruit during growth
its physiological age.and
Theitsphysiological
physiological
ageage. The
of the fruit is calculated
physiological
equation 2.1. age of the fruit is calculated from equation 2.1.
00
() = 2.1

Where:
Where:
Daily average degree-days = (Average daily temperature Base temperature)
Daily average degree-days = (Average daily temperature Base
temperature)
The total degree-days are defined as heat/energy required for complete fruit
The total degree-days are defined as heat/energy required for complete fruit growth. Ban
growth. Bananas under normal growth conditions accumulate a total of 900
under normal
degree-days (DD)growth
to reachconditions
physiologicalaccumulate a total
maturity (Chillet of 2010;
et al., 900 Robinson
degree-days (DD) to
physiological maturity (Chillet et al., 2010; Robinson & Saco, 2010; Chillet et al., 2006).
daily degree-day is calculated from the daily mean temperature sums accumulated by the
o
above the temperature threshold (base temperature) 14 C (Bagaud et al., 2010; Nyombi
6 Literature Review
& Saco, 2010; Chillet et al., 2006). The daily degree-day is calculated
from the daily mean temperature sums accumulated by the fruit above the
Literature review
temperature threshold (base temperature) 14oC (Bagaud et al., 2010; Nyombi 6
et al., 2009; Chillet et al., 2006; Robinson & Saco, 2010).
Literature
There arereview
a number of changes in maturity indices both visual and fruit- 6
There are a number
characteristic of changes
that occur duringinthe maturity indices both
fruit growth visual
period dueand
to fruit-characteristic
morphological that occur
during theThe
changes. fruit visual
growthchanges
period due to morphological
include: size, shape,changes. The visual
angularity, changes
skin color andinclude: size,
shape, angularity, skin color and nature of the stylar end; and the
nature of the stylar end; and the fruit characteristics changes include: fruit fruit characteristics changes
There are a number of changes in maturity indices both visual and fruit-characteristic that occur
weight,
include:length, girth/circumference,
fruit weight, diameter,diameter,
length, girth/circumference, and pulp-to-peel ratio (Dadzie,
and pulp-to-peel ratio (Dadzie, 1998;
during the fruit growth period due to morphological changes. The visual changes include: size,
1998; Muranga,
Muranga, 1998; 1998;
Dhatt & Dhatt & Mahajan,
Mahajan, 2007; 2007;
Ramma, Ramma,
1999; Singh, 1999;
2004; Singh,&2004;
Dadzie Orchard, 1997).
shape, angularity, skin color and nature of the stylar end; and the fruit characteristics changes
Dadzie & Orchard, 1997).
include: fruit weight, length, girth/circumference, diameter, and pulp-to-peel ratio (Dadzie, 1998;
Muranga, 1998; Dhatt & Mahajan, 2007; Ramma, 1999; Singh, 2004; Dadzie & Orchard, 1997).
The color of the pulp is also used as one of the maturity indices; it is traditionally
The color
used by the of famers
the pulpandis also usedwho
traders, as one lookofatthe thematurity
intensityindices;
of theit yellowness
is traditionally of used by the
famers
the pulp.and Theretraders, who lookcolor
are several at the intensity
scales thatofhavethe been
yellowness
developed.of the pulp. There are several
However,
The color of the pulp is also used as one of However,
the maturitythe indices; it isLab
traditionally used by the
the Hunter Lab and its variant CIE L*a*b*, are the commonly used scales for CIE L*a*b*,
color scales that have been developed. Hunter and its variant
famers and traders, who look at the intensity of the yellowness of the pulp. There are several
are the
fruits and commonly
vegetables used(Shewfelt,
scales for fruits
2009). andThe vegetables
Hunter (Shewfelt,
L, a, b color 2009). The
scale isHunter
more L, a, b color
color scales that have been developed. However, the Hunter Lab and its variant CIE L*a*b*,
scale is more visually uniform than the XYZ color
visually uniform than the XYZ color scale. The Hunter L, a, b color space scale. The Hunter L, a, b color
is space is
are the commonly used scales for fruits and vegetables (Shewfelt, 2009). The Hunter L, a, b color
organized
organized in in aa cube
cubeform,
form,withwith color
color valuesvalues recorded
recorded as(0L
as L (0 = Black;
= Black; 100 = 100White), a (-a =
scale is more visually uniform than the XYZ color scale. The Hunter L, a, b color space is
=Green;
White), +aa (-a = and
= Red), Green; +a ==Blue;
b (-b Red),+band b (-b The
= Yellow). = Blue;
Chroma +b =(Saturation)
Yellow). The (C*) represents
organized in a cube form, with color values recorded as L (0 = Black; 100 = White), a (-a =
Chroma
richness
Green;
(Saturation)
+a of color or
= Red), and
(C*)
color represents
saturation,
b (-b = Blue; +b
richness
or=color of
intensity;
Yellow).
color or
hue angle
The Chroma
color saturation,
depicts how
(Saturation)
or
an average
(C*) represents person
color
will intensity;
perceive thathue
colorangle depicts
(Hunter Lab, how
2008, an average
Siddiq et al., person
2010). will perceive
According
richness of color or color saturation, or color intensity; hue angle depicts how an average person to that
Falade & Olugbuyi
color
(2010),
will (Hunter
perceivethe that
hueLab,
color2008,
angle Siddiq
is one
(Hunter et al.,Siddiq
parameter
Lab, 2008, 2010). According
thatet isal.,
frequently to
used
2010). According Falade & Olugbuyi
toto characterize
Falade & Olugbuyicolor in food
(2010),
(2010),
products. the
theThe hue angle
huesaturation is
angle is one one parameter
(C*)parameter that is frequently
degree ()
that isinfrequently
and hue angle values
used used to characterize
are calculated
to characterize colorasinfollows:
food
color in food
products. products.(C*)
The saturation Theandsaturation
hue angle in(C*) and()hue
degree valuesangle in degreeas()
are calculated values
follows:
are calculated as follows:
= 2 + 2 2.2
= 2 + 2 2.2

1
=
=
1 2.3 2.3

Shewfelt, (2009) reported that in human terms an increase in yellowness is
signaled by the closeness of the hue angle () to 90o.
Shewfelt,
Shewfelt,(2009)
(2009)reported thatthat
reported in human termsterms
in human an increase in yellowness
an increase is signaled
in yellowness by the by the
is signaled
closeness ofofthe
thehue angle ()program
to 90
o
closeness
The hue
Visual-Basic-based angle () to .90 . used to analyze images, transforms the
o
RGB-values to XYZ-values in the first step, then in transforms the XYZ-values
The Visual-Basic-based program used to analyze images, transforms the RGB-values to XYZ-
The Visual-Basic-based program used to analyze images, transforms the RGB-values to XYZ-
values in the first step, then in transforms the XYZ-values to the CIE-L*a*b* color space in the
values in the first step, then in transforms the XYZ-values to the CIE-L*a*b* color space in the
Literature Review 7
to the CIE-L*a*b* color space in the second step (Sturm & Hofacker, 2009;
Literature review
HunterLab, 2008; Sturm et al., 2012). 7
The
The total color
total color difference
difference E*
E* has beenhas beentoreported
reported be the mosttoimportant
be the inmost important
determining the color
in food (Sturm et al., 2012). The total color difference E is calculated as follows:
*
inchange
determining the color change in food (Sturm et al., 2012). The total color
difference E* is calculated as follows:
E = (L2 + a2 + b 2 ) 2.4
The color change of dried bananas is estimated by subtracting the color of the
The color
dried changefrom
bananas of dried
thebananas is estimated
color of the freshbybananas
subtracting(Bani
the color of the dried 2007).
& Langrish, bananas
from the color of the fresh bananas (Bani & Langrish, 2007).
2.2 Physicochemical properties

Raw matooke flour is a generic developed to improve shelf stability of the fruit
and to find alternative uses. It is rich in starch (80 - 85% db) and subsequently
has a high potential as a calorie resource base (Muranga, 1998). Table 2.1
shows the average chemical composition of matooke.
Table 2.1 Chemical composition of matooke from different cultivars
Chemical Components Cultivar and Chemical Composition (%)

2.2 Physicochemical properties
Nandigobe Bukumu Embururu
Raw matooke flour is a generic developed to improve shelf stability of the fruit and to find
(AAA-AE) (AAA-AE) (AAA-AE)
alternative uses. It is rich in starch (80 - 85% db) and subsequently has a high potential as a
Moisture Content 9.6 8.1 8.8
calorie resource base (Muranga, 1998). Table 2.1 shows the average chemical composition of
Starch
matooke. 81.8 82.5 82.9
Protein 4.71 5.1 4.01
Fat
Table 2.1 Chemical composition0.87 ND cultivars
of matooke from different 0.56
Crude Fiber 1.25 ND 1.33
Chemical Components Cultivar and Chemical Composition (%)
Ash 4.34 3.58 4.1
Nandigobe Bukumu Embururu
Calcium (Ca) 0.0058 0.0044 0.0052
(AAA-AE) (AAA-AE) (AAA-AE)
Potassium (K)
Moisture Content
1.9 9.6
1.82 8.1
1.84 8.8
Magnesium (Mg)
Starch 0.09 81.8 0.09 82.5 0.01 82.9
Tannin (Abs at 500nm)
Protein 0.111 4.71 0.181 5.1 0.012 4.01
(Source: Fat
Muranga, 1998) 0.87 ND 0.56
Crude Fiber 1.25 ND 1.33
Ash 4.34 3.58 4.1
Calcium (Ca) 0.0058 0.0044 0.0052
Potassium (K) 1.9 1.82 1.84
8 Literature Review
Physicochemical properties of flour and starchy products are important for

their use in the food and non-food industry (Niba et al., 2002). Raw matooke
flour consists of native starch which exists as microscopic granules consisting
of two distinct polymers: the amylose, which are linear in structure, and
amylopectin, which exhibits substantial branching in its structure as shown
in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Amylose & amylopectin molecular structures (source: Damodaran

et al., 2008)
Functional properties
Pasting properties of flour are important in the sense that they give an indication
of the cooking and baking qualities of the flour (Oluwalana et al., 2011). Peak
viscosity is a measure of the water holding capacity of the starch in terms
of the resistance of swollen granules to shear and the swelling performance
of granules (Newport Scientific, 2006; Daramola & Osaosnylusi, 2006). It is
often correlated with the final product quality (Kolawole et al., 2012). Final
viscosity is the most commonly used parameter to define a particular samples
quality, as it indicates the ability of the material to form a viscous paste or gel
after cooking and cooling (Iglett et al. 2012; Osungbaro et al., 2010; Ikegwu
et al., 2009; Niba et al. 2002; Muranga, 1998). Therefore, the integrity of the
starch granules and hydration properties of starch can easily be investigated
by measuring the pasting behavior of flour (Lai & Cheng, 2004). If the starch
Literature Review 9
granules are damaged, they will take in more water and will reach the maximum
swelling early and will collapse at a lower peak, compared to starch granules
of the same sample which have not been damaged (Oluwalana et al., 2011).
Figure 2.2 shows the standard rapid viscosity analyzers temperature profile
and pasting curve. Table 2.2 shows the pasting properties of raw matooke
flour from the given sources.
Figure 2.2: Typical rapid visco-analyzer temperature profiles and pasting

curve (Source: Newport Scientific, 2006).
Table 2.2: Pasting properties of raw matooke flour (Source: Muranga et

al., 2010)
Break- Final Peak Pasting

Peak Trough Setback
down Viscosity Time Temp
(RVU) (RVU) (RVU)
(RVU) (RVU) (sec) (oC)
375.92 201.29 173.63 244.7 43.38 4.7 74.73
2.3 Moisture sorption isotherms

Moisture sorption isotherms is defined as a graphic relationship between water
activity (equilibrium relative humidity) and the equilibrium moisture content of
the material at a constant temperature (Thys et al., 2010; Veg-Galvez et al.,
2007). Moisture content of the food product is very important for the design
10 Literature Review
and optimizing of the drying equipment, the design of packages, the prediction
of quality, stability, and shelf-life, and the calculation of moisture changes
during storage (Andrade et al., 2011, Johnson & Brennan, 2000, Moreira et
al., 2008). In order to preserve and stabilize the main food properties such
as texture and microbiological stability, it is important to control its moisture
content (Ayala et al., 2011).
The state of moisture in a food product is expressed in terms of water activity

(aw). Water activity (aw) is defined as the ratio of vapor pressure of water
in food to vapor pressure of pure water at a constant temperature (Sahu &
Tiwari, 2007). It is essential for describing water availability and mobility in
foods (Ayala et al., 2011).
Most processing operations are concerned with foods having a water activity
(aw) range below 0.95, which are depicted by the general types of moisture
sorption isotherms (Bell & Labuza, 2000). Moisture sorption isotherms are
classified according to their shape in five different types: I, II, III, IV and V.
However, Types II, IV and V are similar, with one or more inflection points
(Yan et al., 2008; Andrade et al., 2010). Previous researches reported that the
moisture sorption isotherms for bananas and plantains exhibited the Type II
curves (Johnson & Brennan, 2000; Yan et al., 2008).
Figure 2.3 shows the chemical stability map, relating the effect of water
activity (aw) in the food material on the microbial growth. From the stability
map, it is evident that during the intermediate moisture range, many reactions
occur causing deterioration (Labuza, 1972). It has been reported that
microorganisms do not grow on food products with water activity aw below
0.6 (Labuza et al., 1972; Sahu & Tiwari, 2007; Yan et al., 2008). The moisture
sorption isotherm was used to determine the desired water activity from the
stability map, below which the dried product would be microbiologically safe.
Literature Review 11
Figure 2.3: Stability map of foods as a function of water activity (Source:

Labuza et al., 1972).
2.3.1 Moisture sorption models

Moisture sorption isotherms can be constructed by either an adsorption
process, which starts from the dry state with water activity (aw) = 0, for which
it takes in moisture to reach equilibrium moisture content at any given water
activity to (aw) 1, or by a desorption process, which starts from the initial
wet state with water activity (aw) 1 for which moisture is removed to reach
equilibrium moisture content at any given water activity to (aw) 1 (Bell &
Labuza, 2000, Yan et al., 2008). The shapes of the adsorption and desorption
isotherms are sometimes different from each other for a given product; this
phenomenon is referred to as moisture hysteresis (Bell & Labuza, 2000, Yan
et al 2008). The hysteresis phenomenon indicates that the water adsorption
and desorption processes are irreversible because fresh foods hold more
moisture than dry foods (Vega-Glvez et al., 2008).
There are several models reported in literature. However, the following models
have been fitted for bananas and plantains: Yan et al., (2008) reported that
the GAB (1981), Henderson (1952), modified Hasley (1948), and modified
Oswin fitted well the equilibrium moisture content data over 10 70% relative
humidity. Ajibola, (1986) fitted Henderson, Chung-Pfost, modified Halsey, and
modified Hasley (1948), and modified Oswin fitted well the equilibrium moisture content data over
10 70% relative humidity. Ajibola, (1986) fitted Henderson, Chung-Pfost, modified Halsey, and
Chen-Clayton, the results of the standard error was less than 3%, indicating a good fit. Johnson
and Literature
12Brennan (2000) fitted five models: GAB, Henderson, Halsey, Iglesias-Chirfe Review
and BET. Of the
five only Henderson fitted best the isotherm of fresh material. Phoungchandang & Woods (2000)
Chen-Clayton,
fitted the results
modified Chung-Pfost, of the
modified standard
Hernderson, anderror wasOswin,
modified less than 3%, indicating
all of which gave a good
fit. a Falade
good fit.
and Johnson and Brennan
Awoyele (2005) fitted eight(2000)
modelsfitted
whichfive models:
included: BET,GAB,
GAB, Henderson,
Oswin, Hasley,
Halsey, Chung-Pfost,
Henderson, Iglesias-Chirfe
Chenand BET. (1947).
and Smith Of theOffive only
these onlyHenderson fitted the
GAB best described best the
sorption
of isotherm of fresh material.
fresh and pre-osmosed Phoungchandang
oven-dried & Woods
banana slices. Aguire-Cruz et (2000) fitted
al. (2010) fittedmodified
BET, GAB,
Chung-Pfost,
Smith modified
and Iglesias-Chirife. Hernderson,
Of these andGAB
only BET and modified
gave theOswin,
best fit. all of which
Therefore, for gave a
this study
thegood fit. Falade
following and Awoyele
models were selected to(2005) fitted
describe the eight models
moisture which
sorption included:
isotherms BET,
for matooke:
GAB,
BET, Oswin,
GAB, Hasley,Iglesias-Chirife
Hernderson, Henderson, and Chung-Pfost, Chen and
Smith. Therefore, the Smith
models(1947).
selectedOffor
these only
describing GAB
moisture best described
isotherms for matookethe
aresorption of Table
given in the fresh2.3.
and
pre-osmosed oven-
dried banana slices. Aguire-Cruz et al. (2010) fitted BET, GAB, Smith and
Iglesias-Chirife. Of these only BET and GAB gave the best fit. Therefore,
for this study the following models were selected to describe the moisture
sorption isotherms for matooke: BET, GAB, Hernderson, Iglesias-Chirife and
Smith. Therefore, the models selected for describing moisture isotherms for
matooke are given in the Table 2.3.
Table
Table 2.3: 2.3: Moisture
Moisture IsothermIsotherm Model
Model Equations Equations
used to describeused to sorption
moisture describe isotherms for
moisture
matooke sorption isotherms for matooke
Author Model
BET (1938)
=
(1 )(1 + ( 1) )
GAB (1981)
=
(1 )(1 + )
1
Henderson (1952) (1 1
=
c2
Chung-Pfost (1967) 1
=
2 (1 )
Iglsias-Chirife (1976)
= 1 + 2
(1 )
Smith (1947) = 1 2 (1 )
2.3.2 Isosteric heat of sorption

The isosteric heat of sorption is used to estimate the energy requirements for
drying and provides important information on the state of water in food products
(Yan et al., 2008). In addition, it provides valuable data for energy consumption
important information on the state of water in food products (Yan et al., 2008). In addition, it
2.3.2 Isosteric
important heat ofon
information sorption
the state of water in food products (Yan et al., 2008). In addition, it
provides valuable data for energy consumption calculations and subsequent design of drying
provides valuable data for energy consumption calculations and subsequent design of drying
equipment
The isosteric (McMinn & Magee,
heat of sorption 2003).
is used The isosteric
to estimate heat requirements
the energy of sorption for for desorption
drying and isotherm
provides
equipment (McMinn & Magee, 2003). The isosteric heat of sorption for desorption isotherm
represents
Literature the
Reviewenergy required to break the Van der Waals force
important information on the state of water in food products (Yan et al., 2008).13 between the In addition, ofit
molecules
represents the energy required to break the Van der Waals force between the molecules of
moisture
provides and waterdata
valuable absorbent the during
for energy dehydration
consumption process and
calculations (Yang et al., 2012).
subsequent Theofisosteric
design drying
moisture and and
calculations watersubsequent
absorbent the duringofdehydration
design process (Yang
drying equipment (McMinn et al., 2012). The isosteric
& Magee,
heat of sorption is calculated from the experimental data using the Clausius-Clapeyron
equipment (McMinn & Magee, 2003). The isosteric heat of sorption for desorption isotherm equation
heat of sorption
2003). is calculated
TheBrennan,
isosteric from
heatMcMinn
of the experimental
sorption data using
for desorption isothermthe Clausius-Clapeyron
represents the equation
(Johnson
represents& the energy 2000,
required to break& Magee,the 2003, YanWaals
Van der et al., 2008)
force as given in
between Equation
the 2.5: of
molecules
energy
(Johnsonrequired
& Brennan, to break the Van&der
2000, McMinn Waals
Magee, force
2003, Yanbetween the as
et al., 2008) molecules of
given in Equation 2.5:
moisture and water absorbent the during dehydration process (Yang et al., 2012). The isosteric
moisture and water absorbent the during dehydration process (Yang et al.,
heat of sorption is calculated from the experimental data using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation
2012). The isosteric heat of sorption is calculated from the experimental data
(Johnson
( ) & Brennan,
2000,
q McMinn & Magee, 2003, Yan et al., 2008) as given in Equation 2.5:
1 the
using = =
Clausius-Clapeyron equation (Johnson & Brennan, 2000, McMinn 2.5&
)
( q
1 2003,
Magee,
= Yan=
et al., 2008) as given in Equation 2.5: 2.5

Where:
( )
Where: q
1 = = 2.5

Q
st Total isosteric heat of sorption (kJ/kg)
Qst Total isosteric heat of sorption (kJ/kg)
Where: qst Net isosteric heat of sorption (kJ/kg)
Where:
qst Net isosteric heat of sorption (kJ/kg)
stQ
Q - Latent
Total isosteric
heat
Total heatheat
of water
isosteric of sorption
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)
of sorption (kJ/kg)
- Latent heat of water (kJ/kg)
st
R Net
Net isosteric
qstq-stUniversal
isosteric
gasheatheat of sorption
of sorption
constant (kJ/kg)
(kJ/kg)
R - Universal gas constant
- Latent heat of water (kJ/kg)
-Equation
Integrating Latent heat
2.5,ofwe
water (kJ/kg)
obtain the following Equation 2.6:
REquation
Integrating - Universal gasobtain
2.5, we constant
the following Equation 2.6:
R - Universal gas constant
Integrating Equation 2.5, we obtain the following Equation 2.6:

Integrating 1 1
2 = Equation
+ 2.5, we obtain the following Equation 2.6: 2.6
1
2 12 11
= + 2.6
1 2 1
The net isosteric

1 heat
1 of sorption is determined from the slope of the graph
The 2
net heat
=isosteric + of sorption is determined from the slope of the graph of ln(a 2.6) versus (1/T)
1 2 1 w
of netw)isosteric
Theln(a versusheat
(1/T)of for a specific
sorption moisture
is determined content.
from The
the slope of values
the graphofofthe
ln(anet
w) versus (1/T)
for a specific moisture content. The values of the net isosteric heat of sorption obtained are fitted
isosteric heat of sorption obtained are fitted by the empirical relationship
for a specific moisture content. The values of the net isosteric heat of sorption obtained are fitted
by the empirical relationship between the isosteric heat of sorption and moisture content
between the isosteric
by the empirical heat of
relationship sorption
between theand moisture
isosteric heatcontent (Equation
of sorption 2.6)
and moisture content
(Equation
The 2.6) asheat
net isosteric proposed by Tsami
of sorption isThe (1991). from
determined The the
energy
slope required for breaking
of the graph the Van der
as proposed by Tsami (1991). energy required for breaking the of
Van ln(a w) versus (1/T)
der
(Equation 2.6) as proposed by Tsami (1991). The energy required for breaking the Van der
Waals
for
Waals force
forceduring
a specific duringdrying
moisture is obtained
content.
drying by integrating
The values
is obtained the netEquation
byofintegratingisosteric2.7:
heat of
Equation sorption obtained are fitted
2.7:
Waals force during drying is obtained by integrating Equation 2.7:
by the empirical relationship between the isosteric heat of sorption and moisture content

q = q exp
(Equation eas
2.6) proposed by Tsami (1991). The energy required for breaking
2.7 the Van der

q = q exp e 2.7

Waals force during drying is obtained by integrating Equation 2.7:
2.4
q = q Drying
exp e process for bananas

