Original article

doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2011.00410.x

Using Cultural-Historical Activity Theory to

design and evaluate an educational game in
science education jcal_410 424..439

D. Lazarou
Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Abstract The aim of this paper is to describe a methodology for using Cultural-Historical Activity
Theory (CHAT) at the initial stages of the design process of an educational game, by exploring
how the theory can be used as a framework for producing not only usable but also useful com-
puter tools. The research also aimed to investigate how the theory could be used for designing
computer tools for learning science. Although CHAT and specifically the concepts of activity
system and contradictions were used as the basis for the design and development of the edu-
cational game, subsidiary design guidelines also contributed significantly to this process. These
derived from the research fields of Human Computer Interaction and Science Education and
from students everyday experiences when playing video games at home. The educational
game produced was concerned with the teaching and learning of Expansion and Contraction of
Air in primary science, a subject that existing research suggests is conceptually difficult for
students. As far as the main outcomes of the study are concerned, it was revealed through the
implementation of the game that contradictions could be adequately resolved, while stakehold-
ers needs and motives could be appropriately addressed.

Keywords activity system, contradictions, Cultural-Historical Activity Theory, educational game, expan-
sion and contraction of air, science education.

Activity Theory (CHAT) could be used as a theoretical

Introduction
There has been an extended discussion for more than a
decade about how CulturalHistorical Activity Theory
(CHAT) (Leontev 1978; Vygotsky 1978; Engestrm
1987) could be an appropriate theoretical framework
for the design of computer tools. This discussion takes
place at a time when the conventional Human Computer
Interaction (HCI) methods are being criticized for being
unable to produce both usable and useful computer
tools that can address all stakeholders needs, motives,
and practices. It has been advocated (Nardi 1996a;
Kaptelinin & Nardi 2006) that Cultural-Historical
Accepted: 3 November 2010
Correspondence: Demetris Lazarou, 13A Kresnas Street, Strovolos,
2021, Nicosia, Cyprus. Email: demetris.lazarou@bris.ac.uk
and methodological framework for producing usable
and useful computer tools and as an appropriate method
for actively involving real users in the design process, a
crucial added value offered by CHAT that can lead
HCI to a new, humanized design activity era (Bodker
1991). Nevertheless, neither has much research focused
on examining how CHAT can be used at the initial
stages of the design of a computer tool (Verenikina &
Gould 1997), nor has research illustrated how the theory
can be used to design computer tools for school disci-
plines such as science education.
This paper describes and discusses the methodology
used for the design, development, implementation, and
evaluation of the first working prototype of an educa-
tional game for primary science in Cyprus, and of the

424 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2011), 27, 424439
Game design and evaluation using CHAT 425

teaching methods developed for its implementation.

The game is a tool for teaching and learning Expansion
and Contraction of Air, which addresses students and
teachers needs and motives. Bellamy (1996) argues
that this is a necessary condition to enable technology to
bring about pervasive educational reform by designing
tools that address real needs within real contexts.
CHAT, as reformulated by Engestrm (1987), was used
Fig 2 The expanded activity triangle model (Engestrm, 1987,
as a theoretical and analytical tool for completing the
online source).
games first production cycle.

relate to the conditions and the means that enable the

Theoretical background materialization of actions.
CHAT

CHAT has its roots mainly in the work of Lev Vygotsky CHAT and HCI
(1978) and Alexei Leontev (1978, 1981) and is a
This research study uses CHAT as reformulated by
framework for understanding human activity. Vygotsky
Engestrm (1987). Engestrm (1987) reformulated
(1978) realized that the existing stimulus-response
CHAT by expanding the initial Vygotskian tool-
process of human behaviour was inadequate to explain
mediation triangle into an expanded activity triangle
in full the complex psychological functioning of
model, which also included community, rules, and
individuals. Vygotsky (1978) suggested that human
division of labour. This aimed at capturing and reflect-
action is mediated by an auxiliary stimulus that could
ing the collective nature of activity within the context
be in the form of a sign or a tool (Fig 1). Leontev
that it is carried out (see Fig 2). As Engestrm suggests,
(1978, 1981), who was strongly influenced by Marx
the model he proposed can be used so that activity can
and Engels (Marx & Engels 1968), argued that we
be analyzed in its inner dynamic relations and histori-
should also take into consideration human praxis, that
cal change (1987, Online Source). The activity system
is, practical human activity. Furthermore, he empha-
is not stable but is continuously evolving, along with its
sized the inherently social nature of human activity,
constituent components, due to many forms of contra-
noting that activities should never be considered as
dictions that exist and the effort needed to resolve
being isolated from social relations and society, regard-
them. Contradictions, which are problems or break-
less of the conditions and forms under which they take
downs within or between activity systems (Kuutti
place. Concerning the structure of activity, Leontev
1996), contribute toward the understanding of the
(1978, 1981) proposed that activity should be regarded
whole system and their solution results in the activity
as a systemic and collective unit driven by an object
systems evolution and development (Engestrm
that is considered to be the main motive and driving
1987).
force of the activity. Activity is realized through actions
There has been an increasing interest in the use of
that are oriented towards goals, while being realized
CHAT in HCI research (Nardi 1996a; Kaptelinin &
through automated or routinized operations, which
Nardi 2006), and CHAT has been put forward as a prom-
ising theoretical and methodological tool for the design
or redesign of computer tools (Bellamy 1996; Collins
et al. 2002). In this way, as Engestrm (2000) advo-
cates, a shift of HCI research out of the laboratory and
into the actual context of the activity can be observed.
Moreover, it is reported that the use of CHAT contrib-
utes toward the identification of those features that
could enable researchers to design or reshape not only
Fig 1 Vygotskys mediated act (Vygotsky 1978, p. 40). usable but also useful computer tools, which could

