Krv

1. Please name the major blood type?

A,B,AB,0

2. What are the six possible genotypes for the AB0 blood system?

OB,OA,OO,AA,BB,AB. Aglutinin is a substance that causes particles to coagulate to form a thickned mass.
It can be antibodies that cause antigen H works by clamping on particle causing to change from liquid to
thickened mass slate.

3. What are aglutinins?

Any substance causing AGGLUTINATION (clumping together) of cells, particularly aspecific antibody
formed in the blood in response to the presence of an invadingagent. Agglutinins are proteins
(IMMUNOGLOBULINS) and function as part of the immune mechanism of the body. When the invading
agents that bring about theproduction of agglutinins are bacteria, the agglutinins produced bring
aboutagglutination of the bacterial cells.

4. Describe hemolysis.What can be cause for the acute hemolysis?

5. Are the persons having D antigen Rh negativ or Rh positive?

Person having D antigen RH is positiv RH if it is not then is negative.

6. What causes a delayed transfusions reactions?

This can occur one to four weeks after the transfusion. One way this can occur is if a person without a
Kind blood antigen receives a Kind antigen in a transfusion. A hemolytic reaction can occur between 3
and 14 days as a result of a secondary immune response, with a drop in hemoglobin level, fever,
jaundice, or hemoglobinuria.

7***.What is erythroblastosis fetalis?

A hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn that occurs when the immune system of an Rh-negative
mother produces antibodies to an antigen in the blood of an Rh-positive fetus which cross the placenta
and destroy fetal erythrocytes and that is characterized by an increase in circulating erythroblasts and
by jaundice.

7. How would you treat kernicterus?

Treatment for the condition depends on the age of the baby (in hours) and what the level of bilirubin
actually is. Light therapy might be something you want to discuss with your doctor if the baby has high
levels of bilirubin, but if the baby has had high levels of bilirubin for a while, your doctor is likely to start
the process of exchange transfusions, getting more normal-celled blood into the babys system as soon
as possible.
 8. How is the bilurubin made?

Bilirubin is created by the activity of biliverdin reductase on biliverdin, a green tetrapyrrolic bile pigment
that is also a product of heme catabolism. Bilirubin, when oxidized, reverts to become biliverdin once
again. This cycle, in addition to the demonstration of the potent antioxidant activity of bilirubin,[6] has
led to the hypothesis that bilirubin's main physiologic role is as a cellular antioxidant.

9. What can couse the acute kidney shutdown?

Acute kidney failure can occur when: You have a condition that slows blood flow to your kidneys You
experience direct damage to your kidneys Your kidneys' urine drainage tubes (ureters) become
blocked and wastes can't leave your body through your urine ********

10. Please explain the following terms:a-autograft,b-isograft,c-allograft,d-xenograft

1)autograft-a graft of tissue from one point to another of the same individual's body. 2)isograft-a graft
of tissue between two individuals who are genetically identical 3)allograft-a tissue graft from a donor of
the same species as the recipient but not genetically identical. 4)xenograft-a tissue graft or organ
transplant from a donor of a different species from the recipient.

11. Why is the HLA antigen so important?

12. Why woud you use cyclosporine or glucocorticoid-like drugs as therapeutic agents? ---******--
-

13. How the platelet plug is formed?

A platelet plug is formed through the following processes in order to literally plug a hole in the wall of
the vascular lumen: 1. Platelet Adhession during this process the platelets bind to collagen that has
become exposed due to the damage in the vascular wall during the initial injury. 2. Platelet Release
Reaction (Degranulation) This is where blood has come into contact with collagen and caused the
release of platelet release chemicals. 3. Aggregation Fibrinogen, released when the blood cells come
into contact with the exposed collagen, then binds platelets together at specific receptor sites. This then
creates a plately plug.

