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State(polity)
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Intermsofapoliticalentity,astateisanypoliticallyorganizedcommunity
livingunderasinglesystemofgovernment.[1]Statesmayormaynotbe
sovereign.Forinstance,federatedstatesaremembersofafederalunion,
andmayhaveonlypartialsovereignty,butare,nonetheless,states.[1]Some
statesaresubjecttoexternalsovereigntyorhegemony,inwhichultimate
sovereigntyliesinanotherstate.[2]Statesthataresovereignareknownas
sovereignstates.

Theterm"state"canalsorefertothesecularbranchesofgovernment
withinastate,[3]oftenasamannerofcontrastingthemwithchurchesand
civilianinstitutions.

SpeakersofAmericanEnglishoftenusethetermsstateandgovernmentas
synonyms,[note1]withbothwordsreferringtoanorganizedpoliticalgroup
thatexercisesauthorityoveraparticularterritory.[4]

Manyhumansocietieshavebeengovernedbystatesformillennia,but
othershavebeenstatelesssocieties.Overtimeavarietyofdifferentforms
developed,employingavarietyofjustificationsfortheirexistence(suchas ThefrontispieceofThomasHobbes'
thedivinerightofkings,thetheoryofsocialcontract,etc.).Inthe21st Leviathan
century,themodernnationstateisthepredominantformofstatetowhich
peoplearesubject.

Contents
1 Definitionissues
1.1 Typesofstates
1.2 Thestateandgovernment
1.3 Statesandnationstates
1.4 Thestateandcivilsociety
1.5 Themanversusthestate
2 Theoriesofstatefunction
2.1 Anarchist
2.2 Marxistperspective
2.3 Pluralism
2.4 Contemporarycriticalperspectives
2.5 Stateautonomy(institutionalism)
3 Theoriesofstatelegitimacy
3.1 Divineright
3.2 Rationallegalauthority
4 Etymology
5 History
5.1 Prehistoricstatelesssocieties
5.2 TheNeolithicperiod
5.3 ThestateinancientEurasia
5.4 Thestateinclassicalantiquity
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5.5 Thefeudalstate
5.6 Themodernstate
6 Weakstatesandlatestateformation
7 Seealso
8 References
8.1 Notes
8.2 Bibliography
9 Furtherreading
10 Externallinks

Definitionissues
Thereisnoacademicconsensusonthemostappropriatedefinitionofthestate.[5]Theterm"state"referstoasetof
different,butinterrelatedandoftenoverlapping,theoriesaboutacertainrangeofpoliticalphenomena.[6]Theact
ofdefiningthetermcanbeseenaspartofanideologicalconflict,becausedifferentdefinitionsleadtodifferent
theoriesofstatefunction,andasaresultvalidatedifferentpoliticalstrategies.[7]AccordingtoJeffreyandPainter,
"ifwedefinethe'essence'ofthestateinoneplaceorera,weareliabletofindthatinanothertimeorspace
somethingwhichisalsounderstoodtobeastatehasdifferent'essential'characteristics".[8]

ThemostcommonlyuseddefinitionisMaxWeber's,[9][10][11][12][13]whichdescribesthestateasacompulsory
politicalorganizationwithacentralizedgovernmentthatmaintainsamonopolyofthelegitimateuseofforce
withinacertainterritory.[14][15]Generalcategoriesofstateinstitutionsincludeadministrativebureaucracies,legal
systems,andmilitaryorreligiousorganizations.[16]

AnothercommonlyaccepteddefinitionofthestateistheonegivenattheMontevideoConventiononRightsand
DutiesofStatesin1933.Itdefinedstateasaspacethatpossessthefollowing:Apermanentpopulation,adefined
territoryandagovernmentthatiscapableofmaintainingeffectivecontroloverthecorrespondingterritoryandof
conductingInternationalrelationswithotherstates.[17]

AccordingtotheOxfordEnglishDictionary,astateis"a.anorganizedpoliticalcommunityunderone
governmentacommonwealthanation.b.suchacommunityformingpartofafederalrepublic,esptheUnited
StatesofAmerica".[1]

Confoundingthedefinitionproblemisthat"state"and"government"areoftenusedassynonymsincommon
conversationandevensomeacademicdiscourse.Accordingtothisdefinitionschema,thestatesarenonphysical
personsofinternationallaw,governmentsareorganizationsofpeople.[18]Therelationshipbetweenagovernment
anditsstateisoneofrepresentationandauthorizedagency.[19]

