Bahrain

Since 1919, the Bahraini education system has seen various periods of growth in its education sector. Bahrain
was the first in a number of areas in education and has the oldest K-12 system in the Gulf. Its current English
Education policy requires all students throughout primary, intermediate and secondary schools, to learn English
and it is also offered at many institutions of higher learning. The past several decades has seen a surge in the
number of Bahrainis enrolled in universities, and when compared among the GCC states, literacy rates and test
scores are among the highest. Despite its growth, when weighed against other nations of the world, Bahrain
faces various challenges in its pursuit to develop its educational framework, including poor English language
preparation and poor academic performance. The youth of Bahrain are not prepared for the challenges of higher
education and private sector employment due to years of development and reform in the system. The various
challenges the Bahraini education system is facing are historical and abiding. In the Bahrain chapter,
conclusions have been drawn to assist with the difficulties that are faced in Bahrains education.

Years of development and reform has yielded a system wherein its young people are not prepared for the challenges of
higher education and meaningful private sector employment.

Various challenges are faced in the Bahraini education system that are historical and ever-present.

the number of Bahrainis enrolled in universities has surged over the past several decades. With international
cooperation, test scores and literacy rates among the highest in GCC states,

In contrast to these positive developments, Bahrain faces numerous challenges in its quest to develop its educational
infrastructure.

These include poor English language preparation, poor academic performance when weighed against other nations of
the world, the temptation to lose sight of the importance of mastering Arabic, threats to academic freedom in the
aftermath of the 2011 uprising, and a catalogue of human rights abuses.

K-12

Higher education

1933-1955 A period of growth

1933-1955 A period of growth

By 1956, the Bahraini education system had grown dramatically, but it had also become fragmented with different
directors for the boys, girls and technical schools.

1987-Present

Bahrains Education system years 1-12

2.2. Limitations and disadvantages of Bahrains K-12 policy choices

The disadvantage of this lack of written policy on English language for K-12 students is that it contributes to the crisis of
education that Bahrain is facing: years of development and reform has yielded a system wherein its young people are not
prepared for the challenges of higher education and meaningful private sector employment.
The Accreditation Policy

Limitations and Disadvantages of Bahrains Higher Education Policies

3.5. Bahrains Higher Education Policies Compared to its Closest Neighbours

Controversial Issues in English Language Policy in Bahrain

The Future of Education Policy in Bahrain

Bahrains English Education policy

English is used extensively in Bahrain. All students are required to learn English, which is

taught throughout primary, intermediate, and secondary schools, and is offered at many

institutions of higher learning. The government of Bahrain clearly recognizes that having

students learn English is extremely beneficial to its economy and its future success.

7. Conclusion

Bahrain has the oldest K-12 system in the Gulf and was the first in a number of areas including Girls education. Now,
working to overcome a K-12 system that leaves its graduates to a great extent unprepared for higher education and work
in the private sector, it has initiated a large-scale school reform project focusing on teacher preparation, the
23development of a national curriculum, the improvement of ICT and the systematic evaluation and improvement of
schools. Higher Education in Bahrain has come a long way since the first public schools opened in the early 20th century.
Universities and institutes of higher learning have been founded in large numbers since 1968, and the education industry
has rapidly expanded since the turn of the millennium. While this expansion of the private education sector threatened
to cheapen academic degrees by lowering standards, the QAAET was founded in 2009 so that academic standards would
be enforced. Furthermore, as a percentage of the total population, the number of Bahrainis enrolled in universities has
surged over the past several decades. With international cooperation, test scores and literacy rates among the highest in
GCC states, and new means of overseeing academic progress in the QAAET, Bahrains educational system has many
promising positive features.

In contrast to these positive developments, Bahrain faces numerous challenges in its quest to develop its educational
infrastructure. These include poor English language preparation, poor academic performance when weighed against
other nations of the world, the temptation to lose sight of the importance of mastering Arabic, threats to academic
freedom in the aftermath of the 2011 uprising, and a catalogue of human rights abuses. In light of these challenges, the
following general conclusions may be drawn:
IRAN INTRO