2.7

This section describes the drying behavior of bananas. It is defined by moisture
diffusivity and drying rate constant. These were then used to compare the
effect of the processing parameters. The activation energy was also described
to estimate the energy requirement for drying as compared to the net isoteric
heat of sorption for desorption isotherm. The engineering, quality properties
and drying methods have also been discussed in order to establish how they
are affected during drying.
Drying is the oldest technology used for food preservation to extend shelf life,
minimizing postharvest losses, bulk transportation and storage space. Drying
is simultaneously a heat and mass transfer process, in which heat is trans-
ferred to the product by drying air and moisture is transferred from the product
by diffusion to the product surface and the drying air stream picks the moisture
from the surface (Lykov 1958 as reported by Corzo et al., 2008). A successful
drying process requires the conditions of the drying air to have the capacity
to transfer heat to the drying product and also pick up the moisture from the
product surface. In the convection drying system, drying kinetics is affected by
drying air temperature, air humidity, air velocity and characteristic particle size
(sample thickness) (Krokida et al., 20002; Nguyen & Price, 2007; Corzo et al.,
2008; Sturm et al., 2012). However, Krokida et al. (2000) reported that of all
those factors, the drying kinetics is greatly affected by drying air temperature
and the characteristic particle size.
Drying affects the properties of the dried product because of the physicochemical
changes that occur within the product during drying (Krokida et al., 2000; Leite
et al., 2007). Krokida et al. (2000) further reported that the properties of dried
products are classified between two major categories, the engineering and
quality properties. The engineering properties include: effective moisture
diffusivity, effective thermal conductivity, drying kinetics, specific heat and
equilibrium moisture content; meanwhile, the quality properties include: thermal
properties, structural properties, textural properties, optical properties, sensory
properties, nutritional characteristics and rehydration properties. However,
Krokida et al. (2000) reported that of all those factors, the drying kinetics is
greatly affected by drying air temperature and the characteristic particle size
(thickness of banana slice). Studies on banana drying characteristics and
quality attributes have been carried out considering the utilization of the dried
product and quality product requirements. In this study effective moisture
diffusivity, drying kinetics and equilibrium moisture content were the engineering
properties considered; color and physicochemical properties (starch content
and pasting properties) were considered for quality properties as described in
Literature Review 15
Section 2.2. From the study on the effect of drying temperature on the quality
of dried bananas (ripe bananas), Leite et al. (2007) reported that drying did
not affect the chemical composition of the product. Previous researchers on
bananas reported that the drying time decreases with increased temperature,
and the drying rate decreases with increase in thickness of slice (Nguyen &
Rice, 2007; Islam et al., 2012).
The drying method/technology employed in drying has a direct effect on

the final dried product (Nguyen & Price, 2007; Bani & Langrish, 2007).
Convectional hot-air drying and sun drying have been reported to be largely
used in the drying of unripe bananas (Johnson et al., 1998; Islam et al., 2012).
Pacheco-Delahaye et al., (2008), reported the effect of drying methods/
technologies employed in drying on starch content (% db) of dried bananas
as follows: freeze drying (74.652.08), drum drying (63.500.55), microwave
drying (64.520.25) and drying chamber (hot-air drying) (74.302.32). These
results showed that although freeze drying was superior compared to the
convectional hotair drying, the starch content for both (freeze drying and
hot-air drying) were not significantly different. Also, Krokida et al. (1999)
reported that dehydrated products do not keep their viscoelastic behavior
after rehydration due structural damages that occur during drying. However,
hot-air and vacuum-dried products kept their viscoelastic characteristics close
to those of dehydrated products before rehydration. In addition, hot-air drying
is considered as one of the simplest and most economic ways for commercial
processing of fruit and vegetables and appropriate for developing countries
(Johnson et al., 1998; Kaddumukasa et al., 2005). Therefore, the hot-air
drying method was selected for this study.
Drying of food products is not limited to selection of dryer, but rather there is
also need to understand the physicochemical concepts associated with food
drying in order to appropriately assess the drying phenomena of any food
product (Vega-Mercado et al., 2001). In terms of food applications, starch
functionality is largely related to its gelatinization and pasting characteristics
(Zhang et al., 2005). It has been reported that gelatinization temperature of
matooke is 72C (Muranga, 1998).
Drying of bananas dominantly takes place in the falling rate periods,

implying that diffusion was the mechanism controlling the moisture migration
(Prachayawarakon et al., 2008; Demirel & Turhan, 2003; Kaddumukasa

etLiterature review
al., 2005; Bani & Langrish, 2007). The diffusion model based on Ficks 16
Literature
second lawreview
is used to describe the transport of moisture inside a banana 16
Literature review 16
slice (Thuwapanichayaan
(Thuwapanichayaan et Bani
et al., 2011; al., &2011; Bani2007).
Langrish, & Langrish,
Ficks law2007). Ficks
of diffusion law of
has been used
diffusion
by hasofbeen
a number
(Thuwapanichayaan used
researchers by
et al., to a number
describe
2011; Bani the of researchers
drying
& Langrish, kinetics to describe
2007).of Ficks
bananas, lawfruits the vegetables
and
of diffusiondrying
has been used
(Thuwapanichayaan
(Karim & Hawlader, et al.,
2005; 2011;
Baini & Bani & Langrish,
Langrish, 2007; 2007).
Nguyen & Ficks
Price, law ofKasheninejd
(2007); diffusion has been used
et&al.,
kinetics of bananas,
by a number fruits and
of researchers vegetables
to describe (Karimkinetics
the drying & Hawlader, 2005;
of bananas, Baini
fruits and vegetables
Literature
by a review
number
(2007); Doymaz, of researchers to describe the drying kinetics of bananas, fruits 16
and vegetables
Langrish, 2007;(2007);
(Karim & Hawlader, NguyenKatekawa
2005; &Baini
& Silva
Price, (2007);Kasheninejd
(2007);
& Langrish,
Islam et al., 2012).al., (2007); Doymaz,
2007; Nguyenet & Price, (2007); Kasheninejd et al.,
(Karim & Hawlader, 2005; Baini & Langrish, 2007; Nguyen & Price, (2007); Kasheninejd et al.,
(2007);
(2007); Katekawa & Silva
Doymaz, (2007); (2007);& Islam
Katekawa et al., Islam
Silva (2007); 2012).et al., 2012).
(Thuwapanichayaan et al., Katekawa
(2007); Doymaz, (2007); 2011; Bani &
& Silva
Langrish, 2007).
(2007); Ficks
Islam law2012).
et al., of diffusion has been used
by a number
Ficks second of law
researchers to describe
of diffusion the expressed
drying kinetics of bananas, fruits and vegetables
Ficks second law of diffusion can becan be
expressed as Equationas 2.8Equation
(Nguyen &2.8
Price(Nguyen &
2007, Doymaz
(Karim
Price & Hawlader, 2005; Baini & Langrish, 2007; Nguyen & Price, (2007); Kasheninejd et al.,
2007):2007, Doymaz 2007):
(2007); Doymaz,law
Ficks second (2007); Katekawa
of diffusion & Silva
can (2007); Islam
be expressed et al., 2012).
as Equation 2.8 (Nguyen & Price 2007, Doymaz
Ficks second law of diffusion can be expressed as Equation 2.8 (Nguyen & Price 2007, Doymaz
2007): 2

= 2
2007): 2.8

Ficks
2 law of diffusion can be expressed as Equation 2.8 (Nguyen & Price 2007, Doymaz
second
The
=analytical
2 2 solution of Ficks second law of diffusion was obtained on the assumption that 2.8

= 2
2007):
The
analytical
moisture
migration solution
was only byof diffusion,
Ficks second law of diffusion
negligible shrinkage, was obtained
constant temperature on 2.8
and diffusion
the assumption
constant (Crank, that From
1975). moisture migration was
the analytical only by2.9,diffusion, negligible
The analytical
2 solution of Ficks second solution
law of of Equation
diffusion was the dimensionless
obtained amount
on the assumption that
The= analytical
shrinkage, solution
2constant of Ficks
temperature second
and law of
diffusion diffusion
constantwas obtained
(Crank, on
1975). the 2.8
assumption
From that

of diffusing water (Moisture Ratio MR) in the slab was deduced Crank, 1975 to Equation 2.9:
moisture migration was only by diffusion, negligible shrinkage, constant temperature and diffusion
the analytical
moisture solution
migration of Equation
was only by diffusion,2.9,negligible
the dimensionless amount
shrinkage, constant of diffusing
temperature and diffusion
constant (Crank, 1975). From the analytical solution of Equation 2.9, the dimensionless amount
The
water analytical solution of1Ficks second 2law
2 of diffusion was obtained on the assumption that
= (Moisture= 2 Ratio MR)
in
thethe slab was deduced Crank,2.9,
1975theto Equation amount
constant (Crank, 1975). From (2+1)
analytical solution of Equation dimensionless
8

of diffusing =1 2.9
water
(Moisture
(2+1)2 Ratio MR) 4 2 in the slab was deduced Crank, 1975 to Equation 2.9:
moisture
2.9: migration was only by diffusion, negligible
of diffusing water (Moisture Ratio MR) in the slab shrinkage, constant Crank,
was deduced temperature
1975and diffusion 2.9:
to Equation
constant (Crank, 1975). From the analytical solution of Equation 2.9, the dimensionless amount
It has been 2 2 Equation
of reported
water
diffusing that for
8(Moisture a long
1Ratio time
(2+1) drying 2.9 Crank,
deduced
slabwas is expressed
1975 toas Equation
2.9:2.10
= = 82
=1
MR) in the
1 2 (2+1)2 22 Equation 2.9
= & Price
(Nguyen
= 2007;
2
(2+1)
=1Doymaz 2
2007): 4
2 2.9
(2+1) 4
8 1 (2+1)2 2

=
= 2 =1 (2+1) 2.9
It has
been
8
reported 2 2for
that a long 4 2time drying Equation 2.9 is expressed as Equation 2.10
= = 2.10 as Equation 2.10
ItIthas
hasbeen
been reported
2
reported that
4 for
that
(Nguyen & Price 2007; Doymaz 2007):
2
for aa long
longtime
timedrying
dryingEquation
Equation2.92.9
is expressed
is expressed as
(Nguyen
Equation
It &2.10
has been Price 2007;
reported thatDoymaz
(Nguyen & Price
for 2007):
a long 2007; Doymaz
time drying 2007):
Equation 2.9 is expressed as Equation 2.10
Integrating
(Nguyen Equation
& Price 2007;2.10,
Doymazfor low xe values and MR<0.6, can be written in logarithmic form as
2007):
2

8
= 2.11
Equation = 82
(Islam 2012):
et al., 2 2

2.10

= = 2 4
2.10
4 2
8 2
= = 2 2.10
8
2 4 2
= 2 Equation
Integrating 2.11
4 2 2.10, for low xe values and MR<0.6, can be written in logarithmic form as
Integrating Equation 2.10, for low x values and MR<0.6, can be written in logarithmic form as
e
Integrating
Equation 2.11 Equation
(Islam et2.10,
al., for low x values and MR<0.6, can be written in
Integrating Equation 2.10, for 2012):
low x valuese and MR<0.6, can be written in logarithmic form as
Equation 2.11 (Islam et al., 2012):e
logarithmic
Plotting the form
natural as Equation
logarithm
Equation 2.11 (Islam et al., 2012):of 2.11
moisture(Islam et al.,time,
ratio versus 2012):
the effective diffusivity is calculated
from the slope 2 2.12):
8 (Equation
= 2 82 2
2 2.11
=

4
2 2.11
==
82 2.12
4 2 4 2 2.11
2 2 4
Plotting the natural logarithm of moisture ratio versus time, the effective diffusivity is calculated
Plotting
The drying
Plotting the natural
rate logarithm
constant has been ofempirically
moisture ratio versus
ratiopredicted usingtime, the
a first effective
order approachdiffusivity
describedis by
calculated
from thethe natural
slope logarithm
(Equation of moisture
2.12): versus time, the effective diffusivity is calculated
Equation
from the 2.13
slope(Baina & Langrish,
(Equation
from the slope (Equation 2.12):2.12):2007; Hofsetz et al., 2007; Doymaz, 2007):
2
= 22
2 2.12
== 4 4

2 2
2.12 2.12
4
Integrating Equation 2.10, for low xe values and MR<0.6, can be written in logarithmic form as
Equation 2.11 (Islam et al., 2012):
Literature Review2 17
8
= 2.11
2 4 2
Plotting the natural logarithm of moisture ratio versus time, the effective
diffusivity
Plotting theisnatural
calculated from
logarithm the slope
of moisture ratio(Equation 2.12):
versus time, the effective diffusivity is calculated
from the slope (Equation 2.12):
2
= 2.12
4 2

The dryingrate
The drying rate constant
constant hasempirically
has been been empirically predicted
predicted using using
a first order a first
approach order by
described
Literature review 17
approach described
Equation 2.13 by Equation
(Baina & Langrish, 2007; 2.13 (Baina
Hofsetz & Langrish,
et al., 2007; Doymaz, 2007;
2007): Hofsetz et al.,
Literature
2007; review 2007):
Doymaz, 17
Literature
=
review

= exp() 17
2.13

= = exp() 2.13
Where:
k drying rate constant

Where: k drying rate constant
Where:
k drying rate constant
= = exp() 2.13

The drying rate constant can be obtained by integrating Equation 2.13 to get Equation 2.14. The
Where:
The k rate
drying drying rate constant
constant can be obtained by integrating Equation 2.13 to get Equation 2.14. The
The drying
drying rate rate constant
constant can
is obtainedbefrom
obtained by integrating
the slope of a plot ofEquation 2.13 to
natural logarithm get
against time
drying rate constant is obtained from the slope of a plot of natural logarithm against time
Equation
(Equation 2.14.
2.15). The drying rate constant is obtained from the slope of a plot of
The drying2.15).
(Equation rate constant can be obtained by integrating Equation 2.13 to get Equation 2.14. The
natural logarithm against time (Equation 2.15).
drying rate constant is obtained from the slope of a plot of natural logarithm against time
(Equation 2.15).
()==
() 2.14 2.14
() = 2.14
2
2

==
== 2.15 2.15
4 2 2
4
2
= = 2.15
4 2
The activation
The activation energy
energy Ea represents
E represents the energythe energy
required required
to break to break banana-
banana-moisture bonding of a
The activation energy aEa represents the energy required to break banana-moisture bonding of a
moisture bonding of a water molecule and to bring it to
water molecule and to bring it to the surface where the molecule finally evaporates the surface where(Banithe &
water molecule and to bring it to the surface where the molecule finally evaporates (Bani &
molecule
The activation
Langrish, finally
2007). In evaporates
energy a represents
theEcase (Bani
of drying, & Langrish,
theactivation
energy required
energy toE2007).
a,break
can be Ininterpreted
the caseasofthe
banana-moisture drying,
bonding of a
minimum
Langrish, 2007). In the case of drying, activation energy E a, can be interpreted as the minimum
activation
water that energy
energymolecule mustandbe to , canittobe
Eabring
supplied to interpreted
the
break surface
water-solid as
where the minimum
the water-water
and/or molecule energy
finally that
and must
evaporates
interactions (Bani
to move &
energy that must be supplied to break water-solid and/or water-water interactions and to move
be
the supplied
Langrish,
water 2007).to In
break
molecules the
from water-solid
case
oneofpoint
drying, and/or inwater-water
activation
to another energy
the a, can
solidE(Demirelinteractions
Turhan, and
be&interpreted to Arrhenius
as the
2003). move
minimum
the water
energy ismolecules
that must to from one
bedescribe
supplied to point to
break another
water-solid in the solid
and/or (Demirel &diffusivity
Turhan, 2003). Arrhenius
the water
Equation molecules
used fromthe one point
temperature to dependence
another in water-water
thethe
on solid interactions
(Demirel
moisture &and to move
Turhan,
(Nguyen &
Equation
the water
Price, 2007;is Doymaz,
used tofrom
molecules describe
2007)one the to
point
(Equation temperature
another
2.16): in dependence
the solid (Demirel on &the moisture
Turhan, diffusivity
2003). (Nguyen &
Arrhenius
2003). Arrhenius Equation is used to describe the temperature dependence
Price,
on the2007;
Equation moistureDoymaz,
is used 2007)the
to diffusivity
describe (Equation
temperature
(Nguyen 2.16):
dependence
& Price, 2007; on Doymaz,
the moisture2007)diffusivity (Nguyen &
(Equation
Price, 2007; Doymaz, 2007) (Equation 2.16):
2.16):
= 2.16

= 2.16

= 2.16

Equation 2.16 can be written in logarithmic form as Equation 2.17:

Equation
= 2.16
can
be written in logarithmic form as Equation 2.17: 2.17

==

2.17 2.17
The is calculated from the slope of the plot on ln(D ) versus 1/(T).
activation energy
eff

= 2.16
=
2.16



=
=
2.17 2.17

The
The activation energy is calculatedthefrom the slope of ln(D
the plot on ln(D
1/(T).eff) versus
The activation
activationenergy
energyis is
calculated from
calculated from slope of the
the slope ofplot
theon
plot oneff)ln(D
versus
eff) versus 1/(T).
1/(T).
= 2.18
= 2.18
Establishment of optimum harvest maturity window for matooke 19
Chapter Three:
Objective: Establishment of optimum harvest maturity

window for matooke
3.1 Background
Matooke has now become both a food and cash crop in Uganda. In the event
of commercial processing of it into flour, it requires the flour to have a uniform
quality on the market at all times. This calls for processing matooke of uniform
physicochemical properties, which can be reproduced on the market. It was
therefore, imperative to establish the harvest maturity window as an initial input
to achieving flour of the same physicochemical properties. The objective of
this study was to establish the optimum harvest maturity window for matooke
through the following specific objectives:
To establish the effect of harvest maturity with respect to:
1. Maturity indices.
2. Pasting properties of matooke flour.
3. Starch content.
3.2 Materials and methods

Samples were obtained from thr banana plantation established on 20th
December 2007 at Presidential Initiative on Banana Industrial Development
(PIBID) field station in Bushenyi, Western Uganda. A completely randomized
design (CRD) was employed in selecting the banana stools from which
samples for the experiments were picked. The banana stools were monitored
and coded as soon as the flower shot up (inflorescence emerging from the
stem) (Figure 3.1), in order to establish harvest maturity at the time of picking
samples of the banana fruit. The cultivar Mbwazirume (Musa sp triploid
acuminate genome group AAA-EAHB) which is soft cooking and commonly
grown was selected for the study.
20 Establishment of optimum harvest maturity window for matooke
Figure 3.1: Illustration of (from left to right) inflorescence emerging from the
stem, coding on the matooke stool, growing bunch on the matooke stem in
the banana plantation.
The maturity indices considered in these investigations were: circumference,

finger weight, pulp-peel ratio, color of the pulp, moisture content and dry-
matter content of the fingers for matooke at different harvest maturity (10 - 23
weeks). The samples for determining pasting properties and starch content of
flour were dried at 55C in a cabinet dryer.
A total of five fingers were picked at random from a bunch from middle to top,
because fingers from the bottom are 30 40% smaller than those from top
(Robinson & Saco, 2010). The fruit circumference was measured by a tape
measure around the middle of the fruit. The fruit weights were measured on an
electronic balance. The fingers were hand- peeled, and then the pulp and peel
were weighed separately on the electronic balance. The same data was used
to calculate the pulp-peel ratio. The moisture content of fresh matooke was
determined using the oven method at 105C for 24 h (Sablani et al., 2007; Bani
& Langrish, 2007). Five fingers from each sample bunch of a given harvest
maturity were sliced in the middle and a total of five slices for each finger were
photographed. The photographs were taken using a digital camera with a ring
of light to provide clear photographs.
Table 3.1 Specification of the measuring equipment used in the study
Type of Equipment Model Manufacturer Accuracy

measurement
Finger Tape measure
circumference
Finger, pulp & Electronic Explorer Pro OHAUS 0.01 g
peel weight balance RS232 Corporation
Pulp color IC Capture 2.0 Sony Sony Corporation 1024x768
camera ICX204AK pixel
Slicing Slicing machine V20, Gabr. Graef 0.1mm
GmbH & Co. KG
Milling flour Starch Mill IKA M20 IKA WERKER
GmbH & Co.
Pasting Rapid Viscosity Model Series 4 Newport Scientific
properties Analyzer Pty Limited,
Warriewood,
Australia
Starch content Polarimeter Model AP 300 OHAUS 0.01
Corporation,
Parspary, USA
Air velocity Hot wire 0.02 m/s
anemometer
Air and dew Pt-100 Thermal 0.2K
temperatures resistor
Table 3.1 above shows the measuring equipment used in these investigations.
All experiments were carried out at the PIBID - Technical Business Incubator
(TBI).
The samples for determining pasting properties and starch content were
harvested at harvest maturity from Week 10 23, washed, peeled and sliced
to specified uniform thickness using a slicing machine. The sliced samples
were pretreated with 1% sodium metabisulphite solution as per Patent No.
AP/P/2005/003308 (Muranga 2010) and dried at 55oC. The dried matooke
chips were milled to flour using the starch mill with double-walled grinding
chamber cooled with running water.
Pasting Properties
The pasting properties were determined using the Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA).
The following pasting properties were recorded: peak time, peak viscosity,
pasting temperature, breakdown, holding strength, setback and final viscosity.
The pasting properties were determined using the following procedure: 3 g
of flour (adjusted to 14% wb) and 25 g of distilled water (a total of 28 g) were
placed in an RVA canister. The moisture content of the sample was used to
determine the amount of distilled water to be added in order to maintain the
same amount of solids in the sample. The RVA pasting curve was obtained by
using a 13-minute test profile which included heating to 90oC for 5 minutes,
holding at 90oC for 3 minutes, and cooling to 50oC for 5 minutes. The peak
viscosity, breakdown, set-back, peak time and final viscosity were obtained
using the RVA software.
Starch Content
The starch content was determined using a polarimeter by employing the
general polarimeter method (Kirk & Sawyer, 1991) in two parts: total optical
rotation (P) and optical rotation (P) in duplicates, plus the blank samples.
2.5 g of matooke flour was weighed in flask of 100 ml, and 50 ml of HCL (11.28
g/l) was added mixed well then placed in boiling water bath for exactly 15 min
(the flask was continuously shaken while in bath for the first 3 min). The flask
was removed from the bath, added 20 ml of cold water and left it cool to room
temperature. The cold sample was then put in 100 ml volumetric flask, 5 ml of
Correz 1 solution was added and shaken for 1 min then 5 ml of Correz II was
added and shaken well, it was then diluted with distilled water to 100 ml mark,
and filtered. The filtrate was used to determine the optical rotation (P) using
the polarimeter cell 200 mm (Range 4o 8o)
5 g of matooke flour sample was weighed and placed in a volumetric flask of

100 ml, 40% ethanol was added to 100 ml mark and shaken for 6 times in 1
hr then filtered. 50 ml of filtrate was placed in 250 ml quick-fit conical flask,
2.1 ml HCL (density = 1.126), was added and shaken, then put on boiling
plate with reflux cooler for 15 min and allowed to cool to room temperature.
After cooling, 50 ml of solution was put in volumetric flask of 100 ml, 5 ml of
Carrez I was added and shaken for 1 min and 5 ml of Carrez II was added
then diluted with distilled to the 100 ml mark, shaken and filtered. The filtrate
Establishment
Establishmentofofoptimum
optimumharvest maturity
harvest window
maturity for matooke
window for matooke 23 2

was to determine the optical2000(
rotation
) (P), using the polarimeter cell 200 mm
() = 2000( ) 3.1

(Range 4o 8
o
). () = 3.1
Establishment of optimum harvest maturity
window for matooke 23
Angular rotation () at 20C for matooke flour was approximated to 184.0 for mixed flour (Kirk &
The percentage starch of the sample was calculated from the optical rotation
Angular rotation () at 20C for matooke flour was approximated to 184.0 for mixed flour (K
Sawyer, 1991). 2000( )
tothe
according
mass ()
as =
follows (Manufactures manual): 3.1
Sawyer, 1991).
2000( )
Angular
rotation () at ()
20C=for matooke 3.1 flour (Kirk &
flour was approximated to 184.0 for mixed

Sawyer, 1991). readings for determining the optical rotation were carried out at room
The polarimeter
Angular rotation () at 20C for matooke flour was approximated to 184.0 for mixed flour (Kirk &
Angular rotation
temperature above
The polarimeter ()the
at recommended
20C for
readings 20 C,flour
formatooke
o
determining was
the approximated
therefore, the specific
optical to 184.0
angular
rotation for
rotation
were read on
carried the at
out
Sawyer,
mixed 1991).
flour (Kirk & Sawyer, 1991). o
polarimeter was converted o
to the equivalent20specific angular rotation C using rotation
at 20angular the equation
temperature above the recommended C, therefore, the specific read o
belowpolarimeter
The (Manufactures manual):
readings for determining thespecific
opticalrotation
rotationwere
werecarried
carried oout at room
polarimeter
The wasreadings
polarimeter converted fortodetermining
the equivalent the optical angular rotation outC
at 20 using the equ
o
temperature above the above
recommended
below (Manufactures manual):
at room temperature the 20 C, therefore,
recommended 20 C, therefore, the specific
othe specific angular rotation read on the
The polarimeter readings for determining the optical rotation were carried o out at room
polarimeter
angular was converted
rotation read ontothethe polarimeter
equivalent specific angular rotation
was converted to theat 20 C using the equation
equivalent
o
temperature above the recommended 20 C, therefore, the specific angular rotation read on the
specific
below
angular
rotation
(Manufactures
20C at
manual): 20oC
ar ra
using a eperare
= {1+0.000144(eperare

the equation below (Manufactures
o 3.2
polarimeter was converted to the equivalent specific 20C)}
angular rotation at 20 C using the equation
manual):
below (Manufactures manual): ar ra a eperare
20C = {1+0.000144(eperare 3.2
20C)}
ar ra a eperare
20C =2. 20 3.2
= {1+0.000144(eperare 20C)} 3.3

ar ra a eperare
20C = {1+0.000144(eperare 3.2
20C)}
2. 20
= 3.3

2. 20

= 20 40% 3.3
= 3.4
40%
2. 20
= 3.3

20 40%
= 3.4

20 40%
40%

= 3.4
Therefore, 40%
Therefore, 20 40%
= 3.4
40%
Therefore, 2000
Therefore,
(% ) = x 100 3.5
184.0
Therefore,
The data was analyzed using MINTAB Software (version 14 for Windows