Typesofstates

Statesmaybeclassifiedassovereigniftheyarenotdependenton,orsubjecttoanyotherpowerorstate.Other
statesaresubjecttoexternalsovereigntyorhegemonywhereultimatesovereigntyliesinanotherstate.[1][20]Many
statesarefederatedstateswhichparticipateinafederalunion.Afederatedstateisaterritorialandconstitutional
communityformingpartofafederation.[21](CompareconfederaciesorconfederationssuchasSwitzerland.)Such
statesdifferfromsovereignstatesinthattheyhavetransferredaportionoftheirsovereignpowerstoafederal
government.[1]

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Onecancommonlyandsometimesreadily(butnotnecessarilyusefully)classifystatesaccordingtotheirapparent
makeuporfocus.Theconceptofthenationstate,theoreticallyorideallycoterminouswitha"nation",became
verypopularbythe20thcenturyinEurope,butoccurredrarelyelsewhereoratothertimes.Incontrast,some
stateshavesoughttomakeavirtueoftheirmultiethnicormultinationalcharacter(HapsburgAustriaHungary,
forexample,ortheSovietUnion),andhaveemphasisedunifyingcharacteristicssuchasautocracy,monarchical
legitimacy,orideology.Imperialstateshavesometimespromotednotionsofracialsuperiority.[22]Otherstatesmay
bringideasofcommonalityandinclusivenesstothefore:notetherespublicaofancientRomeandthe
RzeczpospolitaofPolandLithuaniawhichfindsechoesinthemoderndayrepublic.Theconceptoftemplestates
centredonreligiousshrinesoccursinsomediscussionsoftheancientworld.[23]Relativelysmallcitystates,oncea
relativelycommonandoftensuccessfulformofpolityinthedaysbeforefolkworriedaboutfailedstates,[24]have
becomerarerandcomparativelylessprominentinmoderntimes,[25]althoughanumberofthemsurviveas
federatedstates,likethepresentdayGermancitystates,orasotherwiseautonomousentitieswithlimited
sovereignty,likeHongKong,GibraltarandCeuta.Tosomeextent,urbansecession,thecreationofanewcitystate
(sovereignorfederated),continuestobediscussedintheearly21stcenturyincitiessuchasLondon.

Thestateandgovernment

Astatecanbedistinguishedfromagovernment.Thegovernmentistheparticulargroupofpeople,the
administrativebureaucracythatcontrolsthestateapparatusatagiventime.[26][27][28]Thatis,governmentsarethe
meansthroughwhichstatepowerisemployed.Statesareservedbyacontinuoussuccessionofdifferent
governments.[28]Statesareimmaterialandnonphysicalsocialobjects,whereasgovernmentsaregroupsofpeople
withcertaincoercivepowers.[29]

Eachsuccessivegovernmentiscomposedofaspecializedandprivilegedbodyofindividuals,whomonopolize
politicaldecisionmaking,andareseparatedbystatusandorganizationfromthepopulationasawhole.Their
functionistoenforceexistinglaws,legislatenewones,andarbitrateconflicts.Insomesocieties,thisgroupisa
selfperpetuatingorhereditaryclass.Inothersocieties,suchasdemocracies,thepoliticalrolesremain,butthereis
frequentturnoverofthepeopleactuallyfillingthepositions.[30]

Statesandnationstates

Statescanalsobedistinguishedfromtheconceptofa"nation",where"nation"referstoaculturalpolitical
communityofpeople.

Thestateandcivilsociety

Intheclassicalthought,thestatewasidentifiedwithbothpoliticalsocietyandcivilsocietyasaformofpolitical
community,whilethemodernthoughtdistinguishedthenationstateasapoliticalsocietyfromcivilsocietyasa
formofeconomicsociety.[31]Thusinthemodernthoughtthestateiscontrastedwithcivilsociety.[32][33][34]

Themanversusthestate

AntonioGramscibelievedthatcivilsocietyistheprimarylocusofpoliticalactivitybecauseitiswhereallformsof
"identityformation,ideologicalstruggle,theactivitiesofintellectuals,andtheconstructionofhegemonytake
place."andthatcivilsocietywasthenexusconnectingtheeconomicandpoliticalsphere.Arisingoutofthe
collectiveactionsofcivilsocietyiswhatGramscicalls"politicalsociety",whichGramscidifferentiatesfromthe
notionofthestateasapolity.Hestatedthatpoliticswasnota"onewayprocessofpoliticalmanagement"but,
rather,thattheactivitiesofcivilorganizationsconditionedtheactivitiesofpoliticalpartiesandstateinstitutions,