2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

426
assist subjects to fulfil their objectives/motives and
satisfy their needs (Nardi 1996a; Mwanza 2001). This is
a significant added value of CHAT within the HCI
research field, as existing HCI methods are reported to
have neglected to take into consideration the users
wider context (Kuutti 1996; Mwanza 2001). This
narrows the tools evaluation to a detailed analysis of its
usability that is isolated from the broader context and
practice. The studies reported in the literature provide
accounts of efforts to create ambitious and sustainable
systems such as the BUILT-IT system (Fjeld et al.
2002), the User-monitoring environment for activities
system (TellWare GmbH, Zurich, Switzerland) (Kapte-
linin & Nardi 2006), or the SupportTracker for Hewlett-
Packard (Collins et al. 2002). Further, the theory has
been used as the basis for proposing several analytical
tools for the design and evaluation of technologies
(Kaptelinin et al. 1999; Mwanza 2002).
Despite the reported promising role of CHAT as
a framework for the design of computer tools or
as a tool for evaluating the impact of new computer
tools on an activity system, very little literature illus-
trates how CHAT could be used at the initial stages of
the design of computer tools (Verenikina & Gould
1997). This has led to a critique of CHAT as a theory
that can only be used for failure analysis (Rochelle
1998, p. 242), a critique that still needs to be addressed
by research.
Furthermore, CHAT seems to be a suitable theoreti-
cal and methodological tool for the design of educa-
tional technologies. The theory can be used to evaluate
the motives, goals, and needs of all stakeholders in the
school system and the activity systems of teaching and
learning, by examining them within the actual context
of the subjects environment; this contributes towards
having a comprehensive idea of the situation and
reflecting this upon the design of the new tool. Further,
as one of the main principles of CHAT is the develop-
ment of the activity (Kaptelinin 1996; Kuutti 1996),
some researchers believe that the use of CHAT can offer
a shift in pedagogical practice (Bellamy 1996; Lim &
Hang 2003; Hardman 2005). Nevertheless, although
there are studies that illustrate examples of the design of
educational software (Bellamy 1996), the suitability of
CHAT as a tool for designing and evaluating educa-
tional applications to be implemented in single lessons
in primary schools has not been adequately examined.
This emerged as one of the underlying aims of the study.
D. Lazarou
Motivational background from science education
This study aimed to produce a tool for the teaching
and learning of Expansion and Contraction of Air in
primary science. Various studies indicate that children
aged 1112 have alternative conceptual frameworks
concerning this scientific content (Sere 1985; Lee et al.
1993; Lubben et al. 1999). This study was based on
the initial assumption that many of the students
difficulties are not able to be appropriately conf-
ronted because of the abstractedness of the concepts
involved, the insufficiency of the traditional hands-on
experiments being used in the lesson, and the fact
that students are not able to fulfil certain learning
objectives proposed by the curriculum (MOEC 1996).
For example, Lee et al. (1993) provide evidence that
students believe that a balloon fitted on the top of
a bottle, while this is being heated, becomes larger
as hot air or heat rises from its bottom to the top
and inflates it and that cold air is concentrated at
its bottom. This seems to be in contradiction to the
scientific explanation given for the phenomenon, that
the balloon increases its volume because thermal
expansion occurs. It should be noted here that the
experiment reported by Lee et al. (1993) is the experi-
ment suggested by the teachers and students science
textbooks in Cyprus. Further, Sere (1985) reports
that some students believe that more air is produced or
that there is more air because it expands when air is
sealed inside a container and is heated. Therefore, how
can students overcome their misconceptions if they
cannot observe and measure the quantity of air in the
container?
Further, the use of digital technology has been pro-
posed as a promising medium for helping students
acquire difficult abstract concepts (NRC 1996; Reiser
et al. 2001) and various computer tools have been pro-
posed, such as computer-models (Jonassen 2004;
Kyunghee & Hyunsook 2004), simulations (Kim et al.
2000; Hsu 2002), and educational software (Reiser
et al. 2001). Nevertheless, despite the abundance of
tools and their reported success in mediating learning,
do we as teachers manage to provide students with
what they actually want, in terms of their real needs,
motives, and interests? Do these technologies
adequately motivate students to engage in the learning
process? Under what criteria are these technologies
chosen by teachers?
2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Game design and evaluation using CHAT
Research aims
This paper describes and discusses the methodology
used for the design, development, implementation, and
evaluation of the first working prototype of an educa-
tional game for primary science and of the teaching
methods developed and employed for its implementa-
tion. Based on the limitations or needs that emerged
from the research reported by the CHAT and Science
Education literature, the studys research aims were
defined as the following:
to design, develop, and evaluate an educational com-
puter game for teaching and learning Expansion and
Contraction of Air in primary science.
to explore the ways that CHAT can be used for the
development of educational computer tools for
primary science education.
Methodology and findings
Kaptelinin and Nardi (2006) report on a number of
studies which portray the various methodological
approaches that can be employed based on CHAT. This
study has as its basis the developmental work research
methodology which was proposed by Engestrm
(1987), was used in his studies (Engestrm 2000) and
was applied by other researchers as well (Barab et al.
2002; Collins et al. 2002). Briefly, the basic idea sug-
gested by Engestrm, and adapted for HCI, is that a
new technology can induce instability and multilevel
tensions within or between the systems in which it is
applied and an effort has then to be made so that these
contradictions can be resolved for the system to reach a
temporary equilibrium (Kaptelinin & Nardi 2006); that
is a seemingly stable condition. The contradictions
may be resolved by redesigning the instrument and
reusing it within the activity system, and while this
process may lead to multiple cycles for resolving the
contradictions, the activity is also under continuous
development (Bodker 1991; Mwanza 2001). The con-
cepts of the expanded activity triangle model and con-
tradictions were the main theoretical principles that
guided the process; the way these concepts guided the
Eight-Phase methodology and analysis of data is
explained in the following section.
Beyond the use of CHAT as the main theory that
guided the design of the game, the use of subsidiary
2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
427
methodologies to support the design process was
also considered necessary. For instance, applying
usability-testing and drawing from research findings
from science education research also contributed
significantly in the design process. As Kapteli-
nin (1996) and Nardi (1998) suggest, using CHAT
does not exclude the use of any other methods when
needed.
In the following section, the first cycle of develop-
ment, implementation, and evaluation of the games
initial prototype and the teaching methods developed
for its implementation are described through Eight
Methodological Phases. The game is expected to be
completed when several prototypes are produced and
examined so that all contradictions within the activity
systems are resolved and the systems reach a temporary
equilibrium.
The methodological process followed is briefly pre-
sented (also see Fig 3):
identify and describe the relevant activity systems
(Phase One),
identify needs, motives, and expectations of all stake-
holders (Phase Two),
identify contradictions within and between these
systems (Phase Three),
present recommendations suggested by stakeholders
through which contradictions could be resolved and
needs and motives could be addressed (Phase Three),
propose features/characteristics of the proposed
game, deriving from the proposed recommendations
(Phase Three),
design and develop a prototype of the game based
on the features identified and also on supple-
mentary methods (e.g. HCI guidelines, using find-
ings from the science education research) (Phase
Four),
test the usability of the game and make any changes
needed so that usability issues do not inhibit students
efforts to interact with the game (Phase Five),
propose features/characteristics of the teaching
methods to be used when the game is implemented
(Phase Six),
implement the game in a real-classroom environment
(Phase Seven)
evaluate whether the new game developed and the
teaching methods designed positively contribute
towards the resolution of initially identified contra-
428 D. Lazarou