2000
2000

(2003)
The

Minitab
data (%(%
Inc.,
was analyzed)
) = 184.0
=using
Pennsylvania,
MINTAB 100xSoftware
xUSA). 100
The Pearson Correlation was used
(version 14 for Windows (2003) 3.5 Inc.,
3.5 Minitab
184.0
to determine the significant correlation between harvest maturity and maturity
PearsonCorrelation was used to determine the significant correlation
Pennsylvania, USA). The 2000
indices. When (%
the) =
Pearson x 100 is greater than 0.5 and a p-value
correlation
184.0
3.5
between harvest maturity and maturity indices. When the Pearson correlation is greater than 0.5
(p<0.05), it indicated that the relationship was statistically significant at -level
and
The adata
p-value
was (p<0.05),
analyzed itusing
indicated
MINTAB that Software
the relationship was
(version 14statistically
for Windows significant at -level of
(2003) Minitab
ofThe
0.05 (95%
data wasconfidence
analyzed ofusing
the relationship).
MINTAB Software (version 14 for Windows (2003) Inc.,
Minitab
0.05 (95% confidence
Pennsylvania, of the
USA). The relationship).
Pearson Correlation was used to determine the significant correlation
Pennsylvania,
The USA). The
data was analyzed using Pearson
MINTABCorrelation was used
Software (version to determine
14 for Windows (2003)the significant corre
Minitab Inc.,
between harvest maturity and maturity indices. When the Pearson correlation is greater than 0.5
between harvest
Pennsylvania, maturity
USA). and maturity
The Pearson indices.
Correlation was When
used tothe Pearson
determine thecorrelation
significant is greater tha
correlation
and a p-value (p<0.05), it indicated that the relationship was statistically significant at -level of
and a p-value
between harvest(p<0.05), it indicated
maturity and that theWhen
maturity indices. relationship wascorrelation
the Pearson statistically significant
is greater than at
0.5-le
0.05 (95% confidence of the relationship).
3.3 Results and Discussion
3.3.1 Physiological maturity

The physiological maturity was determined using the meteorological data for
Bushenyi located at the Latitude: 0.59S, Longitude: 30.21E and Altitude:
1570 m. It was obtained by substituting meteorological data at Bushenyi
during the period of data collection from January 2011 to January 2013 in
equations 2.1 and employing the base Temperature for banana = 14C.
Average daily maximum temperature = 25.44 0.35C
Average daily minimum temperature = 14.81 0.25C
Substitute the above temperatures in equation 2.1 the physiological maturity

was 147 days (21 weeks). This implies that physiological maturity for matooke
cv. Mbwazirume (Musa sp triploid acuminate genome group AAA-EAHB) at
Bushenyi is 21 weeks.
3.3.2 Effect of harvest maturity on maturity indices

The effect of harvest maturity of matooke on maturity indices was studied
by taking harvest maturity (weeks) as independent variable and the maturity
indices as dependent variables. The maturity indices considered in this study
include the following:
Finger weight (g)

Pulp weight (g)
Peel weight (g)
Pulp/Peel ratio
Finger length (mm)
Finger circumference/girth (mm)
The Pearson correlation was used to determine the correlation of different

indices to harvest maturity and amongst themselves as shown in Table 3.2.
It was observed from Table 3.2, that all maturity indices were statistically
significant. This was in agreement with Dadzie (1998), Muranga (1998) and
Robinson & Saco (2010). From the Table 3.2, the maturity indices with the
highest Pearson correlation above 0.90 were selected as the best maturity
indices for estimating the harvest maturity and these include: Finger, peel and
pulp weight.
However, comparing the level of significance, finger length had the lowest
which indicated that the finger had almost the maximum length before week
10; implying that there was slow development in finger length after week 10.
This was in agreement with Robinson & Saco (2010), who reported that the
finger length increases rapidly for 30 days after which growth in length slows
down and is completed in 40 80 days after emergence depending on the
area and climate.
Table 3.2: Pearson correlation for maturity indices
Harvest Finger Finger Finger Peel Pulp Pulp/

Maturity Weight Length Cir- Weight Weight Peel
(weeks) (g) (mm) cum1 (g) (g) Ratio
(mm)
Finger Weight 0.939*
(g)
0.000**
Finger Length 0.276 0.199
(mm)
0.055 0.170
Finger Circum 0.881 0.916 -0.006
(mm)
0.000 0.000 0.965
Peel Weight 0.808 0.896 0.060 0.834
(g)
0.000 0.000 0.649 0.000
Pulp Weight 0.958 0.978 0.121 0.919 0.897
(g)
0.000 0.000 0.143 0.000 0.000
Pulp/ Peel 0.953 0.900 0.332 0.847 0.691 0.933
Ratio
0.000 0.000 0.021 0.000 0.000 0.000
Moisture 0.794 0.727 0.186 0.694 0.599 0.774 0.766
Content
0.000 0.000 0.201 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
(%wb)
Key: Cell Contents - * Pearson correlation

** p - value (p = 0.000 => p < 0.0001)
1 Circumference
Figure 3.2 shows the effect of harvest maturity on finger, pulp and peel
weights.
Figure 3.2
300
Finger
Peel
Pulp
200
Weight (g)
100
0
10 15 20 25
Harvest maturity (weeks)
Figure 3.2: Effect of harvest maturity on finger, pulp and peel weights
It was observed from Figure 3.2 that both finger and pulp weight increased with
Figure 3.5
increase in time until week 22 then decreased. This indicated that matooke
300
at week 22 had reached Finger its maximum harvest maturity. The peel weight also
increased with increasing Peel
time until week 21 and then decreased to week
22. This reduction in peel Pulp
weights after week 21 could be attributed to cell
200
wall degradation which starts underneath the peel (Robinson & Saco, 2010).
Weight (g)
After week 22, matooke, being a climacteric fruit, it enters the post climacteric
phase at which point dramatic physiological changes occur; these include the
peel color and 100 pulp texture among others. In advanced stages of maturity,
slight peel color change occurs to the initial stages of ripening. The reduction
in finger and pulp weight is attributed to loss of starch, which plays a major
role in textural changes
0 in ripening.
10 15 20 25
Figure 3.3, shows that the pulp/peel ratio increased with time from week 10 to
weekEstablishment
22 and then decreased.
of optimum harvest maturity window for matooke 29
2.00
1.50
y = 0.0707x + 0.2437
Pulp/Peel Ratio
R = 0.9829
1.00
0.50
0.00
10 15 20 25
Harvest Maturity (weeks)
Figure 3.3: Effect of harvest maturity on pulp/peel ratio.
FromFigure
Figure 3.3of itharvest
3.3: Effect wasmaturity
further observed
on pulp/peel ratio. that matooke attains maximum
maturity
From at the3.3harvest
Figure atobserved
it was further 21 weeks and attains
that matooke if it ismaximum
not harvested
maturity at the itharvest
startsat going
through the and
21 weeks post-climacteric
if it is not harvested itstage (Muchui
starts going through theet post-climacteric
al., 2010, Tapre & Jain,
stage (Muchui et al., 2012).
These2010, Tapre & Jain, 2012). These results are within comparable range to those reported by
results are within comparable range to those reported by Robinson &
Robinson & Saco, (2010), that the pulp/peel ratio of 1.0 was achieved at about 70 days, in this
Saco, (2010), that the pulp/peel ratio of 1.0 was achieved at about 70 days,
study was about 77 days (11 weeks).
in this study was about 77 days (11 weeks).
Figure 3.43.4shows
Figure thatthethe
shows that circumference
circumference of increased
of the fingers the fingers increased
with time and this waswith
in time
and this was
agreement in
withagreement with
Muchui et al., (2010) Muchui
and Robinsonet&al., (2010)
Saco,
Establishment of optimum harvest maturity window for matooke
(2010), and
when Robinson &
they reported that
30
Saco,
(2010), when they reported that diameter of the fingers increases with bunch
diameter of the fingers increases with bunch age.
age. 18
Finger Circumference (mm)
12
-
10 15 20 25
Harvest Maturity (weeks)
Figure 3.4:
Figure Effect
3.4: Effectof harvest
of harvest maturity
maturity on finger circumference.
on finger circumference.
The Pearson Correlation was used to determine the correlation of different CIE L*a*b* color
The Pearson Correlation was used to determine the correlation of different

CIE L*a*b* color space to harvest maturity and amongst themselves. It was
observed from Table 3.3, that all the different color space were statistically
significant, except the lightness (L*). It was further observed that L* and a*
showed inverse relationship with harvest maturity, whereas the saturation
(C*), b* and hue angle in degrees () values showed a direct relationship with
harvest maturity.
Table 3.3: Pearson Correlation for Color Space
Harvest maturity L* a* b* C*
(weeks)
L* -0.134*
0.287**
a* -0.617 0.442
0.000 0.000
b* 0.549 -0.700 -0.946

0.000 0.000 0.000
C* 0.556 -0.685 -0.953 1.000

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.540 0.491 -0.395 0.144 0.161

0.000 0.000 0.001 0.252 0.201

** p - value (p = 0.00 => p < 0.0001)
The CIE-Lab parameters were used to express the color of fresh pulp;
Lightness (L*), Saturation (C*) and Hue angle in degrees () values are
calculated from equations 2.2 and 2.3. It was observed from Figure 3.5 and
Table 3.3 that lightness (L*) was not statistically significant. The hue angle (
> 90) showed that the color of the pulp lies between green and yellow space
with low saturation (C*). Both hue angle () and saturation (C*) increased
with harvest maturity. It was noted that hue angle () was relatively constant
between weeks 17-20 which indicated that the color of the pulp was relatively
uniform within that harvest maturity range. Because of nearly constant
lightness and low saturation, one cannot easily differentiate between the
differences of colors at different harvest maturity. This indicates that color of
the pulp is not a good index for estimating the harvest maturity.

Figure 3.5
300
Finger
Peel
Pulp
200
Weight (g)
100
0
10 15 20 25
Figure 3.5 Effect of harvest maturity on given L*, C* &
3.3.3 Effect of harvest maturity on the physicochemical

properties of matooke flour
The effect of harvest maturity in weeks of matooke on physicochemical
properties of the flour was studied by taking harvest maturity (weeks) as
independent variable and the physicochemical properties of flour as dependent
variables (starch content and pasting properties).
In order to establish the optimum harvest maturity to harvest matooke it was

imperative to determine the starch development from third week after the
inflorescence emerges from the stem. Figure 3.6, shows the effect of harvest
maturity on starch content of matooke flour. The starch data was collected
from week 3 then at intervals of three weeks to week 9, then collected every
week up to week 22.
75
Starch Content (%DB)

Fitted curve
50 Establishment of optimum harvest maturity window for matooke 33
y= -0.34x2 + 10.62x + 1.72

100
R = 0.99
Experiment
25
75
Starch Content (%DB)
Fitted curve
50
0 y = -0.34x2 + 10.62x + 1.72
0 5 10 15 R = 0.99 20 25
25 Maturity (weeks)
Figure 3.6: Effect of harvest maturity on starch content (%db) of matooke flour.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Maturity (weeks)
Figure 3.6: Effect of harvest maturity on starch content (%db) of matooke

Figurethat
3.6: Effect
Figure 3.6, shows the ofstarch
harvest content
maturity on increased
starch content with
(%db) time
of matooke
fromflour.
week 3 - 12 and it became
flour.
relatively constant until week 20, when it started to decrease with age. This was an indication that
the Figure 3.6,Figure
shows
starch accumulates that
3.6, shows the
in the starch
that pulp
the ascontent
starch the fruit
content increased
continues
increased with
with timetofromtime
grow from
week until
3 week 3 - 12
- 12 maturation
and it became begins from
and
week 12.it This
became relatively
relatively
indicatedconstant
that constant
untilmatooke until
week 20, when
can week
it started
be 20, when
to decrease
harvested with
from it 12
age. started
This was21anto decrease
indication
weeks that
because starch
the starch accumulates in the pulp as the fruit continues to grow until maturation begins from
withofage.
content This was
matooke flouran indication
is above 80%that
(db).the starch accumulates in the pulp as the
week 12. This indicated that matooke can be harvested from 12 21 weeks because starch
fruit continues
content to grow flour
of matooke untilis above
maturation
80% (db). begins from week 12. This indicated
that matooke can be harvested from 12 21 weeks because starch content of
matooke flour is above 80% (db).
The quadratic model fitting
The quadratic thefitting
model starch datadata
the starch could
couldbe auseful
be a usefultooltool for estimating
for estimating the starch content
the starch content
The quadratic
of matooke flour atmodel
of matooke flourfitting
a given theharvest
at a given
harvest starch datawhich
maturity,
maturity, couldwas
which bereferred
was areferred
useful tool
to starch for estimating
to model
starchas given in
model as given in
equation 3.6.
the starch
equation 3.6. content of matooke flour at a given harvest maturity, which was
referred to starch model as given in equation 3.6.
= . + . .
2
R = 0.99 3.6
= . + . .
2
R = 0.99 3.6
Where:
Where: Y = Starch content (%db)
Where: Y = Starch content (%db)

x = Harvest maturity (weeks)
Y = Starch content (%db)
Table 3.4 showed that pasting properties were statistically significant and
also the interactions of all pasting properties have statistically significant
relationship. Table 3.5 shows pasting properties for the matooke. The results
obtained for the pasting properties were in agreement with previous work on
matooke (Table 2.2). Figure 3.7, shows the pasting curves were grouped with
respect to peak viscosities being relatively within the same range and selected
harvest maturity 10 &12, 16 & 20 and 22 weeks which are representatives for
range of harvest maturity of 10-15, 15-21 and 22 respectively. It was further
observed from Figure 3.7, that there are three peaks as per the above groupings
week 10-15, 15-21 and 22 from the highest to lowest respectively. The lower
peak suggests that at week 22, the starch granules were transformed by the
initial stages of ripening. This was also observed for effect of harvest maturity
on pulp/peel ratio and other maturity indices.
Table 3.4: Pearson Correlation for Pasting Properties

Harvest Peak Trough Break- Final Setback Peak
maturity Viscosity (RVU) down Viscosity (RVU) Time
(weeks) (RVU) (RVU) (RVU) (min)
Peak Viscosity -0.395*
(RVU)
0.001**
Trough (RVU) -0.274 0.634
0.039 0.000
Breakdown -0.073 0.247 -0.583
(RVU)
0.568 0.049 0.000
Final Viscosity -0.436 0.665 0.967 -0.519
(RVU)
0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000
Setback (RVU) -0.701 0.242 0.117 0.108 0.366
0.000 0.054 0.356 0.396 0.003

Peak Time -0.482 0.165 0.675 -0.679 0.711 0.308
(min)
0.002 0.192 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.013
Pasting -0.321 -0.106 0.380 -0.594 0.425 0.268 0.852
Temperature
(C) 0.010 0.402 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.032 0.000

** p - value (p = 0.00 => p < 0.0001)
Table 3.5: Pasting property of Matooke flour (cv Mbwazirume)
32
Harvest Peak Viscosity Trough Breakdown Final Setback Peak Time Pasting
maturity (RVU) Viscosity Viscosity Viscosity Viscosity (min) Temperature
(weeks) (RVU) (RVU) (RVU) (RVU) (oC)
10 427.8323.02 213.3316.03 214.5014.73 277.535.99 64.1910.44 4.840.08 78.630.42
11 407.5614.74 223.2016.55 175.3624.17 281.8220.56 49.637.87 4.920.13 79.941.52
Establishment of optimum harvest maturity window for matooke

12 442.4311.19 296.9331.78 145.5034.25 347.7328.59 50.804.21 5.040.20 78.694.49
13 448.0732.63 299.1428.21 148.997.91 346.3621.80 47.229.29 5.170.04 82.121.46
14 445.497.61 290.6120.73 154.8825.37 342.9620.47 52.354.57 4.920.06 79.980.34
15 401.8733.52 279.2819.24 122.5816.64 327.2511.11 47.978.53 5.150.04 83.881.03
16 408.9053.53 257.2848.10 151.6211.40 297.2047.90 39.920.86 4.960.08 79.312.73
17 414.2616.92 243.833.73 170.4315.52 279.144.13 35.313.91 4.680.02 74.760.59
18 399.0711.22 244.4039.53 154.6735.54 286.7941.15 42.392.63 4.840.21 78.982.02
19 404.3459.87 228.1319.98 176.2179.85 269.9210.02 41.799.96 4.800.28 79.603.96
20 400.006.55 235.677.60 164.334.45 274.587.69 38.921.31 4.730.07 76.481.46
21 412.896.69 240.5010.90 172.3912.11 278.688.63 38.184.35 4.720.10 77.260.75
22 366.4413.74 214.224.57 152.229.43 238.142.30 23.922.39 4.800.00 79.370.41

10 12
16
20
22
Figure 3.7: Pasting curves for Matooke. (.....) Peak viscosity in three groups
represented by harvest maturity 10 &12, 16 & 20 and 22 weeks which
are representatives for range of harvest maturity of 10-15, 15-21 and 22
respectively.
Figure 3.8 shows the effect of harvest maturity on peak viscosity and final
viscosity.
Figure 3.8
500
400
Viscosity (RVU)
300
200
Peak Viscosity (RVU)
Final Viscosity (RVU)
100
-
10 15 20 25
Maturity (weeks)
Figure 3.8: Effect of harvest maturity on peak viscosity and final viscosity.
It was observed from Figure 3.8 that there were two levels of peak viscosity
between weeks 12-14 and weeks 15- 21. The first peak between was weeks
12 15. This indicated a third stage of banana growth referred to as maturation
(Stover & Simmonds, 1987, Robinson & Sauco, 2010). This implied within
this period starch is being deposited and it had not yet stabilized, in other
words, it was still in transition. Robinson & Sauco, (2010) reported that starch
grains are initially deposited in the pulp cells which form in the vicinity of the
vascular bundles, and thereafter starch deposition moves centripetally and
continues until harvest maturity. This peak between 12 15 weeks could be
associated with amylose and amylopectin content were not yet fully developed
or stabilized which is responsible of the functional characteristics of flour.
Therefore, the high peak viscosity could be attributed to fiber and components
in the flour causing the resistance to the shearing leading to high viscosity.
The second peak viscosity from 15 21 weeks was rather uniform, which
was an indication that period was beyond the maturation stage, and starch
deposition had stabilized. This implied that both amylose and amylopectin
molecules had reached the equilibrium point between swelling and polymer
leaching, at nearly the same viscosity, which gave a relatively equal peak
viscosity and final viscosity.
3.3.4 Prediction Models

The following models were developed from the effect of harvest maturity on
the maturity indices by employing the regression equation using the MITAB
Software. Considering the fact that week 22 had a unique response for all
maturity indices, it was omitted from the regression analysis for predicting the
harvest maturity for matooke to be harvested for processing flour.
Table 3.6 shows the models which could be used to predict harvest maturity
(weeks) given the finger weight (g), or pulp/peel ratio, or a combination of
finger weight and pulp/peel ratio. However, it was observed that, the model of
a combination was the best followed by the pulp/peel model.
Table 3.6 Models for predicting harvest maturity
Model Parameters Model R2 r P<

Harvest maturity (weeks) & Y = 3.29 + 0.07x1 0.87 0.939 0.01
Finger weight (g)
Harvest maturity (weeks) & Y = 11.9x2 0.298 0.91 0.958 0.01

Pulp/Peel ratio
Harvest maturity (weeks) Y = 0.387 + 0.94 0.01
& Finger weight (g) + Pulp/ 0.031x1 + 7.27x2
Peel ratio (Combined)
Where: Y = Harvest maturity (weeks)

x1 = Finger weight (g)
x2 = Pulp/Peel ratio
The model equation given in Table 3.7 can be used to predict the amount
of starch at a given harvest maturity (weeks) of matooke after inflorescence
emergence.
Table 3.7 Models for predicting starch content
Model Parameters Model R2 p<
Starch content (%db) & Y = 1.72 + 10.62x 0.34x2 0.99 0.016

Where: Y = Starch content in flour (%db)

x = Harvest maturity of matooke (weeks)
3.3.5 Validation of prediction models

The above models given in Table 3.6 were validated by using a new set of
experiments to determine the actual values for selected maturity indices (finger
weight, pulp/peel ratio) at different harvest maturity from week 10 - 22. The
analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to determine the significance of
the relationship between the actual experimental data and the model predicted
values (Table 3.8). It was observed that the selected models were significant
(p<0.01), it indicated that the relationship was statistically significant at -level
of 0.01(99% confident of the estimated harvest maturity). The combined
Finger weight with Pulp/peel ratio was the best followed by the Pulp/peel ratio
model. Therefore, the models in Table 3.6 can be adapted for estimating the
harvest maturity of matooke at Bushenyi.
Table 3.8 Significance of prediction model for estimating harvest

maturity
Model R2 p<
Finger weight model 0.87 0.01
Pulp/peel ratio model 0.89 0.01
Combined finger weight and pulp/peel ratio model 0.92 0.01
3.4 Conclusions and Recommendations:

The physiological maturity of matooke (Mbwazirume cv. Musa sp. AAA EAHB)
at Bushenyi located at the Latitude: 0.59S, Longitude: 30.21E and Altitude
1570m is 21 weeks. Considering the results of starch content and pasting
properties, the uniform physicochemical properties were obtained between
weeks 15 21. This indicates that the optimum harvest maturity window for
commercial processing of matooke at Bushenyi is between 15-21 weeks for
processing standard raw matooke flour or Raw Tooke Flour (RTF).
However, in case of natural disaster like storm, matooke from the harvest
maturity from week 12-15 weeks can be processed into matooke flour since at
that harvest maturity it already has starch content above 80% (db).
In addition, matooke harvested beyond the above maturity window after 21

weeks is recommended for processing Instant Tooke Flour (ITF). This is
because beyond the recommended harvest maturity window, it would be in
the initial stages of starch loss which plays a major role in textural changes
in ripening which would not affect the functional properties of instant flour
significantly.
Theoretically the results of the study can be used elsewhere. Nevertheless,

it is recommended that similar studies be carried out in other the matooke
growing areas to determine the applicable models for those particular regions
since development of matooke and bananas in general is subject to location
(Robinson & Saco, 2010)
Recommended Characteristics within the Maturity Window

The finger weight model is recommended for farmers to estimate harvest
maturity for matooke and the combined model of finger weight and pulp peel
ratio is recommended for commercial processors. Matooke cv mbwazirume

(Musa sp. AAA-EAHB) at Bushenyi, harvested within the optimum harvest
maturity window from week 15 21, should have the following characteristics
given in Table 3.10 and expected starch content 80 % (db).
Table 3.10 Characteristics of matooke cv mbwazirume (Musa sp. AAA-

EAHB)
Characteristics Range
Harvest maturity (weeks) 15 21
Finger weight (g) 190-234
Pulp/peel ratio 1.4 -1.8
38 Establishment of moisture sorption isotherms for matooke
Chapter Four
Objective: Establishment of moisture sorption isotherms

for matooke
4.1 Background
The commercial processing of matooke requires having microbiologically
shelf-stable products on the market. Moisture content is an important criterion
for judging food quality and water activity (aw), which is essential for describing
the water availability and mobility in food (Ayala et al., 2011). Previous research
on moisture isotherms focused on other types of bananas and plantains, but as
reported by Robinson and Saco, (2010), the East African Highland bananas
are a distinct AAA group. No prior moisture sorption isotherms have been
reported on the East African Highland bananas (matooke, Musa sp. AAA-
EAHB). In order to achieve the objective of having a microbiologically shelf-
stable product it was important to establish its moisture sorption isotherm. The
main objective of this study was therefore to establish the moisture sorption
isotherms for matooke. The specific objectives were to determine:
The effect of temperature on the moisture sorption isotherm

The existing models which best predict the moisture sorption isotherms
The hysteresis behavior
The sorption heat.
4.2 Materials and methods

The static gravitation method recommended by COST 90 Project (Wolf et al.,
1985), was used for establishing both adsorption and desorption isotherms.
3 g of samples were put in air-sealed glass jars maintained at equilibrium
relative humidity using saturated salt solution. The glass jars were placed in
an incubator (BINDER CB Series, ILMACK, Basel, Switzerland) to maintain
the required set temperature (Sablani et al., 2007).
Dried samples used to determine the adsorption isotherm at 30 and

60C in were maintained at relative humidity ranging from 10 to 90% by
the static method employing standard saturated salt solutions. The dry
Establishment of moisture sorption isotherms for matooke 39
samples were kept in desiccators with silica gel at room temperature for
2 days prior to the beginning of experiments (Pahlevanzadeh & Yazdani,
2004; Yazdani et al., 2006).
Fresh samples used to determine the desorption isotherm at 50 and 60C
were maintained at relative humidity ranging from 10 to 90% by the static
method employing standard saturated salt solutions.
The final equilibrium moisture content of samples was determined by the
oven method at 105C for 24 h and results expressed on dry weight basis
(Baini & Langrish, 2007).
The temperatures selected for desorption isotherm determination are normally
used for drying of bananas (Queiroz & Nebra, 2001; Karim & Hawlader,
2005; Nguyen & Price, 2007). The adsorption isotherm temperature of 30C
was selected because it corresponds with the maximum ambient conditions
in Uganda in terms of considering the storage conditions. The adsorption
and desorption data at 60C were selected for establishing the hysteresis
phenomenon. The salt solutions used to obtain constant relative humidity of
the surrounding air from 10 to 90% are given in the Table 4.1; all the salts used
were of analytical grade.
Table 4.1 Relative humidity over saturated salts at 30, 50 and 60C
Salt Solution Relative Humidity (%)