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andwereconditionedbytheminturn.[35][36]LouisAlthusserarguedthatcivilorganizationssuchaschurch,
schools,andthefamilyarepartofan"ideologicalstateapparatus"whichcomplementsthe"repressivestate
apparatus"(suchaspoliceandmilitary)inreproducingsocialrelations.[37][38][39]

JrgenHabermasspokeofapublicspherethatwasdistinctfromboththeeconomicandpoliticalsphere.[40]

Giventherolethatmanysocialgroupshaveinthedevelopmentofpublicpolicy,andtheextensiveconnections
betweenstatebureaucraciesandotherinstitutions,ithasbecomeincreasinglydifficulttoidentifytheboundariesof
thestate.Privatization,nationalization,andthecreationofnewregulatorybodiesalsochangetheboundariesofthe
stateinrelationtosociety.Oftenthenatureofquasiautonomousorganizationsisunclear,generatingdebateamong
politicalscientistsonwhethertheyarepartofthestateorcivilsociety.Somepoliticalscientiststhuspreferto
speakofpolicynetworksanddecentralizedgovernanceinmodernsocietiesratherthanofstatebureaucraciesand
directstatecontroloverpolicy.[41]

Theoriesofstatefunction
Mostpoliticaltheoriesofthestatecanroughlybeclassifiedintotwocategories.Thefirstareknownas"liberal"or
"conservative"theories,whichtreatcapitalismasagiven,andthenconcentrateonthefunctionofstatesin
capitalistsociety.Thesetheoriestendtoseethestateasaneutralentityseparatedfromsocietyandtheeconomy.
Marxisttheoriesontheotherhand,seepoliticsasintimatelytiedinwitheconomicrelations,andemphasizethe
relationbetweeneconomicpowerandpoliticalpower.Theyseethestateasapartisaninstrumentthatprimarily
servestheinterestsoftheupperclass.[28]

Anarchist

Anarchismisapoliticalphilosophywhichconsidersthestateimmoral,
unnecessary,andharmfulandinsteadpromotesastatelesssociety,or
anarchy.

Anarchistsbelievethatthestateisinherentlyaninstrumentofdomination
andrepression,nomatterwhoisincontrolofit.Anarchistsnotethatthe
statepossessesthemonopolyonthelegaluseofviolence.UnlikeMarxists,
anarchistsbelievethatrevolutionaryseizureofstatepowershouldnotbea
politicalgoal.Theybelieveinsteadthatthestateapparatusshouldbe
completelydismantled,andanalternativesetofsocialrelationscreated,
whicharenotbasedonstatepoweratall.[42][43]

VariousChristiananarchists,suchasJacquesEllul,haveidentifiedthe
StateandpoliticalpowerastheBeastintheBookofRevelation.[44][45]

Marxistperspective
IWWposter"PyramidofCapitalist
MarxandEngelswereclearinthatthecommunistgoalwasaclassless System"(c.1911),depictingananti
capitalistperspectiveon
societyinwhichthestatewouldhave"witheredaway".[46]Theirviewsare
statist/capitalistsocialstructures
scatteredthroughouttheMarx/EngelsCollectedWorksandaddresspastor
thethenextantstateformsfromananalyticalortacticalviewpoint,not
futuresocialforms,speculationaboutwhichisgenerallyanathematogroupsconsideringthemselvesMarxistbut

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who,nothavingconqueredtheexistingstatepower(s)arenotinthesituationofsupplyingtheinstitutionalformof
anactualsociety.Totheextentthatitmakessense,thereisnosingle"Marxisttheoryofstate",butrathermany
different"Marxist"theoriesthathavebeendevelopedbyadherentsofMarxism.[47][48][49]

Marx'searlywritingsportrayedthestateas"parasitic",builtuponthesuperstructureoftheeconomy,andworking
againstthepublicinterest.Healsowrotethatthestatemirrorsclassrelationsinsocietyingeneral,actsasa
regulatorandrepressorofclassstruggle,andactsasatoolofpoliticalpoweranddominationfortheruling
class.[50]TheCommunistManifestoclaimedthatthestateisnothingmorethan"acommitteeformanagingthe
commonaffairsofthebourgeoisie.[47]