14. Pleas describe the clotting process in a traumatized blood vessel.

An injured blood vessel constricts so that blood flows out more slowly and clotting can start. At the
same time, the accumulating pool of blood outside the blood vessel (a hematoma) presses against the
vessel, helping prevent further bleeding. As soon as a blood vessel wall is damaged, a series of reactions
activates platelets so that they stick to the injured area. The "glue" that holds platelets to the blood
vessel wall is von Willebrand's factor, a protein produced by the cells of the vessel wall. The proteins
collagen and thrombin act at the site of the injury to induce platelets to stick together. As platelets
accumulate at the site, the ICF and kidey edema

15. Why is the body regulation important ex mechanisam

It is important for homeostasis only change in homeostasis will cause abnormal function of the organ
like kidney heart liver

16. How the body fluid volime can be measured ex ?

This is estimated by measuring the volume of the distribution of isotops of water Tritium oxide is
used because it is a weak beta emitter making it easy to measured liquid .Rapid mixing tritrade
water throught all compartments occure during 3 to 4 hours eqilibrium period Results are accurate
and repoductive Volume = amount of trace / volume concetration

17. Explain the principle of osmotic equilibrium and effects of solutions on te cell volume

Osmosis is movment of water from place of less solute to the place of more solutes throught
semipermeable membrane Hypertonic solution will decrease in cell volume Hypotonic will burs and
die

18. What type of abnormalities of extracelular fluid Na con can be seen

19. Whic condition can cause intercellular edema ?

Intercellular edema is caused by swellin of cells by accoumulation of excess fludi in them Inflamation
cause increase in cell membrane permeability alows more Na and other ions to diffuse into the cell
causing osmosis of water into the cell Depressed metabolism lack of nutrients or depressed
metabolism causes damage to pumpe causing excess sodium inside the cell this causes osmosis of
water into the cell .

20. What do you understand under potential space of the body ?

Fluid is exchange between the capillaries and potential space pleural cavity

21. ***Whic function of kidney do you know

Filtration ,secration ,termoregulation , excertion removing waste product , blood pressure

regulation ,regulation of water intake and fluid exchage of ions ,secretion of hormons and enzymes .

22. Explain gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis is methabolic pathway that result in the generation of glucose fromsubstance non
carbohydrates carbon such as lactate glycerol adn glucogenic amino acid

23. Explain physiological role of glomerular capillaries

The main funciont is to filtrate plasma from blood that comes from arterioles , also they are
important in exchange of waste products whic are inside of the blood .

24. Does number of nephones stay the same during entire human life

It is lowered by aging after human pass 40 years

 25. What is the different between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrones

Juxtrameddulary nephrons have londer loops of henle that goes to kindey medulla substances are
filtered out of the blood and into the urine. As water dips down into the loop of Henle in these
nephrons, water is permeable to the surrounding tissue Cortical has shor loop that goes to cortex of
kidney The medulla is the inner part of the kidney in mammals. The cortex is the outer layer that
surrounds the medullas. Loops of Henle are small tubes that allow for water and minerals to pass
into urine or back into the body,

26. When does initiation of micturation reflex occure

When the external uirnary sphincter is relaxed urine is released from the urinary bladder when the
pressure become grater enoug to force urin to flow out of urethra The micturation reflex is normaly
production of series of contraction of the urinary bladder .

27. Explain mechanism of urin formation :

It Take place glomerulus the blood is filtrated and reabsorbt inside of glomurili the waste products
inside of urine goes into the glomuruls where the exchange happen when it is filtrate we get urin
whic is excerted away formation involes three phase : Glomerular filtration , tubular absorbtion and
tubular secreation .

28. What do you understand under transport maximum

Reffers to the poin of whic increases in concentration of substance do result in increase in movment
of a substance accros a cell membrane in renal physiology the concept of renal transport maximum
is often disscused in the cortex of glucose nad PAH

29. What are trasnport caracteristic of thin adn thick loop of hanle

Thin loop of henle is only permeable to water and ions pass by diffusion Thicker loop it is for passage
of Na Cl K impermeable to water and it uses ATP

30. Why is foramtion of urine important

We can use as diagnostic parameters to distiguish what is whit our patient and contidion of organs

31. What is the role of vasa recta In the blood supply of kidney

they lie paralel to the loop of henle and leave the kidney by renal veins .