English education in Iran has been convoluted over the last few decades due to the complicated relationship in
the past with the west. As a result, there is still an increasing perception among the countrys policy makers that
tends not to embrace English education completely. Although, since recent education policies, due to the status
of English as the world lingua franca and the demands imposed by irresistible pressure of globalization, because
of this, English is treated as an instrument to keep up with the rapid rate of globalization and this has resulted in
an increased attention to English. The story of English is studied in two distinct phases: Pre- and Post-
revolutionary Iran. The new curriculum reform in public English education system so far has mostly focused on
textbook development, can be interpreted as an ambivalent policy change in English education. The future will be a
scene of an inevitable challenge and growing tension between the globalization and domestication of English. The new
curriculum reform in public English education system so far has mostly focused on textbook development which can be
interpreted as an ambivalent policy change in English education. The main issue in Iran concerning the English is
which hasnt been able to make the needed change within the current political sphere of Iranian society in which on
the one hand the state decision-makers strongly desire to control and manage the important realm of education and on
the other hand, the current facilities and equipment of the governmental education system cannot meet and attract the
learners needs and interests, the private rival as the main representative of the prestigious Center version, in the
absence of an organized language policy, will compete directly with the partially growing nativized form. To put it simply,
the future will be a scene of an inevitable challenge and growing tension between the globalization and domestication of
English.

Since recent education policies, English is treated as an instrument to keep up with the rapid rate of
globalization and this has resulted in an increased attention to English which may also be due to the status of
English as the world lingua franca, and the demands imposed by irresistible pressure of globalization. The new
curriculum reform in public English education system so far has mostly focused on textbook development, can be
interpreted as an ambivalent policy change in English education.

Iran history

The Ups and Downs of English in Iran - English in Pre-revolutionary Iran/ English in Post-revolutionary Iran

English Departments and Professional ELT Networks, English is studied in its own right, as a range of independent fields,
with three branches: Translation, TEFL and Literature.

States Position: More or Less English?

Future Trend: a Scene of Challenges, However because of some specific political, cultural and ideological features of this
society in which English has been kept as a vehicle of educational advancement with little practicality nationwide and not
as a means of internationalization,

In all, the new curriculum reform in public English education system which so far has mostly focused on textbook
development can be interpreted as an ambivalent policy change in English education. In addition, the increasing activity
and number of English institutes mushrooming nationwide, within the current political sphere of Iranian society in which
on the one hand the state decision-makers strongly desire to control and manage the important realm of education and
on the other hand, the current facilities and equipment of the governmental education system cannot meet and attract
the learners needs and interests, the private rival as the main representative of the prestigious Center version, in the
absence of an organized language policy, will compete directly with the partially growing nativized form. To put it simply,
the future will be a scene of an inevitable challenge and growing tension between the globalization and domestication of
English.

this chapter, making use of the related theoretical frameworks on the topic, attempts to offer the reader a clear picture
of English in Iranian society and deal with its ebbs and flows through the socio-political motives and changes.Discussions
on English language Policy The decade leading up to the turn of the millennium brought a resurgence of interest in the
field of language policy and planning, fueled in large part by the imperious spread of English (Hornberger, 2006).

As the field of language policy has expanded to include an increasingly diverse body of research, the scope of
investigation on educational language policy or language education policy, tending to rely as much on sociological and
educational theory and methodology as it does on socio- or applied linguistics and early language planning and language
policy work (Johnson, 2013), has specifically expanded too.

As we might expect, given the fraught nature of Irans relationship with western

powers over the last few decades, English education in Iran is complicated.

Aghagolzadeh and Davari note (this volume) the ambivalence of the state toward

English and concern that it is perceived to some extent as a medium of cultural

invasion of the West(this volume. Yet at the same time English is officially

recognized as one of the two essential elements of literacy in the third millennium

(Aghagolzadeh and Davari, this volume).

Kuwait

English is taught as a second language from first to twelfth grade in Kuwait. The Language Teaching (ELT)
General Supervision department is in charge of the English language instruction and assessment within the
ministry of Education. In 2002, the ELT General Supervision introduced a new English language curriculum
with an emphasis on linguistic, cognitive and affective goals. In addition to these changes, the ministry has
made great effort to help Kuwaitis learn English, from using newly introduced books in the curriculum, to
providing learners with a website where they can practice English authenticity through useful resources, past
exams, news bulletins, and various other authentic materials. Despite the ministrys efforts, Kuwaiti English
performance remains substandard and this may also be due to the general population remaining at odds with the
English language, therefore there are many areas of improvement to be made. The Kuwait chapter discusses the
flaws of the policy and some suggestions are made.

ELT General Supervision adopted a new, modernized English language Curriculum. The educational objectives within the
new English language curriculum places importants on linguistic, cognitive and affective goals. In addition to its
commitment to upgrade The English language curricula, the ELT General Supervision is responsible for easing the
efficiency of teachers and proving the learning environment. Even though the Ministry of Education allocates substantial
resources and effort into curriculum development, teaching materials, and teacher preparation, the current state of ESL
pedagogy does not produce high level English proficiency among the public school graduates. The English language
policy in Kuwait seems well-designed and coherent, but its implementation remains deeply unsatisfactory.
The present paper describes the main facets of the English language policy in Kuwait, including the status of the English
language in the country from both historical and contemporary perspectives, as well as the main features of English
language education in the state-sponsored school system. It also touches upon teacher preparation and professional
development as part of the government policy to ensure quality education for Kuwaiti citizens.