Identify and define the

Activity System of Science Education and the
Teachers Activity System of Science Education Students
with the use of Computers

Identify motives, needs and expectations

of stakeholders

Identify contradictions
within and between the activity systems identified

Teachers Make recommendations for resolving the Students

contradictions and addressing the motives and
needs

Researcher
orchestrating the recommendations

Computer-Game Subsidiary Design Teaching Methods

Elements Guidelines (HCI)

Science Education
Prototype of the Computer-
Research
Game
Childrens practices when
Usability Testing playing video-games
Fig 3 Methodological steps followed for
TOOL &
designing the computer game and the
Redeveloped Computer- PEDAGOGY accompanying teaching methods for its
Game
implementation.

dictions and the fulfilment of identified needs and
motives (Phase Eight),
propose and illustrate a potentially redesigned activ-
ity system for teaching and learning of Expansion
and Contraction of Air (Phase Eight).
A more detailed account of the methodological pro-
cesses followed is given through the separate descrip-
tions of the Eight Methodological Phases that follow.
These processes are presented along with the main find-
ings of each methodological phase in an effort to present
a temporal reconstruction of the process of the develop-
ment of the game.
Phase one: identifying and defining the relevant
activity systems
In order to identify and define the relevant activ-
ity systems that underlie the teaching and learning
practices concerning Expansion and Contraction of
Air in primary science, multiple data collection
methods were applied so that activity systems could
be examined in detail; a methodological guideline
suggested by Nardi (1996b) and also applied by
other researchers (Lim & Hang 2003; Hardman
2005). Initially, four teachers and 20 fifth-grade
students from two classrooms were interviewed
concerning:
the teaching and learning practices in science educa-
tion in general
the teaching and learning practices of abstract scien-
tific concepts, including the topic of expansion and
contraction of air
the teaching and learning practices in science when
computers were implemented in the lesson and
the students habits and practices when playing com-
puter games
In-depth, semi-structured, group interviews (two stu-
dents) were conducted with the students. Each lasted 45
to 55 min and was audio-recorded. Participating stu-
dents were randomly selected.
The selected teachers were chosen so that they were a
representative sample of the diversity of teachers
working under different terms and conditions in Cyprus
(urban/rural; in school with/without a computer lab).
Subsidiary data collection methods were also used