32. Hemoglobin Role of hemoglobin

: role of hemoglobin is to transport oxigen to the tissue throught the blood stream by binding oxigen to
the cell How is Co2 trasnpored to the lungs From Tissue the venules veins from small veins into big veins
to SIVC enters the right atrium then right ventricle then enters the pumonary valve and it is traveled to
the lungs where deoxigenated blood become oxidated adn contiun by pulmonary vins to left atrium
 33. What is average nubmer of RBC in healty men and woman

Hematrocrit for man is 42 45 % woman 35 38 % Anemia start below 20 and polycitonemia above 60

34. Define hematocrit

Hematocrit reffers to number of RBC inside of the blood if person have hematocrit 40 % it means that 40
% i cell and remainder is plasma

35. **Where are the RBC produced during gastatation

The erythropoesis starts in the yolk sac of the 2nd and 3rd week after 5,6 weeh liver become main organ
for erythrocites production The liver is the primary organ soruce of RBC durign second trimaster bone
marrow become a primary source of RBC production Jolk sac is a principle site of RBC production until 6
to 8 week

36. What are Stem cell

Stem cell are undifferentiated cell whic have remarkable potential to develop ino many different cell
type in the body druing early life growth ,they can differentiate into more specific cell and divide
throught mejosis to produce more stem cell they are found in multicellular organisms

37. What happeens with RBC cell count at higher alltitude

Blood count hemoglobin increase in number of hemoglobin and increase amount of oxigen .new RBC
are produced due to climbing to higher altitudes .

38. **Genesis of RBC

The RBC begins in liver and bone marrow as a single cell calle Pluropotential Hematopoetic cell from
whic all the cells of the cicrualtion are derivated . Proerythroblast basophil erythroblast
poychromatophyl erythroblas Orthochromatin erythroblast reticulocyte Erythrocite

39. Role of Erythropoietin

role of erythropoeiten is to stimulate production of RBC its formation icrease due to hipoxia lees oxigen
it is a hormonal secreation in kindey and 90 % remainder is formed in liver It is produces unitl reaches
equilibrium

40. Whic nutritional comunds are necessary for maturation of RBC adn why Vitamin b12 adn folic
acid

both of thease synthesis of DNA because each is diferent way is required for formation of thymidine
triposphate on the essential building block of DNA if we have deficiency of either vitamin b12 or folic
acid will cause maturation in process of erythropoesis

41. **How hemoglobin foremd ?

Synthesis of hemoglobin begins in proerythroblast adn cotinue into reticulocyte stage of RBC
Reticulocytes leave the bone marrow adn pass into blood stream they contiue to form minute quantiti
of hemoglobin , another day or unitl they become mature erythrocyte Chemical factor First sucicly CoA
formed in crebs cycle binds with glycine to form pyrole molecukle in the turn 4 pirols combine to form
prothrombin IX wich then combinates with iron to form heme molecule Finally each heme molecule
combine with long polypeptide chain a globin synthesis by ribosome forming subunit of hemoglobin
called hemoglobin chain in turn bind to the and form hemoglobin molecule .

42. How many molecules of oxygen can be traspored by one hemoglobin

One hemoglobin molecule can traspored two oxygen atoms to the tissue oxigen does not combine with
two oxgien positive bond of iron in hemoglobin molecule insted of it it binds with one of cordinator
bodns of iron atom

43. What is cause of sickle cell anemia

Abnomal type of hemoglobin S cell it is hard to bind oxigen beacuse of shape when this hemoglobin is
expossed to low oxigen concentration leads to rupture of RBC whic causes less oxigen is progressive it
leads to death

44. How would you explain ferritin pool

Its human irone metabolism set of chemical reactions maintaince human homeostasis of iron system
and cellular level irone is important for RBC where most of human body ions is contained ,irone plays
important role in catalysis of enzyme reactions .

45. What is aplastic anemia

It is a lack of fucntioning bone marrow for instance if person is exposed to radiation and chemotherapi it
can kill or damage cell of bone marrow In this condition bone marrow can not function properly so the
onyl treatment is bone marrow transplantation Polycytoneima vera In this condition the RBC count is 7.8
milion the hematocrit is around 60 70 % insted of normal 40 45 % it is caused by genetic abnormalitys in
hematocytoblastic cell that produce the blood cell the blast cell stops production of cell when it is
enought cell for ex brest cancer increase production of specific cell type and cause plague to viscous
blood

46. Name the six type of whb

Lymphocites ,neutrophils basophils eosinophis monocytes granulocytes What is life spam of RBC adn
WBC 120 RBC , WBC 4-7 fsd

47. What is diapedesis

Is passage of blood cell

 Lungs

48. What happens with o2 amount during exercise ?

49. how is it possible that the blood has passed only one third of the mulmonary capilaries still
become fully oxygenated

During exercise a person required as as 20 times the normal amount of oxigen also increases in cardiac
output the time need for blood to reach pulmonary circulation is less tna one half , Because of the
greater safety factor for diffusing of oxygen throught the pulmonary membrane The blood become
saturated with oxigen it increase surface area of capillaries .