30C 50C 60C
LiCl 11.28 11.21 10.95
CH3COOK 21.61 19.20 18.00
MgCl2 32.44 30.54 29.26
K2CO3 43.17 42.65 42.11
Mg(NO3)2 51.40 46.16 45.44
NaNO2 73.14 69.04 67.27
NaCl 75.09 74.34 74.20
KCl 83.62 81.20 80.25
Statistical Analysis
The experiments were carried out in triplicates and the results were analyzed
by using SPSS (version 16) for Windows ( 2010 University of Bristol, UK). It
minimizes the sum of squares of derivatives between experimental and theory
in a series of iterative steps. It also evaluates the parameters/ constants of
the model and goodness-of-fit (R2). The suitability of the models was further
evaluated and compared using the following statistical errors:
The root mean square error (RMSE, equation 4.1), gives the fitting ability
of a model in relation to number of data points, the smaller the value the
Establishment of moisture sorption isotherms for matooke
better the fitting ability of an equation (Hassian et al., 2001; Mehta &
Singh, 2006; Siripatrawan
Establishment & Jantawat,
of moisture sorption 2006;for
isotherms Moreira et al., 2008; Seid &
matooke
Hensel, 2012). 2

= =1
4.1

2

=1
= 4.1

Mean relative percentage deviation modulus (E: equation 4.2). This has
Mean relative percentage deviation modulus (E: equation 4.2). This has been widely use
been widely used and it has been recommended that the E value less
than 10% recommended
been
Mean is indicative
relative ofthat
a good
percentage fit value
the E for practical
deviation modulus purposes
less than 10% is (Mehta
indicative& of
(E: equation 4.2). This Singh,
a good fit for practic
has been widely use
2006; Siripatrawan
(Mehta & Jantawat,
& Singh, 2006; 2006;& Yan
Siripatrawan et al.,2006;
Jantawat, 2008;
YanMoreira et al.,
et al., 2008; Moreira et al., 20
been recommended that the E value less than 10% is indicative of a good fit for practic
2008).
(Mehta & Singh, 2006; Siripatrawan & Jantawat, 2006; Yan et al., 2008; Moreira et al., 20
100
= =1 4.2

100
= =1 4.2

4.3.1 Effect of temperature on moisture isotherm for matooke

4.3.1 Effect of temperature on moisture isotherm for matooke
Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show the adsorption and desorption isotherms
Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show the adsorption and desorption isotherms respectively.
respectively.
0.3
30C
60C
Equilibrium moisture content
(kg water/kg drymatter)
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Water activity, aw
Figure 4.1 Experimental data adsorption isotherm

Figure 4.1 Experimental data adsorption isotherm
0.3
50C

60C
(kg water/kg dry matter)

0.2
0.1
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Water activity, aw
Figure 4.2Experimental
Figure 4.2 Experimental data isotherm
data desorption desorption isotherm
It was observed from Figures 4.1 and 4.2, that the moisture sorption isotherms
in Itboth
was observed
casesfrom Figures
were 4.1 and 4.2, that
temperature the moisture sorption
dependant. isotherms in bothmoisture
The equilibrium cases were at a
temperature dependant. The equilibrium moisture at a given water activity, decreased with increase in
given water activity, decreased with increase in temperature. This was in
temperature. This was in agreement with the theory of physical sorption (Iglesias et al., 1975; Hassian et
agreement withthat
al., 2001). Implying thematooke
theory of physical
became sorption
less hygroscopic (Iglesias
with increasing et al.,This
temperature. 1975; Hassian
was similar
et toal.,
the 2001). Implying
report on starch that matooke
(Al-Muhtaseb et al., 2004), became less et
pitahya fruit (Ayala hygroscopic with(Corra
al., 2011) and coffee increasing
et
al., 2010). Both adsorption and desorption isotherms for matooke exhibited Type II curves which is more
temperature. This was similar to the report on starch (Al-Muhtaseb et al.,
pronounced for desorption moisture isotherm. It was consistent with previous researchers on bananas
2004), pitahya fruit (Ayala et al., 2011) and coffee (Corra et al., 2010). Both
and plantains (Johnson & Brennan, 2000; and Yan et al., 2008).
adsorption and desorption isotherms for matooke exhibited Type II curves
which is more pronounced for desorption moisture isotherm. It was consistent
4.3.2 Fitting Models to Moisture Sorption Isotherms for Matooke
with previous researchers on bananas and plantains (Johnson & Brennan,
2000; andof Yan
The fitting et al.,sorption
the moisture 2008). isotherms was done using the nonlinear regression analysis. Figures
4.3, 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 show the best fitted models given in Table 4.2, for both adsorption and desorption
moisture isotherms for matooke.
4.3.2 Fitting Models to Moisture Sorption Isotherms for
Matooke
The fitting of the moisture sorption isotherms was done using the nonlinear
regression analysis. Figures 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 show the best fitted models
given in Table 4.2, for both adsorption and desorption moisture isotherms for
matooke.
0.3
Xexp
Establishment of moisture sorption isotherms

GAB for matooke 48
ContentMoisture Content
Chung-Pfost

0.3
0.2
Oswin
Xexp
Smith
GAB
Chung-Pfost
Equilibrium
0.2
0.1
Oswin
Equilibrium Moisture
Smith
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Water Activity, aw
Figure 4.3 Best fitted models for adsorption isotherms of matooke at 30C
Figure 4.3 Best fitted
0 models for adsorption isotherms of matooke at 30C
0.3 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Xexp Water Activity, aw
BET
ContentMoisture Content
GAB
0.2
0.3
Xexp
Chung-Pfost
BET
Smith
Equilibrium
GAB
0.1
0.2
Equilibrium Moisture
Chung-Pfost
Smith
0.0
0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Water Activity, aw
0.0
Figure 4.4 Best fitted models0 for adsorption of matooke at
0.2 isotherms0.4 0.660C 0.8 1
Water Activity, aw
0.3
Xexp
0.3
GAB
Xexp
Equilibrium Moisture Content Henderson
dry matter)
0.2 GAB
Smith
Content
Henderson
0.2
water/kg
Smith
Moisture
0.1
Equilibrium(kg
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Water Activity, aw
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure 4.5 Best fitted models for desorption isotherms of matooke
Water at 50C
Activity, a w
Figure 4.5 Best fitted models for desorption isotherms of matooke at 50C
0.3
Xexp
Equilibrium Moisture Content
0.3
BET
drymatter)
Xexp
GAB
Content
0.2 BET
Iglesias-Chirife
water/kg
GAB
Moisture
0.2
Iglesias-Chirife
Equilibrium(kg
0.1
0.1
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Water Activity, aw
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure 4.6 Best fitted models for desorption isotherms Activity, at
of matooke
Water a 60C w
Table 4.2 Model constants and statistical errors for adsorption and
desorption isotherms
Model Constants Adsorption Desorption

30C 60C 50C 60C
BET Mm 0.044 0.038 0.0519 0.035
C 13.721 22.020 24.845 17.330
R2 0.960 0.977 0.829 0.971
E (%) 15.064 5.294 19.810 5.028
RSME 0.0104 0.0074 0.0262 0.0131
GAB Mm 0.087 0.050 0.059 0.031
C 4.104 16.051 20.572 0.627
k 0.737 0.971 0.862 0.800
R2 0.983 0.978 0.999 0.997
E (%) 3.091 3.653 1.255 5.868
RSME 0.0022 0.0072 0.0018 0.0040
Chung-Pfost C1 91.743 192.427 208.049 73.618
C2 14.780 14.696 14.814 8.762
R2 0.997 0.931 0.963 0.995
E (%) 3.032 1.366 12.543 4.733
RSME 0.0028 0.0127 0.0122 0.055
Smith C1 0.017 0.021 0.031 -0.032

C2 0.108 0.110 0.097 0.140
R2 0.934 0.964 0.997 0.999
E (%) 8.712 2.404 2.857 2.937
RSME 0.0053 0.0093 0.0035 0.0030
Iglesias- C1 0.035 0.039 0.065 0.034
Chirife C2 0.046 0.049 0.027 0.034
R2 0.934 0.966 0.945 0.970
E (%) 25.075 9.011 17.414 6.657
RSME 0.0134 0.0089 0.0149 0.1488
Henderson C1 1.495 2.282 0.740 9.806
C2 5.433 3.311 15.146 0.879
R2 0.961 0.905 0.976 0.963
E (%) 15.824 15.978 10.998 20.012
RSME 0.0336 0.0149 0.00984 3.2300
Table 4.2 shows the model constants and statistical errors for adsorption and
desorption isotherms. It was observed from Table 4.2, that the relationship
between monolayer for BET and GAB for all cases, both adsorption and
desorption are consistent with Timmermann et al., (2001), for which the BET
monolayer was less than the GAB monolayer; and the constant (c) for BET
was greater than that of GAB in both adsorption and desorption isotherms.
All the BET and GAB monolayer values fall within the monolayer for starchy
foods which generally range from 0.032 0.16 (kg water/kg dry matter)
(Siripatrawan & Jantawal, 2006). Also, the GAB constants for adsorption are
0.737 and 0.971 at 30C and 60C respectively, while those of desorption are
0.862 and 0.800 at 50C and 60C respectively. This shows that they all fall
within the recommended range of: 0.7 < k < 1 (Timmermann et al., 2001).
The GAB monolayer has been reported to be indicative of optimum moisture

content for storage conditions for hydrated foods (Yan et al., 2008; Moreira et
al., 2008; Veg-Galvez et al., 2007; Pahlevanzadeh & Yazdani, 2005; Awoyele,
2004). For the case of matooke, the GAB monolayer for adsorption isotherm
at 30C was 0.087, which was below the recommended safe water activity
level of 0.6 (Labuza et al., 1972; Yan et al., 2008; Sahu & Tiwari, 2007). The
water activity level of 0.6 corresponds with equilibrium moisture content of 0.11
(kg water/kg dry-matter), equivalent to 10% (wb), on the adsorption isotherm
at 30C. This implies that the equilibrium moisture content for microbiologically
shelf-stable dried matooke is 10% (wb). In this study, all the subsequent drying
experiments, the samples were dried up to moisture content of 10 % (wb)
which was used as basis for analysis.
The six models fitted to describe both the adsorption and desorption isotherms
for matooke were: BET, GAB, Henderson, Iglesias-Chirife, Smith and Chung-
Pfost. The models with R2 > 0.95 and E 10% were considered to be the best
fitting models to describe matooke moisture isotherm. Figure 4.3 shows the
best fitted models for adsorption isotherms which include: GAB, Chung-Pfost,
and Smith for adsorption at 30C and Figure 4.4 shows that BET, GAB, Chung-
Pfost, Smith and Iglesiau-Chirife are the best fitting models for adsorption at
60C. While Figure 4.5 shows the best fitting for desorption isotherms at 50C
which include: BET, GAB and Henderson, and Figure 4.6 shows that BET,
GAB, and Iglesias-Chirife were the best fitting models for desorption isotherms
at 60C. The GAB model best described all the adsorption and desorption
isotherms. The results for statistical errors used to evaluate the best fitting
models together with model constants are given in Table 4.2.
It was observed from Table 4.2, that all models fitted had a small value for
RMSE as computed using equation 4.1, which indicated that all models could
be used to describe both adsorption and desorption moisture isotherms for
matooke. However, the computed values of E% using equation 4.2 indicated
that the BET and Iglesias-Chirife model, the E-values were greater than 10% for
adsorption and desorption moisture isotherms at 30C and 50C respectively.
Chung-Pfost model, the E-value was greater than 10% for desorption moisture
isotherm at 50C. The Henderson model, the E-value was greater than 10%
for all the adsorption and desorption moisture isotherms for matooke. This
indicated that although the RMSE had small values for all models, the E-value
eliminated those models whose values were greater than 10% as not being
good for describing the moisture sorption isotherms for matooke. Therefore
only the GAB model best described all the adsorption and desorption moisture
isotherms for matooke.
4.3.3 Hysteresis for matooke

4.3.4 Hysteresis for matooke
Figure 4.7 shows the hysteresis behavior for matooke.
Figure 4.7 shows the hysteresis behavior for matooke.
0.3
Desorption 60C
Adsorption 60C
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Water activity, aw
Figure 4.7 Hysteresis for matooke

Figure 4.7 Hysteresis for matooke
From Figure 4.7 it was observed that matooke exhibits hysteresis which was consistent with previous
work on bananas and starch containing foods (Johnson & Brennan, 2000, Al-Muhtaseb et al., 2004),
which indicated that the fresh matooke holds more moisture than dry ones over the entire range of water
activity (aw). The hysteresis phenomenon was exhibited by the moisture sorption isotherms at 60C.
However, it has been reported by previous researchers that the hysteresis can be used as a food quality
index, with increased hysteresis being indicative of reduced stability and reduced or absence of
From Figure 4.7 it was observed that matooke exhibits hysteresis which
was consistent with previous work on bananas and starch containing foods
(Johnson & Brennan, 2000, Al-Muhtaseb et al., 2004), which indicated
that the fresh matooke holds more moisture than dry ones over the entire
range of water activity (aw). The hysteresis phenomenon was exhibited by
the moisture sorption isotherms at 60C. However, it has been reported by
previous researchers that the hysteresis can be used as a food quality index,
with increased hysteresis being indicative of reduced stability and reduced or
absence of hysteresis being indicative of improved stability of stored product
(Caurie, 2007). Also it was reported that the hysteresis is dependent on the
sorption temperatures (Sun & Byrne, 1998; Aviara et al., 2006; Vega-Glvez
et al., 2008). It was further reported that the loop becomes wider with increase
in temperature (Aviara et al., 2006; Vega-Glvez et al., 2008; Raji & Ojedrian,
2011). It is therefore, recommended that further investigations on hysteresis
at different temperatures should be carried out in order to establish the
temperature range within which there is increased hysteresis (being indicative
of reduced stability) and reduced hysteresis (being indicative of improved
stability) of stored dried matooke.
4.3.4 Isosteric Heat of Sorption for matooke

The isosteric heat of sorption for adsorption isotherm is a measure for the
energy released during adsorption. While that for desorption isotherm is the
energy required for breaking the intermolecular forces between the molecules
of water vapor and the surface of adsorbent (Ciro et al., 2008). The GAB
model was used to predict the water activity (aw) at different equilibrium
moisture content, which was used in the analysis. The isosteric heat of sorption
for adsorption and desorption isotherms were calculated from the slope of
equation 2.5 and 2.6. Figure 4.8 Isosteric heats of sorption for adsorption and
desorption of matooke as a function of moisture content.
forces between the molecules of water vapor and the surface of adsorbent (Ciro et al., 2008). The GAB
model was used to predict the water activity (aw) at different equilibrium moisture content, which was used
in the analysis. The isosteric heat of sorption for adsorption and desorption isotherms were calculated
from the slope of equation 2.5 and 2.6. Figure 4.8 Isosteric heats of sorption for adsorption and
desorption of matooke as a function of moisture content.
20,000
Desorption Qst (kJ/kg)
Isosteric Heat of Sorption (kJ/kg)

Adsorption Qst (kJ/kg)
15,000
Latent heat of Vaporization (kJ/kg)
10,000
5,000
-
- 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Equilibrium Moisture Content
Figure 4.8Figure
Isosteric heats
4.8 Isosteric heatsof
of sorption for adsorption
sorption for adsorption and
and desorption desorption
of matooke of matooke
as a function of moisture
content.
as a function of moisture content.
It was observed from Figure 4.8 that the isosteric heat of sorption decreases
It was observed from Figure 4.8 that the isosteric heat of sorption decreases with increasing moisture
with increasing moisture content for both adsorption and desorption, this was
content for both adsorption and desorption, this was consistent with literature on bananas (Yan et al.,
consistent2008).
withTheliterature
isosteric heatonof bananas (Yan etwere
sorption for desorption al.,higher
2008). The
than that for isosteric heat of
adsorption, indicating that
moredesorption
sorption for energy is required for desorption
were higherprocess
than than
thatfor for
adsorption process. The
adsorption, decrease of isosteric
indicating that
heat of sorption with increasing moisture content could be related to the decrease of active sites leading
more energy is required for desorption process than for adsorption process.
to reduced energy required to break the bond between water molecules and product surface, as the water
The decrease
occupiesof
theisosteric
active sites atheat of sorption
high moisture with
content. This trendincreasing moisture
has been reported for bananas content
(Johnson &
could be related to the decrease of active sites leading to reduced energy

Brennan, 2000; Pahlevanzadeh & Yazdani, 2005; Falade & Awoyele, 2005; Ciro et al., 2008; Yan et al.,
2008; Hossain et al., 2001) and for pitahaya fruits (Yala et al., 2011).
required to break the bond between water molecules and product surface,
as the water occupies the active sites at high moisture content. This trend
has been reported for bananas (Johnson & Brennan, 2000; Pahlevanzadeh
& Yazdani, 2005; Falade & Awoyele, 2005; Ciro et al., 2008; Yan et al., 2008;
Hossain et al., 2001) and for pitahaya fruits (Yala et al., 2011).
As the moisture further increases, xe 0.3, the sorption heat tends to latent
heat of vaporization of pure water, which indicates that the moisture exists in
its free form (Oluwamukomi et al., 2008; McLaughlin & Magee, 1998). The
values of isosteric heat of sorption reported in this study revealed the existence
of large amounts of bound water. The total sorption heat, Qst, are higher than
the latent heat of vaporization of pure water, indicating that the energy of
binding between the water molecules and the sorption sites is higher than the
energy which holds the water molecule of pure water together in liquid phase
(Al-Muhtaseb et al., 2004).
higher than the energy which holds the water molecule of pure water together in liquid phas
Muhtaseb et al., 2004).

The relationship between the net isoteric heat sorption and equilibrium moisture content was determ
The relationship between the net isoteric heat sorption and equilibrium
using the SPSS 16 in order to determine the constants of equation 2.7. The exponential relationshi
moisture content was determined using the SPSS 16 in order to determine the
total desorption
constants and adsorption
of equation isosteric heatrelationships
2.7. The exponential of sorption, equation 4.3 was used to calculate
for total desorption
desorption
and and adsorption
adsorption isosteric
isosteric heat heat of sorption
of sorption, equationfor matooke.
4.3 was used to calculate
total desorption and adsorption isosteric heat of sorption for matooke.
2
= 20870 + , R = 0.987 4.3
0.036
The exponential relationships for both adsorption and desorption isotherm of

The exponential
matooke, describerelationships for both adsorption
well the dependences and desorption
of isosteric heat of isotherm
sorptionofonmatooke,
the describe w
dependences
equilibrium of isosteric
moisture heat of
content. This sorption on the equilibrium
was consistent moisture
with previous content.
work This was consisten
on fruits
andprevious work on(Ciro
vegetables fruits et
andal.,
vegetables
2008; Ayala (Ciro et
et al.,
al., 2008;
2011;Ayala
Seidet&al., 2011;2012;
Henel, Seid & Henel, 2012;
Vega-Glvez
Glvez et al.,et2008).
al., 2008).
It was Itobserved
was observed
from Figurefrom4.8 Figure 4.8 that
that there was there
inverse wasexponential relatio
inverse
between exponential relationship
the total isosteric heat between
of sorptiontheand
totalequilibrium
isosteric heat of sorption
moisture contentand of matooke. The
equilibrium moisture content of matooke. The total isosteric heat of sorption
isosteric heat of sorption (Qst) increased with decreased equilibrium moisture content. The total iso
(Qheat
st
) increased with
of sorption fordecreased
adsorption equilibrium
isotherm formoisture
matookecontent. The total
ranged from 4,586isosteric
2,386kJ/kg for equil
heat of sorption
moisture content for
fromadsorption
0.01 0.3 isotherm
(kg water/kgfor dry
matooke
matter) ranged fromWhile
respectively. 4,586the total isosteric h
2,386kJ/kg
sorption forfor equilibrium
desorption moisture
isotherm contentranged
for matooke from 0.01from 18,194
0.3 (kg water/kg
2,391 kJ/kgdry
for equilibrium mo
matter) respectively. While the total isosteric heat of sorption for desorption
content from 0.01 0.3 (kg water/kg dry matter) respectively. These results are comparable with
isotherm for matooke ranged from 18,194 2,391 kJ/kg for equilibrium
range of what was reported for bananas and plantain, the difference is attributed to the mo
moisture content from 0.01 0.3 (kg water/kg dry matter) respectively. These
dependence of moisture sorption isotherms. The moisture content used in obtaining the isosteric h
results are comparable within the range of what was reported for bananas and
sorption should be put in consideration when comparing with values in literature, Ciro et al., (2
plantain, the difference is attributed to the moisture dependence of moisture
reported (qst 1670 - 215 kJ/kg for 0.05 0.26 kg water/kg dry matter), Johnson & Brennan, (
sorption isotherms. The moisture content used in obtaining the isosteric heat
reported (Q 4117 2665 kJ/kg (73 47 (kJ/g mol) for 0.02 - 0.18 kg water/kg dry matter).
of sorption stshould be put in consideration when comparing with values in
literature, Ciro et al., (2008), reported (qst 1670 - 215 kJ/kg for 0.05 0.26 kg
water/kg dry matter), Johnson & Brennan, (2000) reported (Qst 4117 2665
kJ/kg (73 47 (kJ/g mol) for 0.02 - 0.18 kg water/kg dry matter).
It has been reported by previous researchers that the total isosteric heat of
sorption for desorption isotherm is an estimate of the energy requirement
for dehydration (Kiranoudis et al., 1993; Pahlevanzadeh & Yazdani, 2004;
Kaymak-Ertekni & Gedik, 2004; Yazdani et al., 2006; Yang et al., 2012).
The energy required to dry matooke was obtained by integrating equation 4.3
which gives the total isosteric heats of sorption for desorption of matooke from
2012).
50
The Establishment
energy required to dry matooke of moisture
was obtained sorptionequation
by integrating isotherms
4.3for matooke
which gives the total
isosteric heats of sorption for desorption of matooke from 0.11 to 3.5 (kg water/kg dry-matter) using the
0.11
latenttoheat
3.5 of
(kgvaporization
water/kg dry-matter)
of pure water using
at the the latentof heat
average of vaporization
the temperatures in theofstudy
pure55C ( =
water at the average of the temperatures in the study 55C ( = 2,386.13kJ/
2,386.13kJ/kg).
kg).
3.

20870 + 2386.13 = 8,124
0.11 0.036
Therefore, the energy required to dry matooke from 3.5 to 0.11 (kg water/
Therefore,
kg the energy
dry-matter) required to80
(equivalent dry matooke
10 % from
wb)3.5
is to8,124kJ/kg
0.11 (kg water/kg dry-matter)
of water (equivalent 80
removed.
Therefore, the total energy required to dry 1 kg of fresh matooke from 801
10 % wb) is 8,124kJ/kg of water removed. Therefore, the total energy required to dry kg of fresh
matooke from 80
10% (wb) is 5,768 kJ.10% (wb) is 5,768 kJ.
4.4 Conclusion and Recommendations

4.4 Conclusion and Recommendations
This study has bridged the gap of lack of information on the sorption isotherm
ofThis
matooke. The study
study has bridged the gaphas therefore,
of lack provided
of information very useful
on the sorption isotherminformation on study has
of matooke. The
moisture sorption isotherm of matooke, which can be used for prediction can
therefore, provided very useful information on moisture sorption isotherm of matooke, which of be used
quality, design, modeling and optimization of many processes such as drying, aeration
for prediction of quality, design, modeling and optimization of many processes such as drying,
and storage. In addition, it is also important for predicting quality changes during packaging and storage
aeration and storage. In addition, it is also important for predicting quality
of dried matooke.
changes during packaging and storage of dried matooke.
This study has specifically provided the following information on moisture

sorption
This studyisotherm for matooke
has specifically forfollowing
provided the the firstinformation
time, andon the following
moisture sorptionhave been
isotherm for matooke
for the
revealed:first time, and the following have been revealed:
Matooke
Matookeisotherms
isotherms exhibited
exhibitedtype II curves
type behavior
II curves which iswhich
behavior characteristic of foodstuffs.
is characteristic
of foodstuffs.
The equilibrium moisture content decreases with increase in temperature at a given water activity
(a ), indicating that it becomes less hygroscopic at high temperatures giving a clear stability
The wequilibrium moisture content decreases with increase in temperature
at a given water activity (aw), indicating that it becomes less hygroscopic at
high temperatures giving a clear stability domain of matooke after drying
leading to extensive shelf life. This compliments to Muranga, (1998), who
attributed the extensive shelf life to low sugar and fat.
The GAB model best described all the adsorption and desorption moisture
isotherms for matooke. It is recommended to be used by the processors
to determine the moisture content during storage.
For microbiologically and shelf stability of dried matooke, it is recommended
to dry it to moisture content below or equal to 0.11 (kg water/kg dry matter)
equivalent to 10% (wb).
The storage condition should be below or equal to 30C, but due to

fluctuations in temperatures and humidity in Uganda because of wet and
dry seasons, it is recommended to seal the dried matooke to minimize
moisture intake.
The hysteresis phenomenon was exhibited by the moisture sorption
isotherms and it could be used as a food quality index. It is recommended
that further investigations on hysteresis at different temperatures be
carried out to establish the ranges of increased hysteresis being indicative
of reduced stability and reduced hysteresis being indicative of improved
stability of stored dry matooke.
The isosteric heat of sorption for both isotherms increased with decreased
moisture content. The total isosteric heat of sorption for adsorption
isotherm ranged from 4,586 2,386 kJ/kg for equilibrium moisture
content from 0.3 0.01 (kg water/kg dry-matter) respectively. While the
total isosteric heat of sorption for desorption isotherm ranged from 18,194
2,391 kJ/kg for equilibrium moisture content from 0.3 0.01 (kg water/
kg dry-matter) respectively.
The total isosteric heat of sorption for desorption isotherm is an estimate
of the energy requirement for breaking the intermolecular forces between
solid and moisture during the drying process to drying. Thus energy
required to dry matooke from 3.5 to 0.11 (kg water/kg dry-matter)
(equivalent 80 10 % (wb) is 8,124kJ/kg of water removed. Therefore,
the total energy required to dry 1 kg of matooke from 80 - 10% (wb) is
5,768kJ.
52 Drying Characteristics of Matooke
Chapter Five
Objective: Drying Characteristics of Matooke
5.1 Background
Hot-air drying is considered as one of the simplest, most appropriate and most
economical technology for processing of fruits and vegetables in developing
countries (Johnson et al., 1998; Baini and Langrish, 2007). Understanding
of phenomena involved in the drying process is a primary requirement when
using hot-air drying in order to predict the drying times, and the influence of
the processing parameters such as: air temperature, dew point temperature,
thickness (size) of the slices and air velocity on the drying characteristics
(Johnson et al., 1998). These processing parameters have been reported
to have a significant effect on the drying characteristics (Krokida et al.,
2003). Application of effective diffusivity method has been reported to be a
convenient and practical method for describing moisture changes during the
drying process (Kayacier et al., 2004; Baini and Langrish, 2007). In addition,
diffusion properties are important for understanding of the drying behavior of
food during drying and also for the design and optimization of dryers for specific
crops (Rasouli et al., 2011). In order to control and optimization of the drying
process for matooke it was important to understand the effect of processing
parameters on the drying characteristics. The objective of the investigations
described in this chapter was to establish the effect of processing parameters
on the drying characteristics of matooke and the specific objectives were to
determine the effect of:
1. Process parameters on drying characteristics.