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Game design and evaluation using CHAT
to approach in more detail the teaching and learning
practices:
examination of the instruments, experiments, and
textbook activities for teaching Expansion and Con-
traction of Air, as proposed by the teachers and stu-
dents textbooks,
observation of two 80-minute science lessons in
which there was no integration of computers so that
teaching and learning practices could be examined
(the lessons were video-recorded),
observation of two 40-minute science lessons con-
ducted with the integration of computers in the
schools computer lab, so as to evaluate the teaching
and learning practices when computers were inte-
grated in the lesson.
A qualitative analysis of the data was made. Identified
activity systems and contradictions were descrip-
tively presented accompanied by data excerpts, such
as excerpts from interviews of teachers or students.
This approach to analysis seems to be preferred by
Engestrm in much of the research work that he has
carried out (Engestrm 1995, 2000, 2001). Engestrm
(2005) argues that any discourse analysis of data per-
formed through the lens of activity theory is neither
similar to traditional critical discourse analysis, ethno-
graphic oriented discourse analysis, nor conversational
discourse analysis. Engestrm (2005) emphasizes the
importance of the concept of the activity as a unit of
analysis so that any interpretations made deriving from
discourse analysis of the various actions of the partici-
pants should take into consideration the systemic activ-
ity in which they evolve; in this way, the scope of the
analysis is neither too narrow nor too wide. Further-
more, analysis of contradictions is highly important for
portraying the inherent tensions or breakdowns within
or between the components of the activity system; pos-
sibilities for redesigning or developing the activity
system are revealed in this way.
From the analysis of the data, four activity systems
could be identified and defined that could characterize
the teaching and learning practices concerning
Expansion and Contraction of Air.The common object
of the activity systems, which was identified through the
interviews with the teachers, was defined as the
fulfilment of all the objectives of science education, as
proposed by the Cyprus National Curriculum (MOEC
2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
429
1996). Even though the teachers proposed that reali-
zing all the objectives of science education in every
lesson was in practice difficult because of a variety
of reasons (e.g. performance of dangerous experim-
ents, unavailability of experimental materials), they
suggested that these objectives underpinned the
philosophy that guided all their lessons. The four
activity systems identified represented the four different
perspectives that emerged from the analysis of the data.
Teaching or learning science education with or without
computers was regarded as different activity systems
since different tools, rules, and division of labour could
be observed. For example, although teachers suggested
that they organized group work in most of their lessons,
with students working in groups of three or four, the
students reported that because of tensions that existed
between group members, they often tended to split
their group by themselves in two dyads working
independently from one another. Therefore, it was
evident that there was a different account of the division
of labour by teachers and students. Consequently,
teachers and students perspectives on how they
realized the teaching and learning conditions in the
classroom were portrayed through different activity
systems. Figure 4 presents the four systems identified,
both from the teachers and the students perspective;
the underlying objective of the study emerging from this
figure was to introduce a redesigned activity system, by
designing and introducing a new computer tool for
teaching Expansion and Contraction of Air, which
could be shared by both students and teachers, and
equally represent these four perspectives.
Phase two: identifying motives, needs,
and expectations
A further qualitative analysis of the data revealed certain
motives, needs, and expectations expressed by both
students and teachers. Addressing all stakeholders
motives, goals, and needs in a system, as activity theory
proposes, is an efficient way of gaining a comprehensive
idea of the situation and reflecting this within the design
of a new tool (Kuutti 1996; Nardi 1996a). Consequently,
identifying stakeholders motives, needs, and expecta-
tions was of crucial importance for this study as these
would contribute towards the conceptualization of the
necessary elements and features of the game and of the
teaching methods accompanying its implementation.
430 D. Lazarou

Teachers

Teaching science education

without the use of computers

Teachers Students

Teaching science education Learning science education

with the use of computers without the use of computers

Students

Learning science education

with the use of computers
Fig 4 Activity systems identified.

It was revealed that students have certain expecta-
tions, needs, and motives that were not necessarily in
line with those expressed by the teachers concerning the
teaching and learning practices in science education,
either with or without the use of computers. For
example, they expected that their involvement in
science education should be realized through fun, enter-
taining, and game-like learning experiences; as one
student said:
I think that the lesson is a bit boring and we dont have
fun. I think it is suitable for older students. We want
games; we want something that would motivate us so as
not to say yak [exclamation which expresses repulsion]
and to feel that we dont want to go to the science lesson
(Student 11, Interview, Phase One).
Moreover, students suggested that they should be
involved more actively in the learning process that they
should be given more opportunities to realize the con-
nection between scientific knowledge and everyday life,
and that computers in science should be integrated only
when necessary.
It was also shown that teachers too have certain
expectations and needs when teaching either with
or without the integration of technology. These ref-
erred mainly to the desire of teachers to achieve
the curriculums objectives, to use technology as just a
tool that assisted their teaching and not as a means in
itself and to combine computers with practical,
hands-on experiments. For example, Teacher 2 stated
that:
I believe that they should be integrated in the lesson but
only when needed. You cant leave the experiment
behind. For example, I believe that they liked interacting
with that simulation with the electricity and the circuits
but if they hadnt done the practical circuits too, they
wouldnt have understood it so much (Teacher 2,
Interview).

2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Game design and evaluation using CHAT
Fig 5 The main simulator of the game at
stage two.
Phase three: from contradictions to recommendations
and from recommendations to game elements
The analysis of the data revealed several contradictions
existing within or between the activity systems that
seem to inhibit not only the fulfilment of the curricu-
lums objectives but also students and teachers needs,
motives, and expectations. Thirty-five specific recom-
mendations made by participating teachers and students
were the basis for conceptualizing the necessary ele-
ments, features, and characteristics of the game, so that
the identified contradictions could be resolved and
stakeholders motives and needs could be addressed. In
short, the overall aim of this phase was to move from
contradictions towards recommendations, and from
recommendations towards the design of elements and
features of the game. For example, the main simulator
of the game (Fig 5) that could enable students to simu-
late the behaviour of the racing cars tyre in different
temperatures in relation to its volume and the quantity
of air in its interior, aimed at enabling students to make
concrete observations and measurements about the phe-
nomenon despite its abstract nature. Consequently,
the secondary contradiction that previously existed
between the object and the tool of the activity system,
which exemplified the inability of students to make
measurements and observations (one of the aims of
science education as proposed by the National Curricu-
lum) when abstract concepts are concerned (like air)
because of the unavailability of appropriate tools, could
possibly be resolved. The simulator was conceptualized
out of teachers recommendation that an appropriate
2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
431
computer tool should be produced to be used when
teaching Expansion and Contraction of Air in order
to enable students to measure the quantity of the
air . . . see that its only the volume expanding (Teacher
2, Interview, Phase One). Table 1 illustrates additional
examples of how specific contradictions and recom-
mendations derived from Phase One were transformed
into features and elements of the game (examples one
and two). Nevertheless, in order to have a better realiza-
tion of these examples, the reader is advised to read first
about the scenario and structure of the game in the next
section.
Phase four: development of the computer game based
on recommendations and game elements
An initial prototype of the proposed game was
developed based mainly on the features, elements, and
characteristics derived from a number of proposed
recommendations made by students and teachers during
the interviews.
The designed game
The game that was developed is a third-person role
game that involves students in a specific scenario in
which they have the role of a racing car expert who is
called to solve a particular problem that a racing
company faces. The problem that the students face as
racing car experts need to solve evolves around a spe-
cific scenario: the tyres of a racing companys cars keep
exploding during the summer races, and students must