The paper is organized as follows. First, basic facts and statistics about Kuwait are presented with emphasis on
expenditure on education, as well as the status of the English language in general. Second, the education system is
described, in particular the public schools system and the role of the English Language Teaching General Supervision
within the Ministry of Education in terms of setting English as a Second Language standards, benchmarks and learning
outcomes for the primary, intermediate, and secondary levels in the public school system. Third, the current state of the
English teacher education and training opportunities are presented. Next, the role of tertiary educational institutions is
described. Finally, the shortcomings of the policy are pointed out and some recommendations are suggested. The
concluding remarks summarize the main finings and present expert opinions regarding improvement opportunities in the
English education system in Kuwait.

The issue of English as second Language in Kuwait seems to be replete with apparent contradictions. While the status of
English in Kuwait as an unofficial second language is not debated, the extent to which English is embraced by the general
population remains at odds with its alleged importance as the language of both business and education. Although young
generations of Kuwaitis recognize the importance of English for career opportunities, knowledge acquisition, and success
in the globalized world, very few actually speak or read in English outside the classroom (Al Refaie, 2010). Even though
the Ministry of Education allocates substantial resources and effort into curriculum development, teaching materials, and
teacher preparation, the current state of ESL pedagogy does not produce high level English proficiency among the public
school graduates. The English language policy in Kuwait seems well-designed and coherent, but its implementation
remains deeply unsatisfactory.

Although Arabic enjoys the status of the official language, the country is in fact linguistically diverse since the expatriate
community constitutes about two-thirds of the population. Numerous ethnic expatriate groups regularly communicate in
such languages as Hindi, Urdu, Persian (Farsi), Tamil, Bengali, Filipino, Malayalam, and Sinhala, among others. At the
same time, English enjoys a special though unofficial status of the second language, and is taught as a compulsory
subject at all levels of the public school system. Thus, most Kuwaitis are bilingual, preferring to speak Arabic with family,
friends, and local business partners, but using English for entertainment purposes and dealings with expats.

Historically, English has been an important language in Kuwait since the end of the nineteenth century. English language
was first used as the language of administration and international relations in Kuwait during the period of the British
protectorate, which lasted from 1899 to 1961. English language instruction became part of the local Kuwaiti school
curriculum alongside mathematics, geography, and history in 1910s (Al-Yaseen, 2000). After the termination of the
British protectorate treaty, the economic and cultural ties with Great Britain continued, cementing the privileged status
of the English language. After Kuwait began establishing diplomatic and economic relations with many countries, its
international position grew, as did the importance of English. The status of English as the language of international
relations was further strengthened when Kuwait became a member state of the United Nations in 1963.

Lebanon?

Morocco
Abstract

The debate about which language is best suited to take on the role of the first foreign language and language of
education in Morocco is in full force these days. The policy of Arabization, which many blame for the current education
crisis in Morocco, has failed to replace French as the linguistic medium of science and technology in tertiary education
and as a result has produced high school students who are unable to function in any foreign language upon graduation.
The 1999 National Charter of Education and the 2009 Emergency Program have come to the rescue by proposing many
reforms to the system of education as a whole, including the introduction of another foreign language - for the teaching
of science and technology - on an already saturated linguistic scene. The question is which foreign language is it going to
be: French, which represents continuity, or English, which provides access to international communication and economic
development? All indications point to a language shift towards English. What remains to be seen are the steps the
government will take to guarantee the success of this new venture, especially after the recent failures of two previous
language policies.

Introduction:

Moroccans are typically known to be gifted speakers and learners of foreign languages, especially when compared to
other Arabs in the MENA region. Such a claim may not be supported by much empirical evidence, but there are certainly
historical events and facts to support it. Moroccos recent history has been marked by several encounters with foreign
linguistic cultures that have left their marks on the Moroccan linguistic landscape (Laroui, 1977). Such encounters
account not only for the openness of Moroccans onto other cultures (Ibn Khaldoun, 2004) due to its close proximity to
Europe, but more importantly for their ability to absorb and adapt many of these foreign cultures linguistic traditions,
hence the appreciation, ease, and effortlessness with which they speak and learn foreign languages (Gellner, 1969 and
Grandguillaume, 1991).