2. Drying rate constant, effective moisture diffusivity and activation
energy.
3. Processing parameters on total color change (E*).
4. Drying air temperature on surface product temperature.
5. Product temperature on the drying time.
Drying Characteristics of Matooke 53
5.2 Materials and Methods

The research dryer was developed in corporation with M/s Innotech
Ingeniersgesellschaft mbH, Altdorf (Bblingen), Germany and University
of Applied Science and Technology, Konstanz, Germany. It comprises of:
drying tower for both overflow and through flow unit, water conditioning
unit, humidifying unit, fan, pyrometer, digital camera and data-logger. The
processing parameters (independent variables): air velocity, drying air
temperature, dew-point temperature were set and continuously monitored
and data-logged during the drying process. Similarly, the dependent variable:
mass of samples were measured continuously using a precision balance and
product temperature were measured by a precision infrared pyrometer. The
dependent variables were monitored and automatically recorded by data-
logged at a 10 sec interval during the drying process. The photographs of
the samples were taken by the digital camera at 30 min time intervals. Figure
5.1, shows both the pictorial view of major components of the research dryer
and Figure 5.2, shows the system layout of the research dryer. All matooke cv.
Mbwazirume (musa sp. AAA-EABH) samples used for the experiments were
at harvest maturity age of 17 weeks based from the findings of Chapter 3 of
this study.
Over flow duct
Humidifying
Unit
Manometer
Monitoring
scale Fan
Figure 5.1 Pictorial view of the research dryer unit

Preparation of Samples
The fresh samples were harvested, from the marked banana as described in
Chapter 3 of this study, washed, peeled and sliced to specified uniform thickness
using slicing machine. The thicknesses of sliced samples were continuously
monitored by physical measuring using a Vanier Clippers to confirm the actual
thickness (Chapter 3). After slicing the samples were pretreated with 1%
sodium metabisulphite solution according to patent No. AP/P/2005/003308.
The dried sample were sealed in airtight bags and kept in the fridge at 4C
for subsequent tests in the laboratory. Samples for determining the pasting
properties and starch content were milled (Chapter 3). All experiments were
carried out at the Presidential Initiative on Banana Industrial Development
(PIBID) - Technology Business Incubator at Bushenyi, Uganda. Table 5.1
shows the measuring equipment used in these investigations.
Table 5.1 Measuring equipment
Type of Equipment Model Manufacturer Accuracy

measurement
Recording Data-logger Agilent Agilent
experimental 34970A, Technologies,
data Inc.
Sample weight Precision Sartorius Sartorius AG, 0.01g
balance LA16001S Goettingen, Capacity 12
Germany kg
Product Precision Heitronics Heitronics 0.05C
temperature infrared Infrarot +0.7%
pyrometer KT15 II Messtechnik of temp
GmbH, difference
Wiesbden, between room
Germany & object
Air temperature Pt 100 0.02C
Thermocouple
Dew pint Pt 100 0.02C
temperature Thermocouple
The independent variables (processing parameters) were:
Air temperature (50, 60 and 70C)

Dew point temperature (15, 25 and 35C).
Air velocity 3, 4.5 and 6 m/s for the overflow mode
Slice thickness (3, 5 and 7 mm)
The dependent variables were:
Drying time (min).

Color of the sample.
Sample weight
The experiments were carried out in triplicates and the results were analyzed
using SPSS 16 for Windows to fit the experiment data.
Figure 5.2: Complete system layout of the units for the research dryer.
Key: W: water conditioning unit, V: air fan, H: humidifier, C:

computer, D: data-logger, T: drying chamber, X: through
flow, U: overflow, H1 = heating unit (heaters), a: air
temperature, b, g: air velocity (hot air manometer), c: a i r
temperature, d: pyrometer, e: camera, f: balance, h: air
temperature, i : heaters, j:fan, k: water condition unit
Figure 5.3 shows the representation of the whole process of drying on

the psychrometric chart. The air is sucked by the fan at point A at ambient
conditions, it is cooled in the humidifying unit to point B, humidified to the
set dew point temperature point C, and it is then heated by heaters to a set
temperature D.
Figure 5.3: The drying process as represented on the psychrometric chart.
5.3.1 Effect of thickness on drying characteristics of matooke

Figure 5.4 shows the effect of thickness of the slices on the drying characteristics
of matooke. The investigations were carried out for slice thicknesses of 3, 5,
and 7 mm at air temperature of 60C, dew-point temperature of 15C and air
velocity of 4.5 m/s.
Figure 5.4
Thickness
4 3 mm
(kg water/kg dry metter)
Mosture Content
3 5 mm
7 mm
2
0
- 100 200 300 400
Time (min)
Figure 5.4 Effect of thickness on the drying characteristics of matooke (air

temperature 60C, dew-point temperature 15C and air velocity 4.5 m/s)
Figure 5.5
1.2
Figure 5.4
Thickness
Drying Characteristics
4
of Matooke 57
3 mm
(kg water/kg dry metter)

It was observed from Figure 5.4 that thickness of the samples has a significant
Mosture Content
3 5 mm
effect on the drying time, in that the drying time increased

7 mm
with increase in
thickness. This was
2 in line with previous researchers who reported that as
thickness increases, the diffusion path, becomes longer with increase in
1
thickness and vice versa (Krokida et al., 2000; Nguyen and Price, 2007;
Islam et al., 2012). The drying time required to reach the recommended
0
microbiologically shelf-stable
- 100product (Chapter
200 4)300of 0.10 (kg
400 water/kg dry
Time (min)
matter) were 115, 250 and 370 min for 3, 5 and 7 mm respectively.
Figure 5.5 shows the plot of moisture ratio of different thickness versus drying
time at constant air temperature of 60C, dew point temperature of 15C and
air velocity of 4.5m/s.
Figure 5.5
1.2
Thickness
1
3 mm
5 mm
Moisture Ratio (x/xo)
0.8
7 mm
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 100 200 300 400
Time (min)
Figure 5.5 Plot of moisture ratio of different thickness versus the drying time
(air temperature 60oC, dew point temperature 15oC, air velocity 4.5 m/s).
It was observed from Figure 5.5 that there was also a direct relationship
between thickness and moisture ratio, in that the moisture ratio increased with
increase in thickness at any given time during the drying process.
Figure 5.6 shows the effect of drying rate constant at different thickness on the
moisture content of matooke at constant air temperature of 60C, dew point
temperature of 15C, air velocity of 4.5 m/s.
Figure 5.6
0.1
Thickness
3 mm
0.08 Warm-up
5 mm
(kg water/kg dry matter)/min

7 mm
Falling rate perids
0.06
Drying Rate
2nd 1st
0.04
0.02
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Moisture Content (kg water/kg dry matter)
Figure 5.6 Effect of drying rate constant of different thickness on the moisture
content of matooke (air temperature 60oC, dew point temperature 15oC, air
Figure
velocity 4.5 5.7
m/s)
Time (min)
From Figure 5.60 it was observed that the drying of matooke takes place in three
0 100 200
steps: the warm-up, the two falling rate periods:300 400
the first falling rate and second
falling rate. However,
-1 the second falling rate was more pronounced on the 3
mm curve. This was in agreement with the previous research on bananas and
Ln(Moisture Ratio)
plantains (Prachayawarakon
-2 et al., 2008). Since drying dominantly took place
during the first and second falling rate periods, it implied that diffusion was the
dominant mechanism
-3 Thicknesscontrolling the moisture migration from the samples.
The diffusion model could 3 mm fit the moisture content better than the empirical
model for matooke
-4 (Baini
5 mm and Langrish, 2007).
7 mm
Figure 5.7 shows the plot of natural logarithm of moisture ratio at different
-5
thickness versus the drying time, at air temperature of 60C, dew point
temperature of 15C and air velocity of 4.5 m/s. The effective diffusivity and
drying rate constant were calculated from the slope of the plot of the natural
logarithm of moisture ratio versus time employing equations 2.12 and 2.15
respectively.

Figure 5.7
Time (min)
0
0 100 200 300 400
-1
Ln(Moisture Ratio)
-2
-3 Thickness
3 mm
-4 5 mm
7 mm
-5
Figure 5.7 Plot of natural logarithm of moisture ratio at different thickness

versus the drying time of matooke (air temperature 60C, dew point temperature
15C and air velocity 4.5 m/s).
Table 5.2 shows the effective diffusivity and drying rate constant of different
slice thickness (3, 5 and 7 mm) at air temperature 60C, dew point temperature
15C, and air velocity 4.5 m/s. The fitted plots are shown in Figures 5.1A and
5.2A (Appendix).
Table 5.2: Effective diffusivity and drying rate constant for matooke of
different thickness (air temperature 60C, dew point temperature 15C,
and air velocity4.5 m/s).
Drying Rate
Thickness Drying Time Effective Diffusiv-
Constant k R2
(mm) (min) ity Deff (m2/s)
(/h)
3 115 2.10 5.32E-10 0.984
5 250 0.96 6.75E-10 0.987
7 370 0.60 8.27E-10 0.990
It was observed from Table 5.2 that there was an inverse relationship between
slice thickness and drying rate constant, in that the drying rate constant
decreased with increase in slice thickness. This was in line with previous
researchers on bananas and plantains (Johnson et al., 1998; Maskan, 2000;
Nguyen and Price, 2007; Islam et al., 2012). This trend is attributed to the
dependence of water removal from high moisture fruit on the migration of
water from internal sites of fruit cells towards the surface. Therefore, the
smaller the thickness, the shorter the pathway and the higher the drying rate
constant, thus taking a shorter drying time to reach the desired moisture
content and vice versa (Nguyen and Price, 2007). It was further observed
from Table 5.2, that there was a direct relationship between the thickness
and effective moisture diffusivity, implying that the effective moisture diffusivity
increased with increase in thickness. This was also in line with previous works
on bananas and plantains (Johnson et al., 1998; Nguyen and Price, 2007;
Rasouli et al., 2011; Islam et al., 2012). The increase in effective moisture
diffusivity with increased slice thickness is attributed to the pathway in that the
longer the pathway (thickness) the higher the effective moisture diffusivity and
vice versa (Nguyen and Price, 2007; Rasouli et al., 2011; Islam et al., 2012).
Even if the effective moisture diffusivity increases with thickness, but because
of the longer pathway for the moisture to move from the cells to the surface, it
takes longer time to reach the desired moisture content.
From practical point view, considering that 12 hours are available for working in
a day, the number of batches and amount of product which can be processed
in a day are given in Tables 5.3 for single layer drying and 5.4 for multi layer.
Table 5.3 Single layer drying
Thickness Capacity Batches in Capacity/

Time (h)
(mm) (kg/m) 12h day(kg/m)
3 1.92 2.33 6 13.98

5 4.17 4.11 3 12.33
7 6.17 5.56 2 11.12
Table 5.4 Multi-layer drying (Thickness - 3mm)
Capacity/ batch Capacity/ day

Time (h) Batches in 12h
(kg/m) (kg/m)
3.53 3.48 3 10.59
6.78 5.07 2 13.56
10.52 6.26 1 10.52
It was observed from Table 5.3 and 5.4 that for single layer drying, thickness
of 3 mm was the best. In actual practical terms of commercial processing,
thickness is considered in terms of equivalent loading capacities (kg/m).

Considering the loading capacities for single layer drying and multi-layer
drying, it is more practical to run 2 batches than 6 batches per day. For
commercial processing of matooke, it is recommended to employ multi-layer
drying of loading capacity equal or less than 7 kg/m.
5.3.2 Effect of drying air temperature on drying characteristics

of matooke
Figure 5.8 shows the effect of drying air temperature on the drying
characteristics. The investigations were carried out for three different drying
air temperatures: 50, 60 and 70C at constant slice thicknesses of 3 mm, dew-
point temperature of 15C and air velocity of 4.5 m/s.
Figure 5.8
Drying air temperature

4
50C
60C
Moisture Content
3
70C
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (min)
Figure 5.8 Effect of drying air temperature on the drying characteristics of

matooke (at dew point temperature 15oC, air velocity 4.5 m/s and thickness
3mm)
Figure 5.9
It was observed 1.2
from Figure 5.8 that there was an inverse relationship
between drying air temperature and drying time, in that the drying time
decreased with increase in drying air temperature. This was in agreement with
50C
previous research on bananas and plantain (Nguyen and Price, 2007, Islam
0.8
60C
et al., 2012). This implied that the moisture removal increased with increase
in drying air temperature. Since drying is a simultaneously
70C heat and mass
transfer process, the higher the drying air temperature, the higher the capacity
0.4
0
- 50 100 150 200 250
Figure 5.8

4
50C

60C
to transfer heat to the drying product leading to increase in moisture removal
Moisture Content
3
70C
from the product. In addition, the higher the drying air temperature, the lower
the relative humidity in the stream of air. This implies increased capacity of
2
the air stream to pickup moisture from the product surface thus enhancing
moisture removal.1 All these factors coupled together resulted in reduced time
required to reach the desired moisture content at a higher air temperature and
vice versa as shown
0 in Figure 5.8. The drying time required to reach moisture
content of 0.1 (kg water/kg50dry matter)
0 100
was150 200, 115200
and 90250min. for 50, 60
Time (min)
and 70C respectively.
Figure 5.9 shows the effect of moisture ratio at different drying air temperature
on drying time. The investigations were carried out at constant dew point
temperature of 15C, air velocity of 4.5 m/s and thickness of 3 mm.
Figure 5.9
1.2
50C
0.8
60C
70C
0.4
0
- 50 100 150 200 250
Time (min)
Figure 5.9 Plot of moisture ratio at different drying air temperature versus
drying time of matooke (dew point temperature 15oC, air velocity 4.5 m/s and
thickness 3mm)
It was observed from Figure 5.9, that there was an inverse relationship between
air temperature and moisture ratio in that the moisture ratio decreased with
increase in drying air temperature at a given drying time. This trend was
observed by previous researchers on bananas and plantains (Islam et al.,
2012).
Figure 5.10 shows the effect of drying rate constant at different drying air
temperature on moisture content, at constant dew point temperature of 15C,
air velocity of 4.5 m/s and thickness of 3 mm.
Drying Characteristics
Figure 5.10 of Matooke 63
0.12
50C
(kg water/kg dry matter)/min 60C

0.08 70C
Drying Rate
0.04
0
0 2 4 6
Figure 5.10 Effect of drying rate constant at different drying air temperature
on moisture content of matooke (dew point temperature 15oC, air velocity4.5
Figure 5.11
m/s and thickness 3mm)
Time (min)
0
It was also observed
- in Figure 5.10, 100.00
that the drying of matooke 200.00 took place in
three steps: the warm-up and two falling rate periods: the first falling rate and
-1
second falling rate. It was further observed from50C Figure 5.10 that the drying
60C
Ln(Moisture Ratio)
rate constant for

-2
matooke was directly related to the air temperature, in that
70C
drying rate constant increased with increase in drying air temperature. This
was in line with
-3 the previous work done on plantains and bananas (Krokida
et al., 2000; Nguyen and Price, 2007; Rasouli et al., 2011; Islam et al., 2012).
This implied that
-4 the rate of moisture removal increased with temperature at
any given moisture until the product was relatively dry.

-5
drying air temperatures versus the drying time of matooke at constant dew
point temperature of 15C, air velocity of 4.5 m/s and thickness of 3 mm. Table
5.5 shows there was a direct relationship for both drying rate constant and
effective diffusivity with drying air temperature. This was in line with previous
researchers on bananas (Nguyen and Price, 2007). The fitted plots are shown
in Figures 5.3A and 5.4A in appendix A.
0
0 2 4 6

Figure 5.11
Time (min)
0
- 100.00 200.00
-1
50C
60C
Ln(Moisture Ratio)
-2
70C
-3
-4
-5
Figure 5.11 Plot of natural logarithm of moisture ratio at different drying air
temperatures versus the drying time of matooke (dew point temperature 15C,
air velocity 4.5 m/s and thickness 3 mm)
Table 5.5 Effective diffusivity and drying rate constant for matooke
at different drying air temperature (dew point temperature 15C, air
velocity 4.5 m/s and thickness 3mm)
Air Effective
Drying Rate
Temperature Diffusivity Deff R2
Constant k (/h)
(oC) (m2/s)
50 1.34 3.40E-10 0.988
60 2.10 5.32E-10 0.984
70 2.49 6.31E-10 0.984
Table 5.6 shows the comparisons of the results of effective diffusivity from
the study with what has been reported in literature on bananas and plantains.
However, though there some differences, the effective diffusivity of matooke
falls within the range reported for bananas and plantains ranging in the order
of 10-10 m2/s.
Table 5.6: Comparisons of current results with literature
Effective Moisture Diffusivity (m/s) Author

1.25E-10 to 2.19E-10, Islam et al., (2012)
3.16E-10 to 18.01E-10 Johnson et al., (1998)
3.40E-10 - 6.31E-10 Results of the study (Kawongolo, 2013)
4.0E-10 to 7.0E-10 Phoungchandang and Woods, (2000)
4.6E-10 to 13.0E-10 Dandamrongrak et al., (2002)
6.61E-11 to 2.41E-10 Karim and Harlader, (2004)
Calculation of the Activation Energy

Figure 5.12 shows the plot of natural logarithm of effective diffusivity versus
the reciprocal of drying air temperature, at constant dew point temperature
of 15C, air velocity of 4.5 m/s and thickness of 3 mm. The dependence of
effective diffusivity (Deff) was described by Arrhenius as given in equation 2.16.
The activation energy was calculated from the slope equation 2.18 (Doymaz,
2007). The activation energy (Ea) for matooke in 28.5 kJ/mol (equivalent
to1,605 kJ/kg). The activation energy of matooke lies within the general range
of 12.7 110 kJ/mol for food materials (Zogzas et al., 1996, Babalis and
Belessiotis, 2004).for matooke
Drying characteristics 74
1/(abs. Tempeature) (1/K)
0.0029 0.003 0.0031 0.0032
-21.2
y = -3433.2x - 11.135
R = 0.9456
Ln(Deff)
-21.6
-22
Figure5.12
Figure 5.12 Plot
Plotof of
natural logarithm
natural of effective diffusivity
logarithm of effectiveversus the reciprocal of
diffusivity drying airthe
versus temperature
reciprocal

(dew point temperature 15 C, air velocity 4.5 m/s and thickness 3 mm)
of drying air temperature (dew point temperature 15 C, air velocity 4.5 m/s and
thickness 3 mm)
The activation energy has been reported to be the energy required to break the intermolecular bonding
and bring the molecule to the surface where it acquires the latent heat of evaporation and it evaporates
from the surface (Demirel and Turhan, 2003; Baini and Langrish, 2007). This indicates that the activation
energy (Ea) is analogous to the net isoseteric heat of sorption for desorption isotherms (qst). The
activation energy (Ea) for matooke (1,605kJ/kg) falls within the range of net isoseteric heat of sorption for
The activation energy has been reported to be the energy required to break
the intermolecular bonding and bring the molecule to the surface where it
acquires the latent heat of evaporation and it evaporates from the surface
(Demirel and Turhan, 2003; Baini and Langrish, 2007). This indicates that the
activation energy (Ea) is analogous to the net isoseteric heat of sorption for
desorption isotherms (qst). The activation energy (Ea) for matooke (1,605kJ/
kg) falls within the range of net isoseteric heat of sorption for desorption (qst)
for moisture content ranging from 0.05 to 0.1 (kg water/kg dry matter) which is
(5,204 - 1,298 kJ/kg) respectively. However, the net isoseteric heat of sorption
for desorption isotherms (qst) at 0.1 (kg water/kg dry matter), (the moisture
considered in the drying experiments), (1,298 kJ/kg) is smaller than the
activation energy Ea (1,605 kJ/kg). This was in line with what was observed
by Demirel and Turhan, (2003), who reported that the comparison between Ea
and qst suggests that moisture molecules travels effectively in liquid form in the
slices during the drying process.
5.3.3 Effect of dew point temperature on drying characteristics

of matooke
Figure 5.13 shows the effect of dew temperature on the drying characteristics.
The investigation was carried out at three different dew point temperatures:
15, 25 and 35C, at constant slice thicknesses of 3 mm, air temperature of
60C and Figure
air velocity
5. 13 of 4.5 m/s.
5
Dew point temperature

4
15C
25C
Moisture Content
3
35C
0
- 50 100 150 200
Time (min)
Figure 5.13 Effect of dew point temperature on the drying characteristics of

matooke (air temperature 60C, air velocity 4.5 m/s and thickness 3mm).
Figure 5.14

4
Figure 5. 13from Figure 5.13 that the dew point temperature had low
It was observed
effect on the time5 of drying; however, there was direct relationship between
dew point temperature and drying timeDew point temperature
in that the drying time increases with
4
increase in dew point temperature. The direct relationship
15C between dew point
temperature and drying time could be attributed 25C to high relative humidity
Moisture Content
3
at higher dew point temperature in the stream 35C of air which decreased the
capacity of the air stream to pickup moisture from the product surface, hence
2
reducing moisture removal. As a result the time required to reach the desired
moisture content at higher dew point temperature increased and vice versa
1
as shown in Figure 5.13. The drying time required to reach moisture content
of 0.1 (kg water/kg dry matter) were approximately 115, 135 and 145 min. for
0
15, 25 and 35C respectively.
- 50 100 150 200
Time (min)
Figure 5.14 shows the plot of moisture ratio of different dew point temperatures
versus drying time of matooke at constant air temperature of 60C, air velocity
of 4.5 m/s and thickness of 3 mm.
Figure 5.14

4
15C
25C
Moisture Content
3
35C
0
- 50 100 150 200
Time (min)
Figure 5.14 Plot of moisture ratio at different dew point temperature versus
drying time of matooke (air temperature 60C, air velocity 4.5 m/s and thickness
3mm).
It was observed from Figure 5.14 that there was a direct relationship between
dew point temperature and moisture ratio in that the moisture ratio increased
with increased dew point temperature at any given drying time during drying.
Figure 5.15 shows the effect of drying rate constant of different dew point
temperature temperatures on moisture content, at constant air temperature of
60C, air velocity of 4.5m/s and thickness of 3 mm.
Figure 5.15
0.08
15C
0.06
25C
35C
Drying Rate
0.04
0.02
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 5.15 Effect of drying rate constant at different dew point temperature on
Figure 5.16
the moisture content (air temperature 60C, air velocity 4.5 m/s and thickness
Time (min)
3 mm). 0
- 50 100 150 200
It was observed from Figure 5.15 that the drying rate constant for matooke
-1
was inversely related to the dew point temperature, in that the drying rate
constant decreased with increased dew point temperature.
Ln(Moisture Ratio)
-2
dew point temperatures
-3 versus drying time, at constant air temperature of
60C, air velocity ofDew point temperature
4.5m/s and thickness of 3 mm.
15C
-4
25C
35C
-5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 5.16
Time (min)
0
- 50 100 150 200
-1
Ln(Moisture Ratio)
-2
-3
15C
-4
25C
35C
-5
Figure 5.16 Plot of natural logarithm of moisture ratio at different dew point
temperatures verses drying time (air temperature 60C, air velocity 4.5 m/s
and thickness 3mm).
Table 5.7 shows there was a direct relationship between drying rate constant
and drying air temperature. Also, a direct relationship was observed between
effective diffusivity and thickness. This was consistent with Rasouli et al.,
(2011); Nguyen and Price, (2007). The fitted plots are shown in Figures 5.5A
and 5.6A in appendix A.
Table 5.7 Effective diffusivity and drying rate constant for matooke at
different dew point temperatures (air temperature 60C, air velocity 4.5
m/s and thickness 3mm).
Drying Rate
Dew Point Constant, Effective Diffusivity
R2
Temperature (oC) Deff (m2/s)
k (/h)
15 2.10 5.32E-10 0.984
25 1.76 4.45E-10 0.988
35 1,72 4.36E-10 0.972
5.3.4 Effect of air velocity on drying characteristics of matooke