Table 1. From contradictions to recommendations and from recommendations to game or pedagogy features.
Instance from practice
Example one:
Some students often find it difficult
to observe a dangerous experiment
when this is conducted by the
teacher in front of the classroom.
Example two:
The number of team-members (45)
may create tensions within the
team, especially when students work
around a computer, as they face
difficulties in distributing the
workload and the time that each
one will work on the computer.
Example three:
There are times when group-work
creates tensions and arguments
between students, and as a
consequence, students may not
communicate their thoughts or
findings or collaborate productively.
2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Identified contradiction
A contradiction exists between the
rules teachers apply during a lesson
when a dangerous experiment is
performed, the division of labour of
the classroom (students observing
the experiment from their seats) and
the materialization of the first
objective of the curriculum that
states that students should make
observations with their senses
(MOEC 1996).
A contradiction exists between the
division of labour between the team
members and the materialization of
the fourth objective of the
curriculum that states that students
should cooperate with their team
members to complete a task (MOEC
1996).
A contradiction exists between the
division of labour within the groups
and the materialization of the third
objective of the curriculum that
states that students should
communicate and record their
observations and thoughts (MOEC
1996).
Recommendation for resolving the
identified contradiction
Enable all students to make
observations while the experiments
are being conducted
(recommendation for
game-feature).
Organize the tools and the
classroom in such a way that will
enable all students to make
observations (recommendation for
pedagogy-feature).
Reduce the members of the teams
from four/five to two/three. When
computers are integrated in the
lesson, this is applicable only when
there are available
resources/computers
(recommendation for
game-feature).
Provide opportunities to students or
group of students to productively
communicate their results
(recommendation for
pedagogy-feature).
432
Game or Pedagogy feature
A simulator within the game enables
students to make repeated
observations about the dangerous
experiment being simulated by the
game and record them through a
notepad and appropriate textboxes
within the game.
The game is projected on a screen in
front of the classroom during the
whole-class discussion, and the
practical experiment is organized in
such a way that all students are
enabled to make observations.
Students work in pairs to complete the
game. Specific features and screens
of the game support the
collaboration between the team
members.
Students work in smaller groups and
communicate and share their
findings from their engagement
with the game by discussing with
other teams after they have
completed the game. They also
communicate their thoughts and
findings during the discussions that
follow.
D. Lazarou
Game design and evaluation using CHAT
discuss with the companys mechanics, gather specific
evidence, pieces of information or clues, and use a
simulator to discover the solution to the problem.
Finally, they have to officially report and record this
solution by filling an appropriate electronic form from
the chief-mechanics office. In order to complete
the game, students have to proceed through the three
stages of the game. Their effort in stage one is to unlock
a door in order to proceed to stage two by discovering
and gathering hidden objects, clues, and pieces of valu-
able information relevant to the scenario of the game.
The main simulator of the game is located at stage two
where students can simulate the behaviour of a tyre in
race conditions by manipulating the temperature and
making detailed observations on how these changes
have an impact on the volume of the tyre and the
quantity of the air inside the tyre. In stage three, stu-
dents communicate with the chief-mechanic by using a
hidden telephone number that they discover at stage
one; the chief-mechanic gives them valuable informa-
tion about the main problem and the password to acti-
vate the simulator located at stage two. Throughout the
stages of the game, students have the opportunity to
discuss with the mechanic they come across in stages
one and two, and the chief-mechanic in stage three by
clicking on predetermined questions and getting prede-
termined answers. These answers provide them with
significant information that scaffolds their effort to
solve the main problem of the game and their under-
standing concerning the scientific phenomenon under-
lying the story. For example, when the students click
on the question What seems to be the problem? during
the first scene of the game, they are informed by the
mechanic through a predetermined answer given to
them that During the summer races, when the tempera-
ture rises over 45 C, our tyres keep exploding. We dont
know whats wrong. This helps the students realize
some of the variables of the phenomenon they are
examining.
Subsidiary design guidelines for designing the
computer game
The prototype of the game was also informed by
supplementary design strategies; these included sub-
sidiary design guidelines deriving from HCI research
field, design guidelines derived from students every-
day experiences and habits when playing video games
2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
433
at home, and design guidelines derived from Science
Education Research findings concerning students
alternative conceptions regarding the topic of Expan-
sion and Contraction of Air. It should be noted that the
intention to use CHAT as the main theory that guided
the design of the computer game does not necessarily
exclude subsidiary design methods; Kaptelinin (1996)
and Nardi (1998) suggest that CHAT used in HCI
research does not reject any other techniques or
methods of design and development of computer tools.
For the purposes of this research, the use of subsidiary
design methods contributed mainly towards the design
of the games interface while CHAT was an appropriate
tool for realizing the general characteristics and fea-
tures of the computer tool in relation to its specific
aims.
Certain elements and characteristics of the game
derived from design guidelines suggested through
research related to psychology, semiotics, and interface
design within the HCI field. For example, there was an
effort to maintain consistency on how new and given
information is presented (Kress & van Leeuwen 1996)
by providing the user with a stable menu throughout the
game. Moreover, an effort was made so that the chosen
image of the buttons (signifier) could be linked with
certain meaning to help students understand the actions
they refer to (signified) (Saussure, 1960, cited in Hall
1997).
Additionally, findings from Science Education
Research, related to students alternative conceptions
related to the topic of Expansion and Contraction of
Air, were also taken in consideration for conceptualiz-
ing crucial features of the computer game. For example,
as students seem to believe that air moves in a vertical
direction and is gathered towards the top of the con-
tainer when heated (Lee et al. 1993) and that, when air
is sealed inside a container and is heated, more air
is produced (Sere 1985), a tyre was used as the main
object for the games simulator and an indication of the
quantity of air within the tyre was constantly available
to users (Fig 5); as the tyre expanded or contracted
analogously when being heated, and as students could
observe from the indicator that no additional air was
produced, it was possible that students alternative
conceptions, as reported through research findings,
could be tackled.
Students practices when playing with computer
games at home, as recorded in the interviews, were also
434
considered for conceptualizing characteristics of the
computer game. For example, as students had suggested
that they like playing with the first- or third-role com-
puter games, the game that was developed had character-
istics that could classify it as a third-person computer
game; students had the role of an expert that had to solve
a racing companys problem, and they could also ask
questions and get relevant answers by discussing with
the racing companys mechanics. Moreover, as students
had suggested that they like to play games in which the
plot had elements of mystery, the game was designed in
order to create this feeling for students; various pieces of