50. Explain diffusion of O2 from peripheral capillaries into the interstitium and the change in the
Po2 during event

When arterial blood reaches peripheral tissue Po2 in capilaries the pressure is around 95 mm Hg The
intestitial fluid is around 40 mmHg ,the difference in pressure causes oxygen to diffuse rapidly from
capilaris into tissue so that concentration of Po2 falls to 40 mmHg to reach equlibrium .

51. What is the influence of blood flow rate and cellular oxygen consumption on the po2

If the blood throught a particular tissue is increased grater quantitis of oxygen are trasnported into the
tissue adn the Po2 beome higher

52. Explain the uptake of Co2 by the blood in the tissue capillaries

When oxygen is used from the cell all of that become carbon dioxide and this increase in intercelular
Po2 will alow diffusion to the capilarise and from capilaris into veins and to lungs

53. Explain the effect of Co2 by the blood in tissue capilaries

In Arterial end Po2 is around 40 mm Hg while in the tissue is 45 to 46 mmHg in cell and on the venous
end is around 45 mm Hg that means that the differece between arterial and venous capilary tissue is
aroudn 5 mm Hg grater in venous because Co2 diffuse at higher rate

54. What is role of hemogolbin in o2 transport

Binds oxigen adn transport to the tissue what causes the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to shift
to the left and right Left sift decrease in O2 , temp ,2-3 DPG ,H ions and CO Right Increase in
Temperature , Co2 H ions PH BPG

55. What do you undestand under medullary respiratoy center

are located in the medulla oblongata and pons, which are parts of the brainstem. The RCs receive
controlling signals of neural, chemical and hormonal nature and control the rate and depth of
respiratory movements of the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles.

56. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors

 they are sensory extensions of the peripheral nervous system into blood vessels where they detect
changes in chemical concentrations.[1] As transducers of patterns of variability in the surrounding
environment, carotid and aortic bodies they response to hypoxia

57. how would you explain neurogenic control of ventilation during exercise

58. what is the difference between obstruction adn resrictive pulmonary disease

obstructive lung disease have shortness of breath due to difficulty exhaling all the air from the lungs.
Because of damage to the lungs or narrowing of the airways inside the lungs, exhaled air comes out
more slowly than normal restrictive lung disease cannot fully fill their lungs with air. Their lungs are
restricted from fully expanding. Restrictive lung disease most often results from a condition causing
stiffness in the lungs themselves. In other cases, stiffness of the chest wall, weak muscles, or damaged
nerves may cause the restriction in lung expansion.

59. what can cause the chronic pulmonary emphysema

Chronic pulmonary emphysema is caused by long term- smoker Although you can have either chronic
bronchitis or emphysema, people more often have a mixture of both diseases.

60. what is the maximum expiratory flow

It is meassured by spirometry while patient makes maximal inhalation then makes forced exhaled whics
lung receptors do you know and why they are important Hering-Breuer reflex, which reduces the
respiratory rate. Increased firing from the stretch receptors also increases production of pulmonary
surfactant. Intercostal muscles and diaphragm receive impulses from the respiratory center, stretch
receptors in the lungs send impulses to the respiratory center giving information about the state of the
lungs.

17 18 19 24 ch

61. How can increase extracellular fluid Volume elevate aretrial pressure

The total extracellular fluid volume is decreased directly proportional ,incerase in arterial pressure will
increase Extracellular fluid An increase in salt concentration in the body also increase the extracellular
fluid volume

62. Why To reach equilibrium point ,

Salt concentration is hard to get rid of it in this rise of extracellular fluid increase in volume to improve
better filtration rate throught glomeruly it increases BP adn the blood pass faster thorought glomeruly
whic will increase filtration rate .

63. Explane the renin aniginotensin System

Renin anginotensin in an enzyme that controles arterial pressure changes in extracellular fluid volume
Renin is protein enzyme released from kidneys when the arterial pressure falls to low in turn it rises
arterial pressure in several ways helping to corect the inital fall in pressure or in way to decrease BP

64. Name at least 3 causes for secondary hypertension ?

Diabetes complication ,Glomerular disease , Thyroid probelms

65. What do you understand under venus return

It is a qunatity of blood flowing from veins into the right atrium each minute where the pressure at right
atrium is zero ,

66. Which factors causes hypereffective heart

Hypertrophy of the heart muscle , patological factor causes abnormal heart rhytm or rate of heart beat ,
coronary artery blocakeg , valvuar disease , congental heart disease , myocarditis and inflamation of
heart muslce ,cardiac hypoxi .