The average educated Moroccan will speak at least one foreign language typically French in addition to the mother
tongues, Moroccan Arabic (Darija) and / or Berber (Tamazight) and Standard Arabic. And due to the proximity of the
Northern part of Morocco to Spain and the influence of Spanish culture on these provinces, Moroccans from the
northern regions will typically also speak Spanish in addition to the languages mentioned above. Therefore, the culture
of speaking at least one foreign language in addition to the mother tongues is expected of all educated Moroccans to the
point where education and socio-cultural capital can be based on ones proficiency in a foreign language(s).

The validation of the importance of mastering foreign languages came in 1999 in the form of the National Charter of
Education Kingdom of Morocco (MEN, 1999). Article 100 of the Charter stresses the, renforcement et
perfectionnement de lenseignement de la langue arabe, diversification des langues denseignement des sciences et des
technologies, et ouverture sur le Tamazight (www.men.gov.ma). (Strengthening and improving the teaching of Arabic,
diversifying the languages for teaching science and technology, and openness to Tamazight.)

Strengthening and improving the teaching of Arabic has always been the goal of Moroccan language policy, so there is
nothing new here in terms of language planning. What is new, however, is the push to diversify the languages used for
teaching science and technology, although the foreign language(s) to be adopted for teaching these subjects remains
shrouded in mystery and ambiguity. The implicit message in the Charter is the attempt to revert to French and possibly
English as the mediums for teaching these subjects, something that Arabic has not been able to accomplish at the
tertiary level. The Charter even goes further as to suggest that French may not be the only language used in science and
technology, and the implication here is that English might be taking over.
The move to promote the teaching and learning of English both as a language and as a means teaching in tertiary
education has already been in place since the 1995 inauguration of Alakhawayn University, the first Moroccan institution
to adopt English as its medium of instruction. Whatever the case may be, there seems to be an implicit recognition that
the policy of Arabization has failed, and that a return to bilingualism is a necessary course of action to guarantee that in
the global village, Morocco is not left behind (King Mohammed VIs speech, August 20, 2013).

Linguistic landscape in Morocco

Language planners in Morocco may not agree on many things, but when it comes to the state of the education system,
everyone seems to agree that the system is dysfunctional and needs a total overhaul, especially in terms of the linguistic
tools used as mediums of instruction in primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Several attempts to address this
failure have been introduced, including the 1999 National Charter of Education and Training and the 2009-2012
Education Emergency Plan. Still, both plans have failed to address the specific and concrete measures to improve the
quality of education, and as a result the system continues to see high dropout rates, low student achievement at all
levels of the system, in addition to producing students who are unequipped with the linguistic, technical, and
technological skills to compete on the job market.

A 2007 World Bank report on development and education in the MENA (Middle East and North Africa) region ranked
Morocco in the 11th place out of 14 countries in the region
(http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2011/downloads/P11_IR_Chapter1.pdf)

The United Nations Development Program, where education plays a primary role in how countries are ranked, put
Morocco in the 130th place, out of 187 countries (http://www.pnud.org.br/atlas/ranking/IDH_global_2011.aspx). In the
PIRLSs 2011 comparison of international student achievement in reading, Moroccos reading averages at the end of
elementary school ranked it among the least performing countries, one position before last
(http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2011/downloads/P11_IR_Chapter1.pdf).

The Moroccan government and most Moroccans are well aware of the educational crisis in the country, and the
introduction of all these reforms that have unfortunately not paid off is a clear indication that the will is there to turn the
education sector around. But unless the issue of foreign languages and the linguistic medium to adopt for teaching
scientific and technological subjects is confronted and addressed openly and honestly, it would be hard to predict a way
out of this educational conundrum.

In the midst of this chaotic educational atmosphere, English continues to gain ground on the linguistic scene in Morocco,
and all indications at this time point to a strong shift in Moroccos language education policy from a focus on Arabic and
French as the traditional mediums of education to English. How the state will unroll this project is anybodys guess.

Palestine

Qatar

Saudi Arabia INTRO

In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), English is the medium of instruction in the higher education system in
both public and private universities across the country. To help the country adapt to the globalization of English,
The Ministry of Education (MoE) and the Ministry of Higher Education (MHW) in the KSA have been making
immense efforts to adapt to English as a foreign language (EFL) instruction. The past two decades have seen
major initiatives by the government to help promote mass literacy in English across the country (this volume).
Although English is the medium in the higher education sector, there is still hesitation to include English in the
primary school level curriculum. Some studies have also shown that the ambiguity of the language policy
currently being implemented in the country, for this reason the Saudi government is finding it hard to fulfill the
objectives of its recent English education reforms. debates are continuing is a result of the absence of a clear
language education policy, guidelines and strategies across the country, as well as of the paucity of studies on
English education policy in the KSA.