information related to the problem were hidden in
objects and had to be discovered by the students in order
to be able to proceed through the stages of the game e.g.
to activate the door that led to the second stage of the
game, to activate the simulator of the game, and to have
access to the telephone of the company to call the chief-
mechanic, students had to find hidden telephone
numbers and activation codes.
Phase five: usability testing
Two usability tests conducted with three pairs of stu-
dents provided information about necessary changes to
be made to the prototype of the computer game to
eliminate usability problems and to evaluate its useful-
ness in achieving its intended aims. Each usability
test lasted for approximately 90 min, and the think-
aloud method was used in order for students to express
their reactions and make recommendations while inter-
acting with the game. During the first test, two pairs of
fifth-grade students participated and recommended
specific changes. A second test with another pair of
fifth-grade students followed, leading to the complete
alteration of the games main simulator and to some
minor changes concerning the language and the fonts
that were used, and to some changes concerning navi-
gation issues.
The four participating teachers also engaged with the
game in order to evaluate it. The think-aloud method
was also used as a data collection tool. The teachers
mainly provided comments on whether the game would
succeed in making students understand the underlying
scientific phenomenon. They also commented and sug-
gested a few changes concerning the games usability.
Teachers comments led to additional of minor changes
concerning the games main simulator.
D. Lazarou
Phase six: designing and proposing an appropriate
pedagogy for implementing the computer game
Someone might argue that a carefully designed game
remains weak without being accompanied by a suitable
pedagogy that can effectively support its implementa-
tion. The contradictions previously identified, which
existed within or between the activity systems and
seemed to inhibit both the fulfilment of the curriculums
objectives and students and teachers needs, motives,
and expectations, were the basis for developing the
pedagogy that could support the implementation of the
game. Twelve specific recommendations, made by
participating teachers and students, were the basis for
conceptualizing the necessary characteristics of the
pedagogy in order for identified contradictions to be
addressed and resolved. The intention of this phase was
to move from contradictions towards recommendations
and, based on these recommendations, to design an
appropriate pedagogy. For example, it was decided that
the developed computer game should be combined with
a practical experiment that would be conducted during
the last part of the lesson to resolve the contradiction
that existed between teachers beliefs that computers
should be implemented only when necessary (e.g. when
abstract concepts are involved), and should be com-
bined with practical work in science even though teach-
ers also suggest that the implementation of computers
seems to motivate and excite students. Additional
examples of the transition from contradictions to rec-
ommendations and to the pedagogy accompanying the
developed computer game are presented in Table 1 (see
examples one and three).
The proposed pedagogy for implementing the game
Briefly, concerning the pedagogy, it was decided that
students would interact freely with the game in groups
of two (with their friends) for 60 min. Then, each group
would communicate their findings with another team
(10 min), followed by a presentation of their joint evi-
dence and conclusions in the classroom and a discus-
sion facilitated by the teacher involving the whole class
(20 min). A practical experiment would be conducted
during the last 20 min through which students were
expected to verify the findings they formed when inter-
acting with the game, to enhance their conceptual
understanding, and to try to compare and contrast the
2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Game design and evaluation using CHAT
practical experiment with their experience with the
computer game.
Phase seven: implementation of the computer game
and data collection
The developed game was implemented in two science
lessons in two fifth grade classrooms of a primary
school, each one consisting of 21 students; the lesson
followed the structure and procedures described
in Phase Six. A camcorder captured the interaction
of a pair of students with the game, another cam-
corder was on the move and captured the discussions
facilitated during the lesson, the teachers actions,
and the practical experiment performed, and three
audio-recorders were also used to record students
interactions while engaging with the game. Further,
students text entries within the game were automati-
cally saved into text-files external to the game, and
their actions within the game were recorded by a
screen-recorder.
Phase eight: evaluation of the computer game and its
accompanying pedagogy after its implementation
The main focus of this phase was to reveal the extent
to which the identified contradictions reported in Phase
One were resolved, to examine the reactions of both
the students and teacher regarding the game and the
pedagogy underlying its implementation, and to give
the students and teachers the opportunity to make rec-
ommendations of how the game and the pedagogy could
be redeveloped. The data that were used in this phase
were the data collected during the implementation of
the game, described in Phase Seven, and follow-up
interviews of students who participated in the initial
interviews and an interview of the teacher who observed
the game.
From the qualitative analysis of interviews con-
ducted, it was shown first that most of the curriculums
objectives could be materialized; the object of the
activity that is, seemed to be fulfilled. It was also shown
that the needs and motives of the teachers and the stu-
dents could be addressed accordingly. For example,
students could now perform dangerous experiments
and make concrete observations and measurements
through their engagement with the game and the
games main simulator. This led to the resolution of
2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
435
the contradiction previously identified between one of
the objectives of science education, which suggested
that students should make observations through their
senses and perform experiments, and the unavailability
of tools to enable students perform these experiments
and observations. Moreover, students suggested that
the fact that they also engaged with a practical experi-
ment enabled them to verify the validity and truthful-
ness of the conclusions they formed through their
engagement with the computer game. Consequently,
this seemed to resolve the identified contradiction that
suggested that even though students express their
excitement about the use of computers in science, they
have difficulties at the same time to be persuaded about
the truthfulness of their findings as they considered
everything the computer was showing them as artifi-
cial. Table 2 illustrates some representative examples
of comparative extracts from the students and teach-
ers interviews prior to the design of the computer
game and from the data collected during the lesson
when the computer game was implemented, and inter-
views with the students and the teacher after the games
implementation; these extracts reveal the potential
resolution of contradictions identified at the beginning
of the research project.
A redesigned activity system
It can be argued that the introduction of the designed
computer game and its accompanying pedagogy has
led to the development of a redesigned activity system
for the teaching of Expansion and Contraction of Air,
and potentially for other abstract concepts in science
education.
First, the analysis of the data suggests that students
could now materialize all the objectives of the curricu-
lum concerning Expansion and Contraction of Air that
could not be materialized previously because of the
abstract nature of the concepts involved, students alter-
native conceptual frameworks, the inappropriate practi-
cal experiments proposed by the curriculum, and the
problematic features of the teaching and learning prac-
tices deriving from external factors imposed on both
teachers and students (e.g. overload of scientific
content, lack of time).
Moreover, as for the tools for teaching Expansion
and Contraction of Air, all students and the teacher
expressed the idea that this kind of computer tool in
436 D. Lazarou