67. Define the mean systemic felling pressure

It is pressure mesured everywhere in the systemic circulation , after blood flow has been stopped by
clamping larhe blood vessels at the heart so the pressure in the systemic circulation can be measeured
independetly from those in pulmonary circulation .

68. How the cardiac output can be measured

Oxygen fick method , diulution method c= ap/total peripheral resistance

69. What happenes with capillaries during exercise

During exercise capillary are respond to suppling blood with oxigen and removal of waste product While
exercise the density in capilary increases .

70. What are risk factors for the coronary artery disease

High LDL low HDL High Tryaciglicerols age ,smoking

71. Role of Adenosin in cardiac muslce metabolism

Increase heart rate and thicknes of it self ,increases cardiac output vasodilatation increase amount of
oxigen

72. What is atherosclerosis and what are the causes for this disease

Atherosclerosis is formation of fat inside of the walll of the arteries it cause plaqu whic will leads to
blocakge of blood flow .
 73. What is myocardial infraction name causes

Myocardial infraction is blockage of coronary arterys whic lead to necrosis of heart , tissue damage
Heart attacks occur when the flow of blood to the heart becomes blocked. They can cause tissue
damage and can even be life-threatening., High BP , LDL , cholesterol level , thyglicerids , blood sugar
diabetes ,low HDL ,Smoking age ,family history stress lack exercise ,drugs

74. What can cause cardiac failure

No blood flow into coronary artery,hypertension , heart failure, blood moves through the heart and
body at a slower rate, and pressure in the heart increases. As a result, the heart cannot pump enough
oxygen and nutrients to meet the body's needs. The chambers of the heart may respond by stretching to
hold more blood to pump through the body or by becoming stiff and thickened. Valve disease thyrodi
disease heart defect , kidney disease heart defect , cardiomyopathi

75. How would you describe acute and chronic response to cardiac failure

Chronic heart failure happens when your heart muscle gets damaged, then becomes weak and doesnt
pump properly. Once your heart is damaged, it cant heal.The damage can be caused by a heart attack,
or long-term health problems like high blood pressure, diabetes or heart disease. It can also be caused
by cardiomyopathy, a disease of the heart muscle Acute decompensated heart failure can be defined as
the sudden or gradual onset of the signs or symptoms of heart failure requiring unplanned office visits,
emergency room

76. What are the consequences of the left heart failure

Heart failure begins with the left side specially the left ventricle your heart is pumping more which will
cause back flow in pulmonary valve which will cause shortnes of breath Fluid may go back to orans and
legs whic will lead to swelling Cardiac shock Condition in which heart cant pump it is caused by several
heart attacks

77. Whic heart sound can not be heart

S3 S4 low pitch sound , they can only be heard in case of pathological condition

78. What are consequneces of rheumatic fever for the heart valves

It damages herat valves specialy valves between two chambers of the heart mitral

79. What is left to right shunt ?

Refferst to blood flow from right side to left side

80. What do you understand under patent ductus arteriosus

Comunication between

Kidney long term regulations

BP rise too high kidney simply excreted excess volume into the urine and regulated pressure (pressure
diuretic ) and output of salts pressure nutrients . At low pressure excretes less fluid

Renal fluid mechanism.

Renal output of water salt Water and salt intake If arterial pressure falls below the equilibrium point the
intake of water and salt is grater Regulation of high BP Increase in extracellular fluid volume Increase
blood volume Increase circulatory filling pressure Increase venous return of blood to heart Increase
cardiac output Increase total peripheral resistance Increase arterial pressure Increase urine output

Chronic hypertension

Diastolic pressure grater than 90 mmHg and sistolic grater than 135 mmHg High BP - cause heart failure
result Heart attack High BP damage major blood vessels in the brain dead Injuries of kidney Salt intake
regulation Increase in salt intake - increase extracellular volume - increase arterial pressure - decrease
renin and Angiotensin-decrease renal retention of salt and water - return of extracellular volume almost
to normal - return to arterial pressure almost normal