Figure 5.17 shows the effect of air velocity on the drying characteristics. The
investigations were carried out at three different airflows: 3, 4.5 and 6 m/s
at constant: thicknesses of 3 mm, air temperature of 50C and dew point
temperature of 15C.
Figure 5.17
4
Air velocity
3 m/s
3
(kg water/kg dry mmatter)

4.5 m/s
Moisture Content
6m/s
0
- 100 200 300 400 500
Time (min)
Figure 5.17 Effect of air velocity on the drying time of matooke (air temperature
of 50oC, dew point temperature of 15oC and the thickness of 3 mm).
Figure 5.18
It was observed from Figure 5.17 that there was an inverse relationship
between air velocity
1.2 and drying time in that the drying time decreased with
increased airflow. The inverse relationship Air between
velocity air velocity and drying
time could be attributed
0.9
to the fact that drying is a
3 m/s simultaneously heat and
4.5 m/s
mass transfer process, the higher the air velocity of air stream the greater
6 m/s
the capacity of air stream to pickup moisture from the product surface hence
0.6
enhancing moisture removal. In addition, at high air velocity, the air stream
has a higher heat transfer coefficient. As a result, the time required to reach
0.3
the desired moisture content at higher air velocity reduced and vice versa as
shown in Figure 5.17. The drying time required to reach moisture content of
0.1 (kg water/kg 0dry matter) was approximately 420, 200 and 92 min for 3, 4.5
0 100 200 300 400 500
and 6 m/s respectively.
Time (min)
Figure 5.18 shows the plot of moisture ratio at different air velocity versus
drying time at constant air temperature of 50C, dew point temperature of 15C
and the thickness of 3mm.
Time (min)
Figure 5.18 of Matooke

Drying Characteristics 71
1.2
Air velocity
3 m/s
0.9
Moisture Ratio (x/xo) 4.5 m/s
6 m/s
0.6
0.3
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (min)
Figure 5.18 Plot of moisture ratio at different air velocity versus drying time
(thicknesses of 3mm, air temperature 50C and dew point temperature 15C)
It was observed from Figure 5.18 that there was an inverse relationship
between air velocity and moisture ratio in that the moisture ratio decreased with
increased air velocity at any given drying time during drying. This indicated
that as the air velocity increased, the moisture removal increased.
Figure 5.19 shows the effect of drying rate on the moisture ratio of matooke
at different air velocity at thicknesses of 3mm, air temperature 50C and dew
point temperature
Figure 5.19 15C.
0.08
Air velocity
0.06
3 m/s
4.5 m/s
Drying Rate
6 m/s
0.04
0.02
Constant drying
rate period
0
0 1 2 3 4
Figure 5.19 Effect of drying rate on the moisture ratio of matooke at different
air velocity at thicknesses of 3mm, air temperature 50C and dew point
temperature 15C
Figure 5.20
Time (min)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Figure 5.19
0.08

Air velocity

0.06
It was observed from Figure3 m/s 5.19 it was observed that drying took place in
4.5 m/s
three steps: the warm-up and two falling rate periods. At lower air velocity
Drying Rate
6 m/s
0.04
(3 m/s), it was observed that there was a constant drying rate period up to
approximately a moisture content of 2 (kg water/kg dry matter), then the falling
rate period was observed.
0.02 It was further observed from Figure 5.19, that there
was a direct relationship between the dryingConstant
rate drying
constant and air velocity.
rate period
This implies that the rate of moisture removal increased with increase in air
0
velocity at any given moisture
0 content.
1 2 3 4
Figure 5.20 shows plot of natural logarithm of moisture ratio at different air
velocities versus drying time, at constant thicknesses of 3mm, air temperature
of 50C and dew point temperature of 15C.
Figure 5.20
Time (min)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
-2
Ln(Moisture Ratio)
-4
Air velocity
3 m/s
-6
4.5 m/s
6m/s
-8
Figure 5.20 Plot of natural logarithm of moisture ratio at different air velocities
versus drying time (drying air temperature 50C, dew point temperature 15C
and the thickness 3mm).
The slope was calculated from the slope of the linear segment (Rasouli et al.,
2011), and the results obtained from the slope as given in Table 5.8, show that
the effective diffusivity of matooke increased with increase in air velocity as
shown in Figure 5.38, (Nguyen and Price, 2007). The fitted plots are shown in
Figures 5.7A and 5.8A in appendix A.
Table 5.8 Effective diffusivity and drying rate constant for matooke
at different air velocities (drying air temperature 50C, dew point
temperature of 15C and the thickness of 3mm).
Drying Rate Effective

Constant Diffusivity Deff
Air velocity (m/s) k (/h) (m2/s) R2
3 0.594 1.50E-10 0.995
4.5 1.344 3.40E-10 0.988
6 1.614 4.09E-10 0.991
5.3.5 Effect of processing parameter on color of matooke

Table 5.7 shows the effect of processing parameters on the total color
difference (E*). The total color difference (E*) of dried matooke was
calculated by subtracting the color of the dried matooke from the color of the
fresh matooke (Baini and Langrish, 2007). The total color difference (E*)
was calculated form equation 2.4 using the Visual-Basic-based program for
analysis of images (Sturm and Hofacker, 2009).
It was observed for the Table 5.7, that there was an inverse relationship
between the effects of drying parameters on the total color difference (E*).
The results of total color difference (E*), was lowest for effect of thickness
was 7 mm, but it took the longest time to dry. This was followed by the effect of
air velocity which was 6 m/s, and lastly for the effect of drying air temperature
was 70C.
Table 5.9 Effect of processing parameters on total color difference

(E*)
Drying Processing Parameters Total
parameter Air Dew point Air Thickness color
temperature temperature velocity(m/s) (mm) difference
(C) (C) (E*)
Effect of air 50 15 4.5 3 7.751
temperature
on total color 60 15 4.5 3 7.103
change
70 15 4.5 3 3.948
Effect of 60 15 4.5 3 7.103

dew point
temperature 60 25 4.5 3 6.869
on total color
60 35 4.5 3 5.701
change
Effect of air 50 15 3.0 3 8.879

velocity on 50 15 4.5 3 7.751
the total color 50 15 6.0 3 2.897
change
Effect of 60 15 4.5 3 7.103
thickness on 60 15 4.5 5 4.968
the total color 60 15 4.5 7 1.968
change
5.3.6 Summary of effects of processing parameters

Table 5.10 show the summary of effects of processing parameters: drying
air temperature, dew point temperature, air velocity and thickness on drying
time, drying rate constant (k), effective diffusivity, Deff, total color difference,
E*. The desirable responses are: shortest drying time, highest drying
rate constant, highest effective diffusivity and smallest color change. The
processing parameter which fulfills all the four mentioned criteria would be
considered as the best, thus the combination of those processing parameters
would give the optimum processing parameters of matooke. From Table 5.10,
it was observed that drying air temperature of 70C and air velocity of 6 m/s
fulfill all the four criteria, thickness of 3 mm and dew point temperature fulfill
three of the criteria. This implies that the of combination of: 70C, 6 m/s, 3mm
and 15C would be the optimum processing parameters for drying matooke.
Table 5.10 Summary of effects of process parameters
Drying Characteristics of Matooke

Investigation Processing Parameters (Independent Variables) Dependent Variables (Responses)
Air Dew Point Air velocity Thickness Time Drying rate Effective Total Color
Temperature Temperature (m/s) (mm) (min) Constant, Diffusivity, Difference,
(C) (C) k (/h) Deff (m2/s) E*
Effect of air 50 15 4.5 3 200 1.34 3.40E-10 7.75
temperature (C)
60 15 4.5 3 115 2.10 5.32E-10 7.10
70 15 4.5 3 90 2.49 6.31E-10 3.95
Effect of dew 60 15 4.5 3 115 2.10 5.32E-10 7.10

point temperature
60 25 4.5 3 135 1.76 4.45E-10 6.87
(C)
60 35 4.5 3 145 1.72 4.36E-10 5.70
Effect of air 50 15 3.0 3 420 0.59 1.50E-10 8.90

velocity (m/s)
50 15 4.5 3 200 1.34 3.40E -10 7.75
50 15 6.0 3 92 1.61 4.09E-10 2.90
Effect of size 60 15 4.5 3 115 2.10 5.32E-10 7.10

(slice thickness)
60 15 4.5 5 250 0.96 6.75E-10 4.97
(mm)
60 15 4.5 7 370 0.60 8.27E-10 1.97
75
5.3.7 Effect of drying air temperature on surface product

temperature of matooke
Knowledge of the product temperature during drying is important to evaluate
the influence of the drying process on physicochemical and quality attributes.
This is because the reactions between food components are often accelerated
during drying leading to significant reduction in quality and nutritional value.
Drying characteristics for matooke 86
The reaction rates are strongly affected by the temperature and moisture
content5.3.7
of Effect
foodofduring
drying airdrying (Labuza,
temperature on surface1972).
productFigure 5.21
temperature shows the effect of
of matooke
air temperature on surface product temperature at air velocity of 4.5 m/s dew
Knowledge of the product temperature during drying is important to evaluate the influence of the
point temperature
drying process on of 15C andand
physicochemical thickness of 3mm.
quality attributes. This is because the reactions between
food components are often accelerated during drying leading to significant reduction in quality
Figure and
5.21 Development
nutritional of infrared
value. The reaction surface
rates are strongly product
affected temperature
by the temperature with drying
and moisture
time atcontent
a given set
of food airdrying
during temperature of Figure
(Labuza, 1972). 70C5.21at shows
air velocity ofair4.5
the effect of m/s dew
temperature on point
surface product temperature at air velocity of 4.5 m/s dew point temperature of 15C and
temperature of 15C and thickness of 3mm.
thickness of 3mm.
80 8

60 6
Air Temp
Temperature (C)
Product Temp
40 4
MC
20 2
0 0
- 50 100 150
Time (min)
Figure 5.21 Development of infrared surface product temperature with drying time at a given set
It was observed
air temperaturefrom
of 70CFigure 5.21,
at air velocity that
of 4.5 m/sthere was
dew point a direct
temperature relationship
of 15C and thicknessbetween
of
surface3mm. product temperature and air temperature at any given drying time,
in that the surface product temperature increased with increase in drying
air temperature. At the onset of the drying process, the surface product
It was observed from Figure 5.21, that there was a direct relationship between surface product
temperature of and
temperature matooke was atmuch
air temperature any givenlower
dryingthan the
time, in thatset air temperature
the surface due to the
product temperature
increased
effect of with increase
evaporative in drying airAs
cooling. temperature. At the onset of the
drying continued, thedrying process, the
moisture at surface
the surface
product temperature of matooke was much lower than the set air temperature due to the effect of
decreased and the internal resistance to moisture transport increased, thus
evaporative cooling. As drying continued, the moisture at the surface decreased and the internal
the evaporation zone transport
resistance to moisture movedincreased,
from the thus surface intozone
the evaporation themoved
material.
from theThis
surfaceimplied
that theintoheat necessary

the material. for evaporation
This implied had to for
that the heat necessary beevaporation
further transferred
had to be furtherfrom the
transferred from the surface into the material to evaporate the moisture, in order to accomplish
surface into the material to evaporate the moisture, in order to accomplish

the phenomena of drying as being a simultaneously heat and mass transfer
process. This temperature gradient was required for heat and mass transfer
to take place. As the moisture content of product continued to decrease, the
product temperature also increased until the set air temperature was reached.
This implied that when the product temperature became relatively constant,
the samples were relatively dry suggesting that it could have attained the
equilibrium moisture content at the set air temperature. It was noted that, the
gelatinization temperature of matooke is 72C, glass transition temperature
is approximately less than67C, (Muranga 1998), however, from the results it
was observed that the surface product temperature at the end of drying, on
average was approximately less than 67C, implying that the glass transition
temperature was not exceeded.
5.3.8 Drying
Effect of surface product temperature on the drying
characteristics for matooke 88

time of matooke
Figure 5.3.8
5.22 Effect of surface
shows theproduct
effect temperature
of surfaceon the product
drying time temperature
of matooke on the drying
temperature. Figure 5.22 shows the effect of surface product temperature on the drying temperature.
100 8 Moisture Content (kg water/kg dry matter)
Air Temp
80
Product Temp 6
MC (db)
Temperature (C)
60
40
2
20
0 0
- 50 100 150 200
Time (min)
Figure 5.22 Development of air temperature with drying time for a given set infrared surface
product temperature of 50C at air velocity of 4.5 m/s dew point temperature of 15C and
Figure 5.22 Development of air temperature with drying time for a given set
thickness of 3 mm.
infrared surface product temperature of 50C at air velocity of 4.5 m/s dew
point temperature of 15C and thickness of 3 mm.
It was observed from Figure 5.22, that the air temperature shot up during the first region of drying,
It was when
observed from
the product Figurereached
temperature 5.22, the
that
set the air temperature
temperature, shotstarted
the air temperature up during
the first region of drying, when the product temperature reached the set
decreasing tending to the set product temperature. The drying air temperature becomes
relatively constant but slightly above the set product temperature, because the temperature
gradient required for continuation of the drying process.
The first region when the air temperature shot could be attributed to the high moisture content of
temperature, the air temperature started decreasing tending to the set product
temperature. The drying air temperature becomes relatively constant but
slightly above the set product temperature, because the temperature gradient
required for continuation of the drying process.
The first region when the air temperature shot could be attributed to the high
moisture content of the product that it required high energy to evaporate the
moisture from the product and also to overcome the effect of evaporative
cooling effect. The effect of setting the product temperature, reduced the
drying time by half. Comparing the results of drying when air temperature
was set at 50C, and when the product temperature was set at 50C, with
other processing parameters kept constant at air velocity 4.5 m/s, dew point
temperature 15C and thickness 3mm. The drying time for set air temperature
was approximately 200 min, while that for the set product temperature was
approximately 100 min. This indicated that by setting the product temperature,
it reduced the drying time by 50%; in other words, setting the product
temperature the drying process automatically turned itself to stepwise (step-
down) drying process. This was similar to step-wise drying reported by Chua
et al., 2001, which significantly reduced the drying time to reach the desired
moisture content with improved product color.
5.4 Conclusions and Recommendations.
Conclusions
This study has bridged the gap of lack of information on drying behavior
of matooke. Both thickness and dew point temperature showed a direct
relationship with drying time, while the air temperature and air velocity showed
an inverse relationship with drying time.
The effect of size (thickness) on drying time showed that the drying time
required reaching the recommended microbiologically shelf-stable product
from the moisture sorption isotherm studies of 0.1 (kg water/kg dry matter)
at air temperature of 60C, dew point temperature of 18C and air velocity
of 4.5 m/s were: 115, 250 and 375 min for 3, 5 and 7 mm respectively. It
was recommended that for single-layer drying, the slice thickness = 3 mm
was suitable for drying of matooke. However, from practical point of view, by
considering the difference in loading capacities between single layer drying
(2.33 kg/m2 taking 1.92h to dry) and multi-layer drying (6.78 kg/m taking 5.07
h to dry), and the number of batches per day (12 working hours). It is more
practical to run 2 batches (multi-layer drying) than 6 batches (single-layer
drying) in a 12h.
The effect of drying air temperature on drying time at dew point temperature
of 18C, thickness of 3 mm and air velocity of 4.5 m/s were, the drying time
was: 200, 115 and 90 min for 50, 60 and 70oC respectively. The effect of dew
point temperature on drying time at air temperature of 60C, thickness of 3mm
and air velocity of 4.5 m/s, the drying time was: 115, 135 and 140 min for
15, 25 and 35C respectively. The effect of air velocity on drying time at air
temperature of 50C, thickness of 3mm and dew point temperature of 18C,
the drying time was: 420, 200 and 92 min for 3, 4.5 and 6 m/s respectively. In
contrast to Krokida et al., (2000), air velocity also has a significant effect on
drying characteristics of matooke.
The drying of matooke takes place in three steps: the warm-up and the two
falling rate periods; the first falling rate and second falling rate. The drying
rate constant was inversely related to thickness and dew point temperature,
while it was directly related to air velocity and air temperature. The drying rate
constant for all processing parameters ranged from 0.6 2.1/h. The effective
diffusivity for all processing parameters ranged from were in the range of
directly related to thickness, air velocity and air temperature while it was
inversely related to dew point temperature. The effective diffusivity ranged
from 1.43E-10 - 3.86E-10 m2/s.
The activation energy (Ea) has been reported to be the minimum energy that
must be supplied to break water-solid and/or water-water interactions and
to move the water molecule from one point to another in solid (Demirel and
Turhan, 2003). The results show that activation energy (Ea) for matooke was
16.3kJ/mol. (1,605kJ/kg). Comparing the activation energy (Ea) with the net
isosteric heat of desorption (qst), Ea (1,605kJ/kg) was higher than qst (1,298)
at 0.1 (kg water/kg dry matter) (the moisture content used in the drying
analyses). This suggests that moisture molecules travels effectively in liquid
form in matooke slice during the drying process.
The total color difference (E*) between the fresh and dry samples, showed
an inverse relationship between the effects of processing parameters on the
total color difference (E*), lowest was for the effect of thickness at 7 mm, but
it took the longest time to dry. This was followed by effect of air velocity at 6
m/s, then effect of drying air temperature at 70C.
In the drying system controlled by setting the drying air temperature,

product temperature increased with drying time, tending to the set drying air
temperature. However, the product temperature did not exactly equal to the
drying air temperature because of temperature gradient was required for heat
and mass transfer to take place. Whereas, in the drying system controlled
by setting product temperature, the drying air temperature shot up to high
as possible (Figure 5.23). The drying system controlled by setting product
temperature, the drying time was reduced by 50% of that obtained for setting
air drying temperature. This implied that the drying system controlled by
product temperature, automatically turned itself into stepwise (step-down)
drying system.
Recommendations
Considering all the effect of processing parameters on drying characteristics
of matooke showed that the of combination of drying air temperature 70C,
air velocity 6 m/s, thickness 3mm and dew point temperature 15C would be
the optimum processing parameters for drying matooke.
For commercial processing of matooke to employ multi-layer drying of loading

capacity equal or less than 7 kg/m, drying air temperature 70C, air velocity 6
m/s, thickness 3mm and dew point temperature 15C
More investigation is required to develop a drying system which is controlled

by product temperature instead of drying air temperature.
Further investigation on the effect of surface product temperature in association

with case hardening should be carried out.
82 Optimization of processing parameters for Matooke
Chapter Six
Objective: Optimization of processing parameters for

Matooke
6.1 Background
Drying is a major food processing operation and is classified as simultaneous
heat and mass transfer process (Madamba et al., 1994). Drying comprises a
series of processes which contribute to the final product and have significant
impact on the physicochemical and quality attributes (characteristics) of the
dried product (Krokida et al., 2000). During drying, in addition to moisture
removal, there are many physicochemical reactions which occur and can
lead to various types of quality deterioration (Krokida et al., 2000). The
physicochemical and quality attributes considered in this investigation which
could be affected during the drying process and are critical to the functionality
of flour were: starch content and pasting properties (final and peak viscosity).
The final viscosity and peak viscosity are correlated to final sample quality
(Kolawole et al., 2012; Iglett et al. 2012; Osungbaro et al., 2010; Ikegwu et
al., 2009; Niba et al. 2002). In the production of dried foodstuffs, minimizing
drying cost is the most critical factor. However, the conditions which produce
minimum costs are likely not to give the desired quality characteristics. Sturm
et al., (2012) reported that many industrial drying processes were found
experimentally, but their validity has not been evaluated since. Optimization of
the drying operation leads to an improvement in the quality of the dried product,
a reduction in the cost of processing as well as optimizing the throughput
(Mudamba et al., 1994). This is because the design and optimization of dryers
used for food crops is dependent on the thermal and physical properties of the
specific crops (Rasouli et al., 2011). Therefore, there was need for optimizing
the process parameters with reference to the physicochemical and quality
characteristics of matooke. It has been reported by previous researchers
that drying temperature, relative humidity and velocity of drying air have
significant effect on the drying kinetics and quality of the dried product (Baini
& Langrish, 2007; Sturm et al., 2012; Islam et al., 2012). However, their effect
Optimization of processing parameters for Matooke 83
on physicochemical and quality characteristics of dried matooke needed to be

established. Banana flour in general has been reported to have good prospects
and health benefits, but has not been fully utilized, could be due to high costs
associated with its conversion to flour and limited research highlighting the
potential and beneficial properties (Islam et al., 2012). Therefore, the objective
of this study was to optimize the processing parameters in relation to the
physicochemical properties and quality of the matooke and the following were
the specific objectives:
To establish the effect of the process parameters on individual responses

(drying time, final viscosity and starch content).
To optimize the process parameters with respect to drying time final
viscosity and starch content
To validate the optimum process parameters for drying.
6.2 Materials and Methods

The materials and methods employed for this study were as explained in
section 5.2, and the samples used for the determination of starch content and
pasting properties were kept at 4C. The dry matooke was milled to flour using
the starch mill as explained in chapter 3. The final viscosity, peak viscosity
and starch content were used for the optimization process. Response
Surface Methodology (RSM) techniques were employed for analysis using
Design-Expert version 8, software (Stat-Ease, Inc., Minneapolis, USA). All
experiments were carried out in triplicates.
Independent Variables (Factors)

Drying Temperature (50, 60 and 70C)
Dew-point Temperature (15, 25 and 35C)
Air velocity (3, 4.5, 6 m/s)
Dependent Variables (Responses)

Drying time to reach moisture content of 10% (wb)
Final Viscosity (RVU)
Peak Viscosity (RVU)
Starch Content (%)
The data analysis employed the Response Surface Methodology (RSM)

which is one of the experimental designing methods which can surmount
the limitations of conventional methods collectively and has an advantage
that it reduces the number of experimental trials needed to evaluate multiple
parameters and their interactions (Noordin et al., 2004; Sturm et al., 2012;
Ramkrishna & Susmita, 2012).The Design-Expert version 8 software was used
and employed Response Surface Methodology (RSM), to generate the design
and optimize the drying conditions for matooke. The generated experimental
design was considered to be efficiently applicable when the G Efficiency was
greater than 60% (Myers, 2009). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed
to determine the significance of the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables, for which was judged by the coefficient of determination
(R-squared and adjusted R-squared) and p-value (p<0.05). The model and
its coefficients were considered significant when the R-squared and adjusted
R-squared were greater than 0.900 and p-value (p<0.05) which indicated that
the model was statistically significant at -level of 0.05. The model was valid
when the lack of fit was not significant (p>0.05) which indicated a good fit, a
low coefficient of variance (C.V.% <10) which indicated that the experiments
performed were highly reliable, and adequate precision (Adeq Precision > 4)
which indicated that the model as fitted was adequate for predicting (Noordin
et al., 2004; Ramkrishna & Susmita, 2012).
6.3.1 Establishing the effect of the process parameters on

individual responses
The design of the experiment for establishing the effect of the process
parameters on individual responses (Noordin et al., 2004) was generated by
D-Optimality shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Experimental design
Factors Responses
Run Air Dew Point Final Peak Starch

Time
Temperature Temperature Viscosity Viscosity Content
(min)
(C) (C) (RVU) (RVU) (% db)
1 60 25 134 250.13 388.83 82.92

2 60 35 136 264.08 394.81 82.81
3 50 15 200 258.71 394.82 83.29
4 50 35 158 258.67 393.31 83.30
5 60 35 130 261.88 392.57 82.21
6 70 35 128 278.08 411.42 84.68
7 70 15 90 266.83 408.92 83.73
8 50 35 157 258.67 410.17 82.34
9 60 25 138 263.22 408.92 83.81
10 50 15 172 242.30 409.54 81.13
11 70 15 84 273.71 409.23 83.22
12 60 15 104 265.08 409.39 83.23
13 70 25 125 264.13 409.31 83.62
14 50 15 175 257.58 407.42 82.46
15 70 35 127 269.42 412.55 82.01
16 50 25 210 303.25 408.36 82.12
The G Efficiency = 86% indicated that the experimental design was efficient for
analysis. The experiments for establishing the effect of processing parameters
on the individual responses were carried out at the same air velocity of 4.5
m/s, thickness of 3mm as recommended from the drying characteristics
study (Chapter 3) and using matooke at harvest maturity age of 17 weeks as
recommended optimum maturity window (Chapter 3).
Table 6.1 shows the results of the dependent variable (drying time to reach
moisture content of 0.10 (kg water/kg dry matter) which were obtained for the
above set conditions. From the ANOVA analysis (Table 6.2), it was observed
that the model and model terms were significant implying that the process
parameters had a significant effect on the drying time.
Table 6.2 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model analysis of

variance table for drying time
Source Sum of df Mean F p-value
Squares Square Value Prob > F
Model 17863.00 5 3572.60 33.20 < 0.0001 Significant
x1-Air Temp 12085.12 1 12085.12 112.32 < 0.0001
x2-Dew P.Temp 548.12 1 548.12 5.09 0.0476
x1x2 2325.38 1 2325.38 21.61 0.0009
x12 1516.79 1 1516.79 14.10 0.0038
x22 1489.31 1 1489.31 13.84
Residual 1076.00 10 107.60 0.0040
Lack of Fit 558.33 3 186.11 2.52 not significant
Pure Error 517.67 7 73.95
0.1419
Cor Total 18939.00 15
R-Squared 0.9432
Adj R-Squared 0.9148
C.V. % 7.32
The model for drying time was significant (R2 = 0.943 and p<0.0001). Lack
of fit was not significant (p>0.1) indicated a good fit that the model was valid.
A low coefficient of variance (C.V.% = 7.32) indicated that the experiments
performed were highly reliable. Adequate precision (Adeq Precision = 17.82
> 4) indicated that the model as fitted was adequate for predicting.
The results of the dependent variables (final viscosity) were obtained for
the above set of processing parameters given in Table 6.1. From ANOVA
analysis (Table 6.3), it was observed that the model and model terms were
not significant implying that the processing parameters had no effect on the
final viscosity.
Table 6.3: ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model analysis of

variance table for final viscosiy (pasting properties)