Table 2. Comparative examples of data collected prior to the design of the game, and data collected during and after the lesson when
the game was implemented.

Object of activity system Data collected prior to the design of the Data collected during and after the
of teaching and computer game implementation of the computer game
learning of expansion
and contraction of air

Making measurements When a subject is too general or too abstract,
and observations there are difficulties . . . in making
during lessons that observations and taking
involve abstract measurements .. like air.
scientific concepts. (Teacher 3, Interview, Phase One)
If there was an instrument to measure the
quantity of the air or if we coloured the air
so that they could see that its only the
volume expanding, it would help them for
sure.
(Teacher 2, Interview, Phase One)
Realizing the connection Student 3: I dont think the things we learn
between scientific can help us in our lives. They probably will
knowledge acquired at when we grow up.
school and everyday Student 4: At this stage, things we learn do
experiences. not help us much. (Student 3 & Student 4,
Interview, Phase One)
Addressing students I think that the lesson is a bit boring and we
needs and motives dont have fun. I think it is suitable for older
students. We want games; we want
something that would motivate us so as not
to say yuck [exclamation which express
repulsion] and to feel that we dont want to
go to the science lesson. [. . .] When we have
gymnastics we love it so much and we want
to go the lesson; not like when we have
science.
(Student 11, Interview, Phase One)
Wait. At 30 , it is 28 (the quantity of air). And
at 40 , is again the same. So, no air gets in
the tyre. So it must be the temperature that
helps it inflate. Lets write it down.
(Student 1, Group 6, Recorded discussion
during the lesson)
It was something that could happen in our
everyday life and not just something too
strange for us.
(Student 9, Interview, Phase Seven)
I liked it when we tried to find a solution, it
was fun, and you were the one that was
acting, as if you were him [the role that
students had within the game]. Its not like
our lessons in science in which our teacher
makes the experiment and we just observe.
We felt we were active yesterday and I liked
it better. [. . .] I liked the fact that while
playing we were also learning while other
times in science we may be bored at some
times. But with the game at the computer it
was better and I liked it.
(Student 4, Interview, Phase Seven)

science, in which students are engaged with a scenario
and have a specified role, is a more suitable, preferable,
and interesting tool than stand-alone simulations. This
was in contradiction to their initial preference for simu-
lations, and they now expressed the opinion that such
simulations seemed to be de-contextualized environ-
ments of limited interest to them. This opinion was also
shared by participating teachers. Nevertheless, both
students and the teacher believe that a computer game
should always be combined with a practical experiment
to realize the scientific concepts in a more comprehen-
sive and scientifically proper way, to realize that they
are actually doing science and not just playing a game,
and as an alternative option for those students who may
not like playing computer games. As students believe,
although the computer helped them understand and
probably provided them with valid information about
the phenomenon, they still considered what they expe-
rienced as artificial and fake, as it was provided by a
machine. Moreover, they reported that the practical
experiment assisted them in confirming their findings
and conclusions formed within the game. Furthermore,
with respect to discussion, students suggested that
having increased opportunities to discuss either with
their group mates or with their other classmates during
whole classroom discussion facilitated by the teacher
was beneficial to their understanding and helped them
validate the conclusions they formed in their group; a