Treatment of hypertension - vasodilatator drug increase renal blood flow - nutrients or diuretic drug
that decrease tubular secretion

Renal failure acut reversible

Prerenal

Low BP atherosclerosis ishemia

Renal artery stenosis Heart failure

Hemorage Interarenal

Direct damage ti kidney

Tubular necrosis

Inflammation Infection Drug

Glumerulus function

filtration of blood

Vasa recta function

reapsorb

Acute glomerularnefritis
 is an autoimun condition systemic lupus erythematosus Acute tubular necrosis 50% Acute interstitial
alergic infection Postrenal Obstruction of urine Hyperplasia Kidney stone Bader injri Tumor Chronic
irreversible loss of nephrons Diabetes neprophaty Thickening of basement membrane which will lead to
sclerosis High glucose - reactive oxigen species ROS - activation of growth factor unnecessary pro
inflammatory oxidated stress Hypertension Narrowing to blood vessels which will cause less blood to
the kidney dicrease in filtration =decrease in glomerular filtration Rate - it will activate renin angiotensin
Kidney disease When we have lose of nephrons caused of acute renal failure hypertension diabetes lose
of nephrons Blood will sift to nephrons that are stile a live It leads to glomerular hyper filtration More
blood flow big increase in GFR and leads to sclerosis late state GFR decrease uremia

Cardiac output venous return Is quantity of blood pumped into the aorta each minute by heart Venous
return is quantity of blood Flowing from the veins into the right atrium each minut Cardiac output =
arterial pressure /total pripheral resistance Factor cause hypoeffective heart Any factor that decrease
heart ability to pump blood cause -increased arterial pressure aginst witch the heart must pump as in
hypertension - inhibition of nervous excitation of the heart - pathological factor causes abnormal heart
rhythm or rare of heartbeat - coronary artery blockage causing heart attack -Valvular heart disease -
Congenital heart disease -Myocarditis and inflammation of the heart muscle -Cardiac hypoxia Frank
starling law increase quantity of blood flow into heart the increased blood stretches the wall of the
heart chambers as a result of stretch cardiac muscle contraction with increased force Stretch right
atrium initiates nevous reflex Bainbridge reflex Factor Body metabolism Amount of exercise Age size of
body

Vasoconstriction Located at : Anterolateral portion of upper medulla Norepinephrine vasoconstrictor