ForMarxisttheorists,theroleofthenonsocialiststateisdeterminedbyitsfunctionintheglobalcapitalistorder.
RalphMilibandarguedthattherulingclassusesthestateasitsinstrumenttodominatesocietybyvirtueofthe
interpersonaltiesbetweenstateofficialsandeconomicelites.ForMiliband,thestateisdominatedbyanelitethat
comesfromthesamebackgroundasthecapitalistclass.Stateofficialsthereforesharethesameinterestsasowners
ofcapitalandarelinkedtothemthroughawidearrayofsocial,economic,andpoliticalties.[51]

Gramsci'stheoriesofstateemphasizedthatthestateisonlyoneoftheinstitutionsinsocietythathelpsmaintainthe
hegemonyoftherulingclass,andthatstatepowerisbolsteredbytheideologicaldominationoftheinstitutionsof
civilsociety,suchaschurches,schools,andmassmedia.[52]

Pluralism

Pluralistsviewsocietyasacollectionofindividualsandgroups,whoarecompetingforpoliticalpower.Theythen
viewthestateasaneutralbodythatsimplyenactsthewillofwhichevergroupsdominatetheelectoralprocess.[53]
Withinthepluralisttradition,RobertDahldevelopedthetheoryofthestateasaneutralarenaforcontending
interestsoritsagenciesassimplyanothersetofinterestgroups.Withpowercompetitivelyarrangedinsociety,
statepolicyisaproductofrecurrentbargaining.Althoughpluralismrecognizestheexistenceofinequality,it
assertsthatallgroupshaveanopportunitytopressurethestate.Thepluralistapproachsuggeststhatthemodern
democraticstate'sactionsaretheresultofpressuresappliedbyavarietyoforganizedinterests.Dahlcalledthis
kindofstateapolyarchy.[54]

Pluralismhasbeenchallengedonthegroundthatitisnotsupportedbyempiricalevidence.Citingsurveysshowing
thatthelargemajorityofpeopleinhighleadershippositionsaremembersofthewealthyupperclass,criticsof
pluralismclaimthatthestateservestheinterestsoftheupperclassratherthanequitablyservingtheinterestsofall
socialgroups.[55][56]

Contemporarycriticalperspectives

JrgenHabermasbelievedthatthebasesuperstructureframework,usedbymanyMarxisttheoriststodescribethe
relationbetweenthestateandtheeconomy,wasoverlysimplistic.Hefeltthatthemodernstateplaysalargerolein
structuringtheeconomy,byregulatingeconomicactivityandbeingalargescaleeconomicconsumer/producer,
andthroughitsredistributivewelfarestateactivities.Becauseofthewaytheseactivitiesstructuretheeconomic
framework,Habermasfeltthatthestatecannotbelookedataspassivelyrespondingtoeconomicclass
interests.[57][58][59]

MichelFoucaultbelievedthatmodernpoliticaltheorywastoostatecentric,saying"Maybe,afterall,thestateisno
morethanacompositerealityandamythologizedabstraction,whoseimportanceisalotmorelimitedthanmany
ofusthink."Hethoughtthatpoliticaltheorywasfocusingtoomuchonabstractinstitutions,andnotenoughonthe
actualpracticesofgovernment.InFoucault'sopinion,thestatehadnoessence.Hebelievedthatinsteadoftrying

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tounderstandtheactivitiesofgovernmentsbyanalyzingthepropertiesofthestate(areifiedabstraction),political
theoristsshouldbeexaminingchangesinthepracticeofgovernmenttounderstandchangesinthenatureofthe
state.[60][61][62]

HeavilyinfluencedbyGramsci,NicosPoulantzas,aGreekneoMarxisttheoristarguedthatcapitaliststatesdonot
alwaysactonbehalfoftherulingclass,andwhentheydo,itisnotnecessarilythecasebecausestateofficials
consciouslystrivetodoso,butbecausethe'structural'positionofthestateisconfiguredinsuchawaytoensure
thatthelongterminterestsofcapitalarealwaysdominant.Poulantzas'maincontributiontotheMarxistliterature
onthestatewastheconceptof'relativeautonomy'ofthestate.WhilePoulantzas'workon'stateautonomy'has
servedtosharpenandspecifyagreatdealofMarxistliteratureonthestate,hisownframeworkcameunder
criticismforits'structuralfunctionalism'.