2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Game design and evaluation using CHAT
significant implication for teaching and learning with
technology.
As far as the Division of Labour is concerned, the
implemented computer game and its accompanying
pedagogy seemed to enable students to become more
active learners despite the abstract nature of the scien-
tific concepts involved; students worked in pairs and
seemed to be more active than in similar cases when
abstract concepts were concerned in the lesson and
have increased autonomy of their learning in order to
solve a problem and be able to discover scientific
knowledge, which seems to be in contrast to how they
realized their role until now. As Student 4 reported:
I liked it when we tried to find a solution, it was fun, and
you were the one that was acting, as if you were him [the
role that students had within the game]. Its not like our
lessons in science in which our teacher makes the experi-
ment and we just observe. We felt we were active yester-
day and I liked it better. (Student 4, Interview, Phase
Eight)
Lastly, through this process, the needs and motives of
both the teacher and the students seemed to be
addressed appropriately, not only for achieving cogni-
tive objectives but also for addressing personal interests.
Nevertheless, it must be noted that new contradic-
tions have already emerged within this redesigned activ-
ity system, which refer to the tool, the division of labour,
and the rules, but no reference will be made to them as
this study deals only with the first production cycle of
the computer game. However, these provide evidence
for the potential further development of the activity
system.
Conclusion
This research study demonstrates and proposes an
eight-phase methodology for designing and developing
computer tools for science education based on CHAT
(Fig 3). The methodology consists of well-defined
guidelines, which seem appropriate not only for the
design and development of the game and the pedagogy
for its implementation but also for the validation of the
extent to which these guidelines were able to achieve
their intended aims. The methodology takes advantage
of the potential of CHAT in realizing not only the needs,
motives, and expectations of various stakeholders
within their own context but also the crucial role of the
2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
437
surrounding context which influences substantially the
way an educational computer tool should be built and
implemented. By supporting the identification of con-
tradictions within and between the activity systems
identified and their corresponding recommendations
leading to their resolution, the proposed methodology
seems fruitful in facilitating an effort to trace the appro-
priate characteristics for envisioning and conceptualiz-
ing the most suitable way in using technology in certain
areas in science education. Additionally, the methodol-
ogy attempts to provide a practical way through which
CHAT can be used at the initial stages of the design of a
tool and the way the theory can be used not only as a
failure analysis tool (identification of contradictions)
but also as a tool for offering specific recommendations
that could lead to the resolution of the identified ten-
sions, responding in this way to two main points of
Rochelles critique of the use of activity theory in sys-
tems design (1998). Nevertheless, it should be noted
that the proposed methodology makes an effort to
respect the legacy and importance of HCI by integrating
certain guidelines deriving from that research field. For
example, an effort was made so that the game had a con-
sistency on how new and given information is presented
to the user, or to take into consideration the notion of the
signifier and the signified for designing the buttons.
Lastly, findings and suggestions deriving from the
science education research field are also taken into con-
sideration through the proposed methodology. This is
something that seems to empower the design of the tool
and strengthen its value to efficiently confront students
alternative conceptual frameworks regarding the scien-
tific subject being examined.
The role of CHAT was crucial in realizing the aims of
the research. CHAT was used as a methodological and
analytical tool to guide the design of a new computer
tool and its accompanying pedagogy. Identified activity
systems, based on Engestrms expanded activity tri-
angle model (Engestrm 1987), were the main units of
analysis that guided the whole process. Additionally,
the role of contradictions was crucial in realizing the
numerous and complex connections that existed
between the seemingly unrelated and obscure activity
systems that were identified. Consequently, this study
also points out the importance of the common vocabu-
lary that activity theory can offer in a field like HCI as
other researchers have supported until now (Nardi
1996a; Rajkumar 2006).
438
The use of CHAT was essential for the production of
the proposed computer game not only as a usable but
also as a useful tool; usable in a sense that it mediated
appropriately the fulfilment of the objectives of the cur-
riculum that could not previously be materialized
because of the abstractedness of the concepts involved,
and useful in a sense that the design was based on teach-
ers and students actual needs and motives evaluated in
their real context; a fundamental condition for the use of
activity theory in HCI, which makes the theory seem an
appropriate tool for the production of learning technolo-
gies, as Bellamy (1996) and Lim and Hang (2003) also
suggested in their studies. This study suggests that
learning technologies should not only focus on achiev-
ing their intended learning objectives only from a cogni-
tive perspective but should also focus on satisfying
11-year-old students needs, and take into account that
students want to learn as well as wanting to learn by
having fun.
Through the introduction of the new game, a rede-
signed activity system for teaching and learning
Expansion and Contraction of Airwas introduced. The
scenario-based educational game that was proposed
seemed a more suitable and interesting tool for students
and teachers compared to stand-alone simulations used
until now in science education. In this respect, students
now have a more active role to play, by being autono-
mous learners, and the teacher acts as a facilitator rather
than a provider of scientific knowledge.
New contradictions have already evolved, but this
paper only deals with the first production cycle of the
proposed game; consecutive design cycles should
follow in order for all contradictions to be resolved
through the redevelopment of the game and the activity
itself and for the systems to reach a relative equilibrium.
The continuous reform of both the tool and the activity
is one of the reasons that the design of software cannot
be completed in a single production cycle, as new ten-
sions continuously emerge from its implementation
which lead to a repeated redesign, bringing together the
creation of the software with its use (Bodker 1991).
However, despite the initial promising findings from
the first production cycle of the proposed computer
game, further research is still needed not only for future
contradictions to be confronted but to ensure the sus-
tainability of the tool as a medium for teaching and
learning Expansion and Contraction of Air in science
education.
D. Lazarou
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to Dr Martin Owen, Professor Rosam-
und Sutherland, and Professor Sibel Erduran for their
invaluable guidance and productive comments.
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