Model 190.17 3 63.39 0.31 0.8190 not significant

x1-Air Temp 108.18 1 108.18 0.53 0.4822
x2-Dew P.Temp 40.09 1 40.09 0.19 0.6667
x1x2 15.07 1 15.07 0.073 0.7912
Residual 2467.81 12 205.65
Lack of Fit 2150.41 5 430.08 9.49 0.0051 significant
Pure Error 317.40 7
Cor Total 2657.98 15 45.34
R-Squared 0.0715
Adeq Precision 1.398
C.V. % 5.42
The model for final viscosity was not significant (R2 = 0.0715 and p>0.05).
The lack of fit was significant (p<0.01), implying that the model was not
valid. Adequate precision (Adeq Precision = 1.4 less than 4) indicated
that the model as fitted was not adequate for predicting. However, a low
coefficient of variance (C.V.% = 5.42) indicated that the experiments were
highly reliable. It also showed that all model terms: air temperature and dew
point temperature, were not significant since p-value were greater than 0.05
(p<0.05). This could be attributed to the fact that the set temperature were
below the gelatinization temperature of 72C (Muranga, 1998). This was an
indication that the processing parameters did not have a significant effect on
final viscosity (pasting properties).
The results of the dependent variables (peak viscosity) were obtained for
the above set of processing parameters given in Table 6.1. From ANOVA
analysis (Table 6.4), it was observed that the model and model terms were
not significant implying that the processing parameters had no effect on the
peak viscosity.
Table 6.4: ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model analysis of

variance table for peak viscosity (pasting properties)
Sum of Mean F p-value

Source Squares df Square Value Prob > F
x1-Air Temp 137.85 1 137.85 1.96 0.1922
x2-Dew P. Temp 21.86 1 21.86 0.31 0.5899
2
x1 5.12 1 5.12 0.07 0.7930
x22 191.66 1 191.66 2.72 0.1302
x1x2 4.81 1 4.81 0.07 0.7993
Residual 704.89 10 70.49
Lack of Fit 170.47 3 56.82 0.74 0.5589 not significant
Pure Error 53.41 7 76.43
Cor Total 1068.08 15
R-Squared 0.340
Adj R-Squared 0.010
CV % 2.08
The model for final viscosity was not significant (R2 = 0.34 and p>0.05). The
lack of fit was significant (p<0.01), implying that the model was not valid. The
low coefficient of variance (C.V.% = 2.08) indicated that the experiments were
highly reliable. It also showed that all model terms: air temperature and dew
point temperature, were not significant since p-value were greater than 0.05
(p<0.05). This was also an indication that the processing parameters did not
have a significant effect on peak viscosity (pasting properties).
Table 6.1 shows the results of the starch content which were obtained for
the set of processing parameters. From ANOVA analysis (Table 6.5), it was
observed that the model and model terms were not significant implying that
the process parameters had no effect on the starch content, since the set
temperatures were below the gelatinization temperature of 72C.
Table 6.5 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model analysis of

variance table for starch content.
Source Sum of Mean F p-value
Squares df Square Value Prob > F
x1-Air Temp 2.81 1 2.81 4.34 0.0576
x2-Dew P. Temp 3.358E-3 1 3.358E-3 5.186E-3 0.9437
Residual 8.42 13 0.65
Lack of Fit 1.31 6 0.22
Pure Error 7.10 7 1.01 0.22 0.9596 not significant
Cor Total 11.23 15
R-Squared 0.2507
C.V. % 0.97
The model for starch content was not significant (R2 = 0.251 and p>0.05).
Also the model terms were not significant, which indicated that the processing
parameters had no significant impact on starch content. Adequate precision
(Adeq Precision = 1.4 less than 4) indicated that the model as fitted was not
adequate for predicting. However, the lack of fit was significant (Prob>F)
implying that the model was valid although it was not significant. A low
coefficient of variance (C.V.% = 0.97) indicated that the experiments were
highly reliable.
Considering Tables 6.3, 6.4 and 6.5 showing the effect of processing
parameters on physicochemical properties of matooke flour, pasting
properties (final and peak viscosities) and starch content. It was observed that
the processing parameters had no significant effect on the physicochemical
properties of matooke flour. This could be attributed to the fact that the drying
air temperatures were below the gelatinization temperature of 72C (Muranga
1998).
6.3.2 Optimization of process Parameters

The D-Optimal experimental design used in drying process optimization is
shown in Table 6.6.The independent variables were: air temperature, dew
point temperature and airflow. The dependent variables (responses) were
drying time to reach moisture content of 0.1 (kg water/kg dry matter). The
objective for the optimization was therefore to minimize the drying time and
maximize starch content and peak viscosity. The G Efficiency = 62% indicated
that the experimental design was efficient for analysis.
Table 6.6 Drying time for different set drying conditions of matooke
Air Temperature Dew Point Air velocity

Run (C) Temperature (C) (m/s) Time (min)
1 50 25 6 168.75
2 70 35 3 250.50
3 50 35 6 212.00
4 60 35 3 315.00
5 70 35 6 103.50
6 50 35 3 401.00
7 50 15 6 117.00
8 70 15 3 205.00
9 60 25 6 117.30
10 50 35 6 260.00
11 50 25 3 365.00
12 50 15 4.5 204.67
13 70 35 6 129.67
14 70 15 6 83.30
15 70 15 3 205.00
16 50 15 3 328.00
17 70 15 6 80.00
18 60 15 4.5 154.00
19 70 25 4.5 125.00
20 70 25 4.5 125.00
The criteria for optimization was to minimize drying time and keeping in range
the drying air temperature and air velocity was used to determine the suitable
processing parameters.
The ANOVA analysis (Table 6.7), showed that the model for drying time is
significant (R2 = 0.9876 and p<0.0001). The lack of fit was not significant
(p>0.1) indicated a good fit and that the model was valid. A low coefficient of
variance (C.V.% = 7.43) indicated that the experiments were highly reliable.
Adequate precision (Adeq Precision = 32.44 greater than 4) indicated that
the model as fitted was adequate for predicting. It also showed that all model
terms were significant since p-value was less than 0.05 (p<0.05).
Table 6.7. ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model analysis of

variance table
Model 1.717E+005 9 19074.32 88.55 < 0.0001 Significant

x1-Air Temp 51221.41 1 51221.41 237.80 < 0.0001
x2-Dew P. Temp 14786.18 1 14786.18 68.65 < 0.0001
x3-Air Flow 96196.24 1 96196.24 446.60 < 0.0001
x1x2 2616.68 1 2616.68 12.15 0.0059
x1x3 3272.26 1 3272.26 15.19 0.0030
x2x3 150.50 1 150.50 0.70 0.4227
x12 227.44 1 227.44 1.06 0.3284
x22 359.88 1 359.88 1.67 0.2252
x32 1359.28 1 1359.28 6.31 0.0308
Residual 2153.95 10 215.40
Lack of Fit 654.07 5 130.81 0.44 0.8082 Not significant
Pure Error 1499.88 5 299.98
Cor Total 1.738E+005 19
C.V. % 7.43
R-Squared 0.988
Adj R-Squared 0.977
Pred R-Squared 0.952
Final Model Equation in terms of actual factors:

Y=1381.36-18.4*x1+5.99 *x2-1.62*x3-0.15*x1*x2 +7.9E-3*x1*x3+1.7e-3-
2 2 2
*x 2

*x3+0.1*x1 +0.1* x2 +5.9E-4*x3 6.1
Where: Y = Drying time to reach moisture content of 10% (db).
x1 = Drying Air Temperature (C)

x2 = Dew Point Temperature (C)
x3 = Air velocity(m/s)
Figure 6.1B 6.3B (appendix B) show the response surfaces of the effect
of air velocity, drying air temperature and dew point temperature on drying
time indicating the predicted time. Figure 6.4B 6.6B (appendix B) show
the response surfaces of the effect of drying air temperature and dew point
temperature on final viscosity, peak viscosity and starch content indicating the
predicted values respectively.
6.3.3 Optimum processing parameters for drying matooke

Therefore, optimization showed that optimum processing parameters for
matooke were:
Drying Air Temperature = 69.58C
Dew Point Temperature = 18C
Air velocity = 6 m/s (overflow mode)
Thickness = 3 mm (as recommended in Chapter 3)
The drying air temperature can be rounded to 70C and air velocity to 6m/s.
Considering the quality attribute (total color change), there was minimum
color change with air velocity of 6m/s. The product temperature development
during drying for both drying processes: controlled by drying air temperature
and another one controlled by product temperature does not reach the drying
air temperature because of the temperature gradient required for continued
drying (Chapter 5). It was concluded that, 70C was the optimum drying air
temperature for drying matooke as given in Table 6.8.
Table 6.8: Optimum drying conditions/parameters for matooke (Musa

sp, AAA-AEHB)
Parameter Optimum Conditions
Drying air temperature (C) 70
Dew point temperature (C) 18
Air velocity (m/s) 6

6.3.4 Validation of the optimum processing parameters for

matooke
Table 6.9 shows the comparison between the predicted and actual experimental
values. The validation of the optimum drying conditions investigated by
applying the following optimum drying conditions: thickness 3 mm, drying air
temperature 70C, dew point temperature 18C and air velocity 6 m/s. This
confirms that those optimum conditions predicted by the model are the best
for the drying of matooke.
Table 6.9. Comparison between the predicted values and actual values.
Response Actual Predicted
Time (min) 84.08 77.80
Final viscosity (RVU) 243.21 272.34
Peak viscosity (RVU) 396.17 411.12
Starch content (% db) 83.46 83.65
The optimum drying air temperature of 70C is greater than the recommended
drying air temperature by Muranga, (1998) of 50C for drying matooke and yet
the results of starch content (%db) are within the same range. Also the results
for pasting properties are within the same range as reported by Muranga et al.,
2010 (Table 10). In addition, the results were in line with Islam et al., (2012),
who reported that appropriate conditions of dehydration enhance the drying
performance and drying air temperature of 65C gave faster drying of green
bananas without any irregular burning or stake burning. Also Leite et al., (2007)
dried bananas at 60 and 70C, reported that the chemical composition was not
affected by drying conditions. In addition, considering the results of product
temperature development during the drying controlled product temperature,
the drying temperature went up to 90C without affecting the physicochemical
properties (Chapter 5). This implies that air drying temperature has no effect
on the physicochemical properties as long as the product temperature is
below the gelatinization temperature of matooke starch (72C).
Table 6.10 Comparison of current results of this study with previous

research
Model Validation Exp. Source (Muranga,

Prediction results et al.,2010)
Drying air temperature (C) 70 70 50
Final viscosity (RVU) 272.34 243.21 244.7

Peak viscosity (RVU) 411.12 396.17 375.92
Starch content (%db) 83.65 83.46 ND
6.4 Conclusions and Recommendations

The optimum processing parameters for single-layer drying of matooke were
determined to obtain the minimum drying time, maximum starch content, final
viscosity and peak viscosity. The drying air temperature and air velocity were
kept within the range, the thickness was maintained at 3 mm (as recommended
in Chapter 5, and the average dew point temperature of ambient at Bushenyi
was used. The optimum processing parameters for single-layer drying of
matooke are the same as those obtained in Chapter 5 for the analysis of
drying behavior. For which the desirable responses were: shortest drying time,
highest drying rate constant, highest effective diffusivity and smallest color
change. The processing parameter which fulfills all the four mentioned criteria
would be considered as the best, thus the combination of those processing
parameters would give the optimum processing parameters of matooke.
The processing parameters do not have a significant effect on the

physicochemical and functional properties, and quality attribute as long as
the product temperature does not exceed 72C (gelatinization temperature of
matooke).
Therefore, the optimum processing parameters for single-layer drying of

matooke are: Thickness 3mm, air temperature 70C, dew point temperature
18C and air velocity 6m/s overflow mode.
General Conclusions and Recommendations 95
Chapter Seven
General Conclusions and Recommendations
Banana is an important crop in Uganda; it is a staple food for more than 70%
of Ugandas population and contributes to about 42% of household income in
rural areas. The most common type of banana is locally called matooke, Musa
sp triploid acuminate genome group (AAA-EAHB).
The study was carried out using a research dryer in the laboratory employing the
overflow mode. The results can be applied directly for commercial processing
of bananas (matooke), nevertheless, verification for online processing plant is
recommended.
This study has bridged the gap of lack of accurate information on the harvest
maturity window for commercial processing of matooke into flour. The
physiological maturity age of matooke (mbwazirume cv. Musa sp. AAA EAHB)
at Bushenyi located at the Latitude: 0.59S, Longitude: 30.21 E and Altitude
1570 m is 21 weeks. The optimum harvest maturity window for commercial
processing of matooke at Bushenyi is between 15-21 weeks. Matooke
harvested within the above optimum harvest maturity window can be used
for processing raw matooke flour referred to as Raw Tooke Flour (RTF) of a
consistent quality on the market for use in food and non food industries.
In case of natural disaster like storm, matooke from the age of 12-15 weeks
can be processed into matooke flour since at that age it already has starch
content above 80% (db). The matooke from maturity age between 3 12
weeks can be processed for flour for people who require less starch in their
diet.
In addition, matooke harvested beyond the above maturity window after 21

weeks is recommended for processing Instant Tooke Flour (ITF). This is
because beyond the recommended harvest maturity window, it would be in
the initial stages of starch loss which plays a major role in textural changes in
ripening which is good for ITF.
96 General Conclusions and Recommendations

maturity age for matooke and the combined model of finger weight and
pulp peel ratio is recommended for commercial processors. Matooke cv
mbwazirume (Musa sp. AAA-EAHB) at Bushenyi.
Theoretically the results of the study can be used elsewhere. Nevertheless,

it is recommended that similar work be carried out in the matooke growing
areas to determine the applicable models for those particular regions since
development of matooke and bananas in general is affected by location
(Robinson & Saco, 2010)
This study has provided information for the first time on the moisture sorption
isotherm of matooke. The results of this study on moisture sorption isotherm
of matooke can be used for prediction of quality, design, modeling and
optimization of many processes such as drying, aeration and storage. In
addition, it is also important for predicting quality changes during packaging
and storage of dried matooke.
Matooke isotherms exhibited type II curves behavior which is characteristic of

foodstuffs as reported in literature (Johnson & Brennan, 2000; Yan et al., 2008).
The equilibrium moisture content decreases with increase in temperature at
a given water activity (aw), indicating that matooke becomes less hygroscopic
with increase in temperatures giving a clear stability domain of matooke after
drying leading to extensive shelf life. This complements Muranga, (1998), who
attributed the extensive shelf life to low sugar and fat. The GAB model best
described all the adsorption and desorption moisture isotherms for matooke,
this was consistent with literature on bananas and plantain. The GAB monolayer
has been reported to be indicative for optimum moisture content for storage
conditions for hydrated foods. For the case of matooke, the GAB monolayer
for adsorption isotherm at 30C was 0.087 (kg water/kg dry matter), which was
below the recommended safe water activity level of 0.6. The water activity
level of 0.6 corresponds to equilibrium moisture content of 0.11 (kg water/kg
dry matter) on the adsorption isotherm at 30C. Therefore, for commercial
processing of matooke in order to obtain a microbiologically shelf-stable dry
matooke, it is recommended to dry matooke to moisture content below or
equal to 11 (kg water/kg dry matter) equivalent to 10% (wb).
The hysteresis phenomenon was exhibited by the moisture sorption isotherms

for matooke. It was reported that in food preservation and storage technology,
the microbiological stability of stored food item depend more on water activity
than total moisture content (Caurie, 2007). Therefore, hysteresis could be used
as a food quality index. It is therefore recommended that further investigations
on hysteresis of matooke at different temperatures be carried out to establish
the optimum range of temperatures safe storage, since increased hysteresis
being indicative of reduced stability and reduced hysteresis being indicative of
improved stability of stored dry matooke.
The isoteric heat of sorption for both adsorptions increased with decreased
moisture content, however, desorption was higher than the adsorption and this
was in line with literature on bananas and plantains (Ciro et al., 2008; Johnson
& Brennan, 2000). It was reported that isosetric heat of sorption for adsorption
isotherm is a measure for the energy released during adsorption and that
for desorption as the energy required for breaking the intermolecular forces
between the molecules of water vapor and the surface of adsorbent. Thus
the ioseteric heat of sorption is considered as indicative of the intermolecular
attractive forces between the sorption sites and the water vapor. The total
isosteric heat of sorption for adsorption isotherm for matooke ranged from
4,586 2,386.39 kJ/kg for equilibrium moisture content from 0.3 0.01 (db)
respectively. While the total isosteric heat of sorption for desorption isotherm
for matooke ranged from 18,194 2,391 kJ/kg for equilibrium moisture content
from 0.3 0.01 (db) respectively.
This study has revealed that the minimum energy required for drying matooke
from 3.5 (kg water/kg dry matter) (80%wb) to 0.11 (kg water/kg dry matter)
(10%wb) is equal to 8,124 kJ/kg of water removed. Implying that the minimum
energy required for drying of 1 kg of fresh matooke from 80 - 10(% wb) is
5,793 kJ.
This study has bridged the gap of lack of information on drying behavior
of matooke. Both thickness and dew point temperature showed a direct
relationship with drying time, while the air temperature and air velocity showed
an inverse relationship with drying time to reach the desired moisture content.
The effect of processing parameters on the drying characteristics showed that
air velocity rate, drying air temperature and thickness had a significant effect,
while dew point did not have significant effect on the drying characteristics of
matooke. The drying of matooke takes place in three steps: the warm-up and
the two falling rate periods; the first falling rate and second falling rate. This
was in line with the literature on bananas and plantains (Prachayawarakon et
al., 2008).
For all processing parameters, the drying rate constant ranged from 0.59
2.49 /h, and effective diffusivity ranged from 1.5E-10 8.27E-10 m2/s. The
activation energy (Ea) has been reported to be the minimum energy that must
be supplied to break water-solid and/or water-water interactions and to move
the water molecule from one point to another in solid. The results show that
activation energy (Ea) for matooke was 16.3kJ/mol (1,605kJ/kg). Comparing
the activation energy (Ea) with the net isosteric heat of desorption (qst), Ea
(1,605kJ/kg) was higher than qst (1,297.62) at 0.1 (kg water/kg dry matter) (the
moisture content used in the drying analyses). This suggests that moisture
molecules travel in liquid form in matooke slices as reported in literature
(Demirel & Turhan, 2003).
The total color difference (E*) between the fresh and dry samples, showed an
inverse relationship between the effects of processing parameters on the total
color difference (E*). The total color difference (E*), was lowest for effect
of thickness was 7 mm, but it took the longest time to dry. It was followed by
the effect of air velocity which was 6 m/s, and lastly for the effect of drying air
temperature which was 70C.
In the drying system controlled by setting the drying air temperature,

product temperature increased with drying time, tending to the set drying
air temperature. However, the product temperature did not exactly equal
to the drying air temperature. Whereas, in the drying system controlled by
setting product temperature, the drying air temperature shot up to high as
possible, for example when the product temperature was set at 50C, the
air drying temperature shot up to 90C and decreased tending to the set
product temperature with increase in drying time. In this case also, product
temperature became constant and nearly equal to air temperature which
was an indication that the samples had dried and attained the equilibrium
moisture content at the set air temperature. The drying system controlled by
setting product temperature, the drying time was reduced by 50% of setting air
drying temperature. This implied that the drying system controlled by product
temperature, automatically turned itself into stepwise (step-down) drying
system. It was therefore recommended to carry out further investigation to
develop a drying system which is controlled by product temperature instead of
drying air temperature. Further investigation on the effect of surface product
temperature in association with case hardening should be carried out.
The processing parameters did not have a significant effect on the

physicochemical (starch content) and functional properties (peak and final
viscosity) of matooke. The optimum drying air temperature of 70C is greater
than the recommended drying air temperature by Muranga, (1998) of 50C
for drying matooke and yet the results of starch content (%db) are within the
same range. This implies that drying matooke using air drying temperature
of 70C gives the same product at a reduced drying time and hence the most
appropriate. Considering the development of product temperature during
drying, (drying systems, one controlled by setting drying air temperature and
one controlled setting the product temperature) and the fact that the processing
parameters do not have influence on the physicochemical and functional
properties of matooke. This suggests that any drying air temperature can be
used for drying as long as the product temperature does not exceed 68C (the
onset of gelatinization for matooke).
Therefore, the optimum processing parameters for single-layer drying of

matooke are: thickness = 3mm, air temperatures 70C, dew point temperature
18C and air velocity 6 m/s overflow mode.
However, from practical point of view, by considering the difference in

loading capacities between single layer drying (2.33 kg/m2 taking 1.92h to
dry) and multi-layer drying (6.78 kg/m taking 5.07 h to dry), and the number
of batches per day (12 working hours). It is more practical to run 2 batches
(multi-layer drying) than 6 batches (single-layer drying) in a 12h. It is therefore
recommended for commercial processing of matooke to employ multi-layer
drying of loading capacity equal or less than 7 kg/m, thickness 3 mm, air
temperatures 70C, dew point temperature 18C and air velocity 6m/s overflow
mode.
7.1 Recommended Procedure for Commercial Processing

Matooke Flour
Matooke located at the Latitude: 0.59S, Longitude: 30.21 E and Altitude:
1570 m. should be harvested at maturity age between 15 21 weeks.
The finger weight model was recommended for farmers to estimate
harvest maturity for matooke and the combined model of finger weight
and pulp peel ratio is recommended for industrial use.
Recommended Standard Procedure for Commercial Processing Matooke
Flour (Raw Tooke Flour) (Modification of the Patent No. AP/P/2005/003308
as follows:
Multi-layer drying:
De-finger the fingers from the bunch

Peel the fingers
Pre-treat with 1% Sodium Meta-bisulphate solution for 3 5

minutes
Slice thickness should be equal to 3 mm
Pre-treatment in 1% Sodium Meta-bisulphate for 3- 5 minutes

Drain the slices
Load the trays and load the trays in the dryer
Drying air temperature between 65 - 70C
Dew point temperature of ambient conditions between 16 22C

Air velocity rate equal to 6 m/s
Loading capacity should not exceed 7 kg/m2.
Drying time equal to 6 h 20 min
7.2 Recommendations for future work