Stateautonomy(institutionalism)

Stateautonomytheoristsbelievethatthestateisanentitythatisimpervioustoexternalsocialandeconomic
influence,andhasinterestsofitsown.[63]

"Newinstitutionalist"writingsonthestate,suchastheworksofThedaSkocpol,suggestthatstateactorsaretoan
importantdegreeautonomous.Inotherwords,statepersonnelhaveinterestsoftheirown,whichtheycananddo
pursueindependentlyof(attimesinconflictwith)actorsinsociety.Sincethestatecontrolsthemeansofcoercion,
andgiventhedependenceofmanygroupsincivilsocietyonthestateforachievinganygoalstheymayespouse,
statepersonnelcantosomeextentimposetheirownpreferencesoncivilsociety.[64]

Theoriesofstatelegitimacy
Statesgenerallyrelyonaclaimtosomeformofpoliticallegitimacyinordertomaintaindominationovertheir
subjects.[65][66][67]

Divineright

Theriseofthemoderndaystatesystemwascloselyrelatedtochangesinpoliticalthought,especiallyconcerning
thechangingunderstandingoflegitimatestatepowerandcontrol.Earlymoderndefendersofabsolutism,suchas
ThomasHobbesandJeanBodinunderminedthedoctrineofthedivinerightofkingsbyarguingthatthepowerof
kingsshouldbejustifiedbyreferencetothepeople.Hobbesinparticularwentfurthertoarguethatpoliticalpower
shouldbejustifiedwithreferencetotheindividual,notjusttothepeopleunderstoodcollectively.BothHobbesand
Bodinthoughttheyweredefendingthepowerofkings,notadvocatingfordemocracy,buttheirargumentsabout
thenatureofsovereigntywerefiercelyresistedbymoretraditionaldefendersofthepowerofkings,suchasSir
RobertFilmerinEngland,whothoughtthatsuchdefensesultimatelyopenedthewaytomoredemocraticclaims.

Rationallegalauthority

MaxWeberidentifiedthreemainsourcesofpoliticallegitimacyinhisworks.Thefirst,legitimacybasedon
traditionalgroundsisderivedfromabeliefthatthingsshouldbeastheyhavebeeninthepast,andthatthosewho
defendthesetraditionshavealegitimateclaimtopower.Thesecond,legitimacybasedoncharismaticleadershipis
devotiontoaleaderorgroupthatisviewedasexceptionallyheroicorvirtuous.Thethirdisrationallegal
authority,wherebylegitimacyisderivedfromthebeliefthatacertaingrouphasbeenplacedinpowerinalegal
manner,andthattheiractionsarejustifiableaccordingtoaspecificcodeofwrittenlaws.Weberbelievedthatthe
modernstateischaracterizedprimarilybyappealstorationallegalauthority.[68][69][70]

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Etymology
ThewordstateanditscognatesinsomeotherEuropeanlanguages(statoinItalian,estadoinSpanishand
Portuguese,tatinFrench,StaatinGerman)ultimatelyderivefromtheLatinwordstatus,meaning"condition"or
"status".[71]

WiththerevivaloftheRomanlawin14thcenturyEurope,thisLatintermcametorefertothelegalstandingof
persons(suchasthevarious"estatesoftherealm"noble,common,andclerical),andinparticularthespecial
statusoftheking.ThewordalsohadassociationswithRomanideas(datingbacktoCicero)aboutthe"statusrei
publicae",the"conditionofpublicmatters".Intime,thewordlostitsreferencetoparticularsocialgroupsand
becameassociatedwiththelegalorderoftheentiresocietyandtheapparatusofitsenforcement.[72][Romanshada
strongbackgroundincustomsmakingthelawsthatwereinstalledbeingidealtokeepingorderandupholdingit
overallforjustice].[73]

InEnglish,"state"cameaboutasacontractionoftheword"estate",whichissimilartotheoldFrenchestatandthe
modernFrenchtat,bothofwhichsignifythatapersonhasstatusandthereforeestate.Thehighestestates,
generallythosewiththemostwealthandsocialrank,werethosethatheldpower.[65]

Theearly16thcenturyworksofMachiavelli(especiallyThePrince)playedacentralroleinpopularizingtheuse
oftheword"state"insomethingsimilartoitsmodernsense.[74]

History
Theearliestformsofthestateemergedwheneveritbecamepossibletocentralizepowerinadurableway.
Agricultureandwritingarealmosteverywhereassociatedwiththisprocess:agriculturebecauseitallowedforthe
emergenceofasocialclassofpeoplewhodidnothavetospendmostoftheirtimeprovidingfortheirown
subsistence,andwriting(oranequivalentofwriting,likeIncaquipus)becauseitmadepossiblethecentralization
ofvitalinformation.[75]

ThefirstknownstateswerecreatedinAncientEgypt,Mesopotamia,India,China,Mesoamerica,theAndes,and