Policiy changes are?

It also suggests that an epistemic and cognitive shift

(Mode 2 knowledge) needs to take place in the English education policy and practices of the

KSA in order to effectively realize the intended outcomes of current Saudi education policy:

Anstract
This article critically examines current trends, issues and challenges in policy and practices of English
education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It argues that although the current critical decisions on the language
education policy being applied in the KSA are driven primarily by the forces of global change, in order for this
policy to be implemented successfully it is essential that a strategic plan to be designed, guided by local
intellectual conditions and exigencies. Otherwise, it is likely that these policy changes will not only jeopardize
the classical Arabic and national cultural identity, but also they may put Saudi national interests at risk. It further
contends that it is crucial for the Saudi government to deeply understand the intersection of current English
language policy and practices in both public and higher education, the internationalization of higher education
and national cultural identity in order successfully to promote mass literacy in English in the country and at the
same time maintain national interests. It also suggests that an epistemic and cognitive shift (Mode 2
knowledge) needs to take place in the English education policy and practices of the KSA in order to effectively
realize the intended outcomes of current Saudi education policy: i.e., promoting mass literacy in English, and
meeting religious needs as well as the growing economic and social needs of the Saudi nation.

Turkey

In the last few decades, Turkey has seen major reforms in education, particularly in the English language sector.(Major
education reforms have taken place in Turkey in the last few decades) The spread of English Language Teaching (ELT) was
a result beginning from the need for official measures to promote foreign-language education which lead to the policy of
opening up to the Western world due to the drive for modernization and internationalization.( the needfor official
measures to promote foreign-language education which lead to the policy of opening up to the Western world because
of the drive for modernization and internationalization.) Fast forward to 1997, curricululm reform, the aquiring of English
is split into two sectors, linguistic goals and non-lingistic goals.Linguistic goals are driven by the benefits that acquiring
proficiency in English would yield in developing human capital to communicate at the international level for economic,
social, and business relations. At the national level, English has enormous prestige mainly due to its instrumental value -
a means of gaining access to better education and a more prestigious job with good benefits and prospects for
promotion (Krkgz, 2005). To help with the wide spead of English language, a renewal of the teacher education
curriculum from 1997, is necessary to respond to the global influences interms of a planned language policy. Education is
given a priority as the most important factor in attaining the level of the civillized European countries. The non-linguistic
goals relate to the underlying social, political and economic ambitions of Turkey to participate in a globalized economy
and internationalize its education. It could be argued that the perceived language needs for national development and
economic competitiveness in an increasingly globalized world tend to be the most powerful driver inTurkey as in many
Asian polities

PLAN

1. The 1997 Curriculum Reform

2. Innovation at the Primary and Secondary Level Education

3. Renewal of the 1997 Teacher Education Curriculum

In Turkey, language policymaking has seen tremendous changes in the last century. Unlike such countries as India,
Pakistan, and China which have had a long colonial language policy history, Turkey responded to the global influences of
English in its educational system in terms of a planned language policy. Since the establishment of the Turkish Republic in
1923, significant progress has been made in the provision of foreign language education through a planned educational
policy. Education is given a priority as the most important factor in attaining the level of the civilized European countries
(Grossman, Onkol and Sands 2007). As noted by Mango (2004) education was the means by which the country would
catch up with contemporary civilization (p. 157). With the implementation of the opening up policy to the Western
world and the drive for modernization and internationalization, there have been several official measures to promote
foreign-language education, resulting in the spread of English Language Teaching (ELT) in the country.

Turkish is the national language and it enjoys the status of an official language. In a non- native English speaking (NNES)
context, English holds the status of a foreign language (EFL), and is the only compulsory foreign language at all levels of
education, as in China, Japan, and the Middle East.

In Turkey, the underlying motivation that drove LPP actors to prioritize English as the most prominent foreign language in
LPP serves two main goals; linguistic and non-linguistic. Linguistic goals are driven by the benefits that acquiring
proficiency in English would yield in developing human capital to communicate at the international level for economic,
social, and business relations. At the national level, English has enormous prestige mainly due to its instrumental value -
a means of gaining access to better education and a more prestigious job with good benefits and prospects for
promotion (Krkgz, 2005).

The non-linguistic goals relate to the underlying social, political and economic ambitions of Turkey to participate in a
globalized economy and internationalize its education. It could be argued that the perceived language needs for national
development and economic competitiveness in an increasingly globalized world tend to be the most powerful driver
inTurkey as in many Asian polities (Chua, 2010; Coleman, 2011; Hamid, 2010; Hsieh, 2010).

Tunisia

UAE