hormon . Epinephrine dilatate coronary artery increase heart action Sympathetic ns stimulates
norepinephrine which excites heart and contraction to veins and arterioles. Adrenal medulla cause
secretion of norepinephrine and epinephrine Angiotenis II Vasoconstrictor substance increase BP For 50
mmHg effect is powerful on small arterioles . Increases total peripheral resistance increasing BP .
Increase the arterial pressure is to decrease exertion of both salt and water by the kidney Cause directly
salt and water retention Cause adrenal gland to secrete aldosterone and aldosterone increase salt and
water reapsorbtion by kidney tubuli Vasopressin andtidiuretic hormon most abound in human body . It
is formed in Nerve cell in the hypothalamus of the brain it is transported downward by nerve axon and
secrete in the blood Influence to hemorage increase BP to 60 mmHg Role increase water reabsorption
from renal tubuli into the blood There by control fluid . Vasodilator Located : Anterolateral portion of
lower part of medulla Sensory : Bilaterally in tractus solitarius in posterolateral portion vagus
glossopharingral nerve Formation from kallikrein is activated by maceration of the blood by tissue
inflammation As it's activated it acts immediately on Alpha 2 globulin to relate Kallidin that convert
enzyme to bradykini Cause arterial dilatation and capillary permeability Histamine Release on any tissue
damage or inflamed of an alergic reaction They are derivated from mast cell in the damage tissue from
basophils in the blood Edema alergic reaction Aldosterone increase rate of reapsorbtion of salt and
water by tubules of kidney reducing loss of the urine while at the same time cause an increase in blood
volume and extracellular fluid Heart controlle Lateral portion of the vasomotor center transmits
excitatory impulse through sympathetic Nerve fiber . Vagus decrease harte rate and contractility
Baroreceptors Location Carotid artery above the carotid bifurcation knows as Carotid sinus Wall of
aortic arch Renin Angiotenis system Decreased arterial pressure -renin kidney - renin supstrat
(angiotensinogen ) - Angiotensin I - converting enzyme Lungs - Angiotenzin II - renal retention of salt and
water - anginotensinase inactive - vasoconstriction - increase in arterial pressure Renin located in walls
of afferent arterioles immediately proximal to glomerulri Stored in inactive form prorenin in the
Juxtaglomerular cell .
Final physiology Laminar flow central flow and normal flow Parabolic flow causing molecular fluid
molecules touching the wall move slowly Turbulent flow due to trombosis The tendency for turbulent
flow increases in direct proportions to the velocity of blood flow the diameter of the blood vessels and
density of blood is proportional to viscosity Blood pressure force exerted by the blood against any unit
of vessels wall Resistance is the impediment to blood flow Hematocrit Grater viscosity the less the flow
in a vessels The viscosity of normal blood is about three times as great as the viscosity of water ! What
make blood so viscous the number of red cells in the blood Hematocrit Red cells If person has a
hematocrit 40 this means that 40 % of blood volume is cell and the remainder is plasma Hematocrit of
adult man is 45 while woman 38 Anemia below 20 Polycythemia grater than 60 So we have more cells
and the flow of blood is greatly retarded Other factors that can affect viscosity are the plasma protein
concentration and types of proteins in the plasma *Change in blood flow can be caused by sympathetic
stimulation which constrict the blood vessels Hormonal vasoconstriction such as Norepinephrine
Anginotensin II Vasopressin or endothelium It can reduce blood at least transiently Increased arterial
pressure increase force of pushed blood and also distend the elastic vessels by decreasing vascular
resistance When pressure falls below critical level critical closing pressure ceases the blood vessels to
colaps Sympathetic control case of hemorrage veins reduces venous size enough that the circulation
continues to operate Arterial puls presure Two major factor affect puls presure - stroke volume output
of the heart - the compliance of arterial tree Puls pressure is dermined approximately by ratio of stroke
volume output to compliance of the arterial tree Anormslities pressure pulse control Aortic stenosis
patent ducts arteriosus and aortic regurgitation Aortic valve stenosis aortic valve opening is reduced and
aortic pressure is decreased Normal 120 /80 Arteriosclerosis Above 160 In patent ductus arteriosus One
half or more of the blood pumped into the aorta by the left ventricle flows immediately backward
Through wide open ductus into the pumonary artery and lung blood vessels allowing diastolic pressure
to fall very low before next heartbeat . In aortic regurgitation the aortic valve is absent or doesn't close
completely blood after pumping goes backward into left ventricle as a result aortic pressure can fall
down all the way to zero between heartbeats The degree of damping is almost directly proportional to
products of resistance time compliance. The Korotkoff sound it is caused mainly by the blood jetting
through the partly occluded vessels vibration of the vessels wall Venous pressure Pressure in right
atrium is called central venous pressure Right atrial pressure is regulated by balance between r atrium
and ventricle into lungs Normal right atrium pressure is about 0 mm Hg it can increase to 20 30 mm Hg
under abnormal conditions heart failure or after masiv transfusion of blood which will increase volume
of the blood Hight right atrial pressure from 4 to 6 mm Hg indicate heart failure . 90mm Hg in legs
venous 0 neck right atrium -10 mm sagittal sinus Varicose veins when person is standing few minutes
more the capillary pressure become very high and the leakage of fluid from the capillary pressure
become become very high cause edema in the legs Adequate diffusion of nutrients from cell causes
muscle become painful and weak and the skin become gangrenous and ulcerated Best treatment is
elevation of legs level higher of heart tight binders on the leg Blood reservoirs When we lose blood from
the body and the arterial pressure falls nervous signal are elicited from the carotid sinus it constrict
vessels by sympathetic system Liver 100 Spleen 100 ml for RBC Abdominal veins 300 ml Skin 100ml 50 to
100 ml Lungs 100 200 ml M Microcirculation Most purposeful function in microcirculation is transport of
nutrients to tissue and removal of cell excerta Arteriols control blood flow to each tissue and local
conditions in the tissue in turn control the diameter of the arteriols The wall of capillaries are extremely
thin constructed of single layer highly permeable to endothelial cell Water nutrients and extracellular
and intracellular tissue Caveola play important role in transport of macromolecules across membrane
Special pores in organs Brain tight junction allows extremely small molecule to pass water oxygen an