The maturity experiments can be carried out for different cultivars and
for other climatic zones to determine the respective optimum maturity
window.
Similar studies are carried out for different cultivars and in other matooke
growing areas to validate the developed models and/or improve them for
those particular regions since development of matooke and bananas in
general is affected by location.
There is need for research to develop electronic or magnetic sensors/units

which can be used to estimate maturity age by employing the developed
models for estimating the harvest maturity window.
The hysteresis phenomenon was exhibited and since it could be used
as a food quality index, it is recommended that further investigations of
hysteresis phenomenon at different temperatures to establish the ranges
of increased hysteresis being indicative of reduced stability and reduced
hysteresis being indicative of improved stability of stored product.
There is need for more work to be carried out to optimize energy
requirement for the above recommended parameters.
Research on developing a drying system which can be operated by
setting the product temperature instead of the conventional method of
stepwise drying.
Research on developing equipment for non destructive determination
of maturity age of matooke using the combined maturity model (finger
weight combined with pulp/peel ratio.
Further investigation on the effect of surface product temperature in
association with case hardening should be carried out.
102 Summary
Summary
Cooking banana is one of the most important crops in Uganda; it is a staple
food and source of household income in rural areas. The most common
cooking banana is locally called matooke, a Musa sp triploid acuminate
genome group (AAA-EAHB). It is perishable and traded in fresh form leading
to very high postharvest losses (22-45%). This is attributed to: non-uniform
level of harvest maturity, poor handling, bulk transportation and lack of value
addition/processing technologies, which are currently the main challenges for
trade and export, and diversified utilization of matooke.
Drying is one of the oldest technologies employed in processing of agricultural

produce. A lot of research has been carried out on drying of fruits and
vegetables, but little information is available on matooke. Drying of matooke
and milling it to flour extends its shelf-life is an important means to overcome
the above challenges.
Raw matooke flour is a generic flour developed to improve shelf stability of

the fruit and to find alternative uses. It is rich in starch (80 - 85%db) and
subsequently has a high potential as a calorie resource base. It possesses
good properties for both food and non-food industrial use. Some effort has
been done to commercialize the processing of matooke but there is still limited
information on its processing into flour. It was imperative to carry out an in-
depth study to bridge the following gaps: lack of accurate information on the
maturity window within which matooke for processing into flour can be harvested
leading to non-uniform quality of matooke flour; there is no information on
moisture sorption isotherm for matooke from which the minimum equilibrium
moisture content in relation to temperature and relative humidity is obtainable,
below which the dry matooke would be microbiologically shelf-stable; and lack
of information on drying behavior of matooke and standardized processing
parameters for matooke in relation to physicochemical properties of the flour.
The main objective of the study was to establish the optimum harvest maturity
window and optimize the processing parameters for obtaining standardized
microbiologically shelf-stable matooke flour with good starch quality attributes.
This research was designed to: i) establish the optimum maturity harvest
window within which matooke can be harvested to produce a consistent quality
of matooke flour, ii) establish the sorption isotherms for matooke, iii) establish
Summary 103
the effect of process parameters on drying characteristics of matooke, iv)

optimize the drying process parameters for matooke, v) validate the models
of maturity and optimum process parameters and vi) standardize process
parameters for commercial processing of matooke.
Samples were obtained from a banana plantation at Presidential Initiative

on Banana Industrial Development (PIBID), Technology Business Incubation
Center (TBI) at Nyaruzunga Bushenyi in Western Uganda. A completely
randomized design (CRD) was employed in selecting the banana stools from
which samples for the experiments were picked. The cultivar Mbwazirume
which is soft cooking and commonly grown in Bushenyi was selected for the
study. The static gravitation method recommended by COST 90 Project (Wolf
et al., 1985), was used for determination of moisture sorption isotherms. A
research dryer developed for this research. All experiments were carried out
in laboratories at TBI.
The physiological maturity of matooke cv. mbwazirume at Bushenyi is 21

weeks. The optimum harvest maturity window for commercial processing of
matooke flour (Raw Tooke Flour - RTF) at Bushenyi is between 15-21 weeks.
maturity for matooke and the combined model of finger weight and pulp peel
ratio is recommended for commercial processors.
Matooke isotherms exhibited type II curve behavior which is characteristic of

foodstuffs. The GAB model best described all the adsorption and desorption
moisture isotherms. For commercial processing of matooke, in order to obtain
a microbiologically shelf-stable dry product. It is recommended to dry it to
moisture content below or equal to 10% (wb). The hysteresis phenomenon
was exhibited by the moisture sorption isotherms for matooke. The isoteric
heat of sorption for both adsorptions and desorption isotherms increased with
decreased moisture content. The total isosteric heat of sorption for matooke:
adsorption isotherm ranged from 4,586 2,386 kJ/kg and desorption isotherm
from 18,194 2,391 kJ/kg for equilibrium moisture content from 0.3 0.01
(db) respectively. The minimum energy required for drying matooke from 80
10% (wb) is 8,124 kJ/kg of water removed. Implying that the minimum energy
required for drying of 1 kg of fresh matooke from 80 - 10% (wb) is 5,793 kJ.
104 Summary
The drying of matooke takes place in three steps: the warm-up and the two
falling rate periods. The drying rate constant for all processing parameters
ranged from 5,793 kJ and effective diffusivity ranged from 1.5E-10 - 8.27E-10
m2/s. The activation energy (Ea) for matooke was 16.3kJ/mol (1,605 kJ/kg).
Comparing the activation energy (Ea) with the net isosteric heat of sorption for
desorption isotherm (qst) (1,297.62) at 0.1 (kg water/kg dry matter), indicated
that Ea was higher than qst suggesting that moisture molecules travel in liquid
form in matooke slices.
The total color difference (E*) between the fresh and dry samples, was lowest
for effect of thickness of 7 mm, followed by air velocity of 6 m/s, and then drying
air temperature at 70C. The drying system controlled by set surface product
temperature, reduced the drying time by 50% compared to that of a drying
system controlled by set air drying temperature. The processing parameters
did not have a significant effect on physicochemical and quality attributes,
suggesting that any drying air temperature can be used in the initial stages
of drying as long as the product temperature does not exceed gelatinization
temperature of matooke (72C).
The optimum processing parameters for single-layer drying of matooke are:

thickness = 3 mm, air temperatures 70C, dew point temperature 18C and air
velocity 6 m/s overflow mode. From practical point of view it is recommended
that for commercial processing of matooke, to employ multi-layer drying of
loading capacity equal or less than 7 kg/m, thickness 3 mm, air temperatures
70C, dew point temperature 18C and air velocity 6 m/s overflow mode.
Zusammenfassung 105
Zusammenfassung
Kochbananen sind eine der wichtigsten Anbauprodukte in Uganda, sie sind
Grundnahrungsmittel und Einkommensquelle in lndlichen Gebieten. Die
bekannteste Kochbanane, umgangssprachlich matooke genannt, ist die Musa
sp triploid acuminate genome group (AAA-EAHB). Sie ist verderblich und wird
im frischen Zustand gehandelt, so dass sehr hohe Nachernteverluste auftreten
(22-45%). Grnde dafr sind: Ernte bei nicht einheitlichem Reifegrad, wenig
schonende Aufbewahrung, Transport in groen Einheiten und vor allem
findet keine Weiterverabeitung bzw. Konservierung/Trocknung statt, was die
Grundlage fr Handel, Export und vielfltige Nutzung von matooke wre.
Trocknung ist eine der ltesten Technologien in der landwirtschaftlichen
Produktionskette. Es gibt zahlreiche Forschungsarbeiten zur Trocknung
von Obst und Gemse, aber wenig ist ber die Trocknung von matooke
bekannt. Trocknung von matooke und anschlieendes Vermahlen diente der
Wertsteigerung und erhaltung und wrde die zuvor genannten Nachteile
kompensieren.
Rohes matooke -Mehl wurde ursprnglich entwickelt, um die Lagerstabilitt

der verarbeiteten Frchte zu verbessern und alternative Nutzungen zu
finden, es hat einen hohen Strkeanteil (80 - 85% db) und ist somit eine
kalorienreiche Nahrungsquelle. Es hat gute Eigenschaften sowohl fr
den Nahrungsmittelbereich, als auch fr den non-food Bereich. Einige
Bemhungen wurden unternommen, um die Weiteverarbeitung von matooke
auszuweiten, aber Wenig ist ber die Verarbeitung zu Mehl bekannt. Es war
somit notwendig detailliertere Studien in die Wege zu leiten, um folgende
Lcken zu fllen: genaue Kenntnisse ber das optimale Reifefenster zur Ernte
von matooke, um gleichmige und qualitativ hochwertiges Mehl zu erhalten;
es gibt keine Informationen ber des Sorptionsverhalten von matooke, aus
dem das Feuchtegleichgewicht in Abhngigkeit von Temperatur und relativer
Luftfeuchte zu ermitteln ist, bei dem getrocknete matooke mikrobiologisch
stabil gelagert werden kann; auerdem gibt es keine Informationen ber das
Trocknungsverhalten von matooke sowie standarisierte Prozessparameter
von matooke in Bezug auf physiochemisch Eigenschaften des Mehl.
Das Hauptanliegen dieser Forschungsarbeit besteht darin, ein optimales Reife-

und Erntefenster zu definieren, so wie optimale Weiterverarbeitungsparameter
zu bestimmen, die ein standarisiertes mikrobiologisch einwandfreies Mehl
106 Zusammenfassung
mit guten Strke Eigenschaften garantieren. Diese Arbeit hat folgende Ziele
: i) ein optimales Reifefenster zu definieren, innerhalb dessen matooke
geerntet werden kann um gleichbleibendes matooke Mehl zu erhalten, ii)
die Sorptionsisothermen fr matooke aufzuzeigen iii) die Auswirkungen
verschiedener Trocknungsvarianten von matooke aufzeigen, vi) die
Trocknungsparameter optimieren v) Wertungen der verschiedenen Modelle
zu Reifegrad und Verarbeitungsschritten erstellen vi) Standardkriterien fr
eine kommerzielle Weiterverarbeitung von matooke zu definieren.
Das Probenmaterial stammt ausschlielich von der Bananen Plantage der

Presidential Initiative on Banana Industrial Development (PIBID), Technology
Business Incubation Center (TBI) at Nyaruzunga Bushenyi in West Uganda.
Nach einem vollstndig randomisierter Entwurf (completely randomized
design (CRD) wurden die Bananen Stauden fr die Versuche beerntet.
Fr die Untersuchungen wurde der weichkochende Kultivar Mbwazirume,
der in Bushenyi weitverbreitet ist, ausgewhlt. Zur Bestimmung der
Sorptionsisothermen wurde die Methode COST 90 Project (Wolf et al., 1985)
eingesetzt. Es wurde ein eigens entwickelter Versuchstrockner verwendet.
Alle Versuche wurden in den Laboren des TBI durchgefhrt.
Die physiologische Reife von matooke cv. mbwazirume aus Bushenyi ist nach
21 Wochen erreicht. Das optimale Erntefenster zur Weiterverarbeitung als
matooke Mehl (Raw Tooke Flour - RTF) in Bushenyi liegt zwischen 15 21
Wochen. Zur Ermittlung der Erntereife von matooke wird den Landwirten
die Ermittlung des Fingergewichts empfohlen, whrend den kommerziellen
Weiterverarbeitern das kombinierte Modell Fingergewicht und Verhltnis
Fruchtfleisch zu Schale empfohlen wird.
Matooke Isothermen deuten auf den Typ II hin, welcher charakteristisch

fr Nahrungsmittel ist. Am besten beschreibt das GAP Modell die Sorption
und Desorption der Isothermen. Um ein mikrobiologisch stabiles und
kommerziell handelsfhiges Lagerprodukt zu erhalten wird empfohlen
unter einen Restwassergehalt von 10 % (wb) zu trocknen. Die erhaltenen
Sorptionsisothermen fr matooke weisen auf das Hysterese Phnomen
hin. Umso geringer die Restfeuchte, umso hher ist die isoterische
Sorptionswrme sowohl fr Adsorptions- als auch fr Desorptionsisothermen.
Die gesamte isoterische Sorptionswrme fr matooke setzt sich wie folgt
zusammen: die Adsorptionsisotherme schwanken zwischen 4,586 2,386
Zusammenfassung 107
kJ/kg und die Desorptionsisothermen zwischen 18,194 2,391 kJ/kg fr ein

Feuchtigkeitsgleichgewicht von 0.3 0.01 (db). Um matooke von 80 auf
10% (wb) runter zu trocknen ist die Energie von mindestens 8,124 kJ/kg zu
entfernendes Wasser notwendig. Was wiederum bedeutet, dass die Energie
von mindestens 5,793 kJ notwendig ist um 1 kg frisches matooke von 80 auf
10 % (wb) zu trocknen.
Die Trocknung von matooke erfolgt in drei Schritten: das Aufwrmen, gefolgt
von zwei abfallende Temperaturstufen. Die konstante Trocknungsrate fr
alle Prozessparameter variiert zwischen 5,793 kJ und der tatschliche
Diffusionskoeffizient liegt zwischen 1.5E-10 - 8.27E-10 m2/s. Die
Aktivierungsenergie (Ea) fr matooke ist 16.3kJ/mol (1,605 kJ/kg). Vergleicht
man die Aktivierungsenergie (Ea) mit der isoterische Sorptionswrme von
Adsorptions- als auch von Desorptionsisothermen (qst) (1,297.62) bei 0.1
(kg Wasser/kg TS), so wird klar, dass Ea grer als qst ist, was vermuten
lsst, dass sich die Feuchtigkeitsmolekle in matooke Scheiben im flssigen
Zustand befinden.
Die geringsten Farbnderungen (E*) treten bei einer Schichtdicke der

Scheiben von 7 mm, einer Umluftgeschwindigkeit im Trockner von 6 m/s,
und einer Trocknungstemperatur von 70 C auf. Eine Reduzierung der
Trocknungszeit um 50 % kann erreicht werden, wenn die Oberflchentemperatur
des Produktes anstatt die Lufttemperatur im Trockner als Grundlage fr die
Steuerung des Trockners genutzt wird. Es sind weder physiochemische noch
qualitative Einbuen zu erwarten, wenn die Temperatur in den ersten Stufen
der Trocknung unter 72 C liegt und somit keine Verkleisterung des Produktes
stattfindet.
Die optimalen Prozessparameter bei der einlagigen Trocknung von matooke

sind : Scheibendicke = 3 mm, Lufttemperatur 70C, Taupunkt Temperatur
18C und Luftstrmung ber dem Produkt von 6 m/s. Bei der kommerziellen
Trocknung von matooke wird eine mehrschichtige Trocknung mit einer
Beladung des Trockners von weniger oder gleich 7 kg/m empfohlen und die
o.g. Prozessparameter beizubehalten, Scheibendicke = 3 mm, Lufttemperatur
70C, Taupunkt Temperatur 18C und Luftstrmung ber dem Produkt von 6
m/s.
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122Appendix A Appendix A
130
Appendix A 130
Appendix
Appendix A A
Appendix A
1.6
1.6
y = 1.4156e-0.035x
3 mm
R = 0.9844
1.2 y = 1.4156e-0.035x
3 mm
R = 0.9844
o)
1.2
(x/xo(x/x
5 mm y = 1.3592e-0.016x
)
R = 0.9873
5 mm
RatioRatio
y = 1.3592e-0.016x
0.8 R = 0.9873
7 mm y = 1.228e-0.01x
Moisture
0.8
7 mm R = 0.9902
y = 1.228e-0.01x
Moisture
R = 0.9902
0.4
0.4
0
0 100 200 300 400
0
0 100 Time
200(min) 300 400
Time (min)
Figure 5.1A Plot of moisture ratio (experimental and predicted) of different

Figure 5.1A
thickness Plot of moisture
versus ratio (experimental
the drying time of and predicted) of
matooke atdifferent thickness versus the
air temperature 60odrying
C, dew
o o
time of5.1A
Figure matooke
Plot at
of air temperature
moisture 60 C, dew point temperature
predicted) 15 C and airthickness
velocity 4.5m/s.
point temperature 15oCratio
and (experimental
o
air and
velocity 4.5m/s. of different
o
versus the drying
time of matooke at air temperature 60 C, dew point temperature 15 C and air velocity 4.5m/s.
Time (min)
0 Time (min)
0 100 200 300 400
0
0 100 200 300 400
-2
-2
Ratio)
-4
Ratio)
Ln(Moisture
-4
3 mm y = -0.0347x + 0.3476
Ln(Moisture
-6 R = 0.9844
3 mm y = -0.0347x + 0.3476
-6 R = 0.9844
5 mm y = -0.0164x + 0.3069
-8 R = 0.9873
5 mm y = -0.0164x + 0.3069
-8 y = R = 0.9873
-0.01x + 0.2054
7 mm
R = 0.9902
-10 y = -0.01x + 0.2054
7 mm
R = 0.9902
-10
Figure 5.2A Plot of Logarithm of moisture ratio at different thickness versus

the drying time of matooke at air temperature 60oC, dew point temperature
15oC and air velocity 4.5m/s.
Appendix A 131
Figure 5.2A Plot of Logarithm of moisture ratio at different thickness versus the drying time of matooke at
Appendix
AppendixAA 131123
o o
air temperature 60 C, dew point temperature 15 C and air velocity 4.5m/s.
Figure 5.2A Plot of Logarithm of moisture ratio at different thickness versus the drying time of matooke at
1.6
o o
air temperature 60 C, dew point temperature 15 C and air velocity 4.5m/s.
50C y = 1.1057e-0.022x
R = 0.9882
1.6
1.2
y = 1.3527e-0.035x
(x/xo)Ratio (x/xo) 60C y = 1.1057e -0.022x
50C R = 0.9838
R = 0.9882
1.2
0.8 70C yy==1.3318e
1.3527e-0.04x
-0.035x
60C
Moisture
RR==0.9852
0.9838
Moisture Ratio
0.8
0.4 70C y = 1.3318e-0.04x
R = 0.9852
0.40
- 100 200 300
Time (min)
0
Figure 5.3A Plot of moisture ratio (experimental and predicted) of different drying air temperature versus
- 100 200 300
Figure 5.3A
the drying timePlot of
of matookemoisture ratio (experimental
at dew point temperature
o
15 C,
Time and and
air velocity 4.5m/s
(min) predicted)
thickness 3mmof different
drying air temperature versus the drying time of matooke at dew point
Figure 5.3A Plot of moisture ratio (experimentalTime
and(min)
predicted) of different drying air temperature versus
temperature 15oC, air velocity 4.5m/s and o
thickness 3mm
0
the drying time of matooke at dew point temperature 15 C, air velocity 4.5m/s and thickness 3mm
0 100 200
Time (min)
50C
0
-1
0 100 60C 200
Ratio)
70C
50C
Ln(Moisture Ln(Moisture
-1
-2
60C + 0.1717
y = -0.0224x
Ratio)
R = 0.9884
70C
-2
-3
y = -0.0224x + 0.1717
y = -0.0415x + 0.3355 R = 0.9884
R = 0.9841 y = -0.035x + 0.3021
R = 0.9838
-4
-3
y = -0.0415x + 0.3355
R = 0.9841 y = -0.035x + 0.3021
R = 0.9838
-4
Figure 5.4A Plot of Logarithm of moisture ratio at different drying air temperature
versus the drying time of matooke at dew point temperature 15oC, air velocity
4.5m/s and thickness 3mm
Figure 5.4A Plot of Logarithm of moisture ratio at different drying air temperature versus the drying time of
o
matooke at dew point temperature 15 C, air velocity 4.5m/s and thickness 3mm
124 Appendix A
1.6
15C y = 1.4169e-0.035x
R = 0.984
25C y = 1.3612e-0.029x
1.2 R = 0.9884
y = 1.3729e-0.029x
35C
R = 0.9724
0.8
0.4
0
- 50 100 150 200
Time (min)
Figure 5.5A Plot of moisture ratio (experimental and predicted) of different

Figure
dew 5.5A temperature
point Plot of moisture ratio
on (experimental
drying time andofpredicted)
matooke of different
at airdew 60oon
point temperature
temperature C, air
o
drying time of matooke at air temperature 60 C, air velocity 4.5m/s and thickness 3mm.
velocity
Appendix A4.5m/s and thickness 3mm. 133
Time (min)
0
- 50 100 150 200
-2
Ln(Moisture Ratio)
y = -0.035x + 0.3484
15C R = 0.984
-4
25C y = -0.0293x + 0.3084
R = 0.9882
y = -0.0287x + 0.3169
35C
R = 0.9724
-6
Figure 5.6A Plot of Logarithm of moisture ratio at different dew point

o
temperature onLogarithm
Figure 5.6A Plot of dryingoftime of ratio
moisture matooke at dew
at different air point
temperature 60drying
temperature on C, air
time velocity
of
o
matooke at air temperature 60 C, air velocity 4.5m/s and thickness 3mm.
4.5m/s and thickness 3mm.
Appendix
Appendix AA 134 125
Appendix A 134
2.4
2.4
3 m/s y = 1.0073e-0.009x
2 3 m/s y =R = 0.9816
1.0073e -0.009x
2 R = 0.9816
4.5 m/s y = 1.2212e-0.02x
o) o)
1.6
(x/x(x/x y =R1.2212e
4.5 m/s = 0.9879
-0.02x
1.6
R = 0.9879
Ratio
1.2 6m/s
Ratio
y = 2.1568e-0.05x
Moisture
1.2 6m/s
y =R2.1568e
= 0.7941
-0.05x
Moisture
0.8 R = 0.7941
0.8
0.4
0.4
0
0 0 100 200 300 400 500
0 100 200Time (min)300 400 500
Time (min)
Figure
Figure5.7A Plot
5.7A Plot of moisture
of moisture ratio (experimental
ratio (experimental and predicted)
and predicted) of different of drying
air velocity on the different
time air
o drying time
velocity
Figure
of on atthe
5.7A
matooke Plot drying
air of moisture time
temperature ratio o
ofdew
C, matooke
of 50(experimental
point and at airoftemperature
predicted)
temperature of
15different
o
C and the of on
air thickness
velocity 50
of theC, dew point
3mm.
o o
of matooke at air temperature of 50 C, dew point temperature of 15 C and the thickness of 3mm.
temperature of 15oC and the thickness of 3mm.
Time (min)
0 Time (min)
0 0 100 200 300
0 100 200 300
3 m/s y = -0.0099x + 0.133

R = 0.9946
y = -0.0099x + 0.133
-1 3 m/s
Ratio)
R = 0.9946
-1
Ratio)
y = -0.0224x + 0.0848
Ln(Moisture
R = 0.9879
y = -0.0224x + 0.0848
Ln(Moisture
4.5 m/s R = 0.9879

4.5 m/s
-2
-2
6 m/s y = -0.0269x + 0.0831

6 m/s R = 0.9908
y = -0.0269x + 0.0831
-3 R = 0.9908
-3
Figure 5.8A Plot of Logarithm of moisture ratio at air velocity on the drying time
of matooke at air temperature of 50oC, dew point temperature of 15oC and the
thickness of 3mm.
126 Appendix B
Appendix B
Figure 6.1B Response surface showing the effect of air temperature and dew
point temperature on drying time
Figure 6.2B Response surface showing the effect of air temperature and air
velocity on drying time. (Air velocity (m/s): 3, 4.5 & 6 are represented by air
flow (m3/h): 400, 600 & 800 respectively.)
Appendix B 127
Figure 6.3B Response surface showing the effect of air velocity and dew point
temperature on drying time. (Air velocity (m/s): 3, 4.5 & 6 are represented by
air flow (m3/h): 400, 600 & 800 respectively).
point temperature on pasting properties (final viscosity).
128 Appendix B
point temperature on pasting properties (peak viscosity).
point temperature on starch content

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FORSCHUNGSBERICHT AGRARTECHNIK

des Fachausschusses Forschung und Lehre der

John Bosco Kawongolo

Optimization of Processing Technology for

Dissertation Witzenhausen 2013

Optimization of Processing Technology for Commercial

Tag der mndlichen Prfung: 13.12.2013

Erster Gutachter : Prof. Dr. sc. agr. Oliver Hensel

Im Selbstverlag: John Bosco Kawongolo

2013 John Bosco Kawongolo

to solving the above-mentioned challenges. Muranga (1998) demonstrated the

Drying is one of the oldest technologies employed in the processing of

A number of studies have been conducted in order to understand the drying

Industrial Development (PIBID). PIBID is centered on adopting the research

However, there is still limited information available on the processing of

Lack of information on estimating the maturity window, in order to process

The specific objectives of the study on matooke were:

1. To establish the optimum harvest maturity window.

RGB-values to XYZ-values in the first step, then in transforms the XYZ-values

2.2 Physicochemical properties

Table 2.1 Chemical composition of matooke from different cultivars

Chemical Components Cultivar and Chemical Composition (%)

Physicochemical properties of flour and starchy products are important for

Figure 2.1: Amylose & amylopectin molecular structures (source: Damodaran

Figure 2.2: Typical rapid visco-analyzer temperature profiles and pasting

Table 2.2: Pasting properties of raw matooke flour (Source: Muranga et

Break- Final Peak Pasting

2.3 Moisture sorption isotherms

The state of moisture in a food product is expressed in terms of water activity

Figure 2.3: Stability map of foods as a function of water activity (Source:

2.3.1 Moisture sorption models

2.3.2 Isosteric heat of sorption

The net isosteric

The drying method/technology employed in drying has a direct effect on

Drying of bananas dominantly takes place in the falling rate periods,

(Prachayawarakon et al., 2008; Demirel & Turhan, 2003; Kaddumukasa

Equation 2.16 can be written in logarithmic form as Equation 2.17:

Equation 2.16 can be written in logarithmic form as Equation 2.17:

Equation 2.16 can be written in logarithmic form as Equation 2.17:

Objective: Establishment of optimum harvest maturity

To establish the effect of harvest maturity with respect to:

3.2 Materials and methods

The maturity indices considered in these investigations were: circumference,

Table 3.1 Specification of the measuring equipment used in the study

Type of Equipment Model Manufacturer Accuracy

5 g of matooke flour sample was weighed and placed in a volumetric flask of

Establishment of optimum harvest maturity window for matooke 23

3.3 Results and Discussion

3.3.1 Physiological maturity

Average daily maximum temperature = 25.44 0.35C

Average daily minimum temperature = 14.81 0.25C

Substitute the above temperatures in equation 2.1 the physiological maturity

3.3.2 Effect of harvest maturity on maturity indices

Finger weight (g)

The Pearson correlation was used to determine the correlation of different

Table 3.2: Pearson correlation for maturity indices

Harvest Finger Finger Finger Peel Pulp Pulp/

Key: Cell Contents - * Pearson correlation

Figure 3.3: Effect of harvest maturity on pulp/peel ratio.

The Pearson Correlation was used to determine the correlation of different

Table 3.3: Pearson Correlation for Color Space

b* 0.549 -0.700 -0.946

C* 0.556 -0.685 -0.953 1.000

Figure 3.5 Effect of harvest maturity on given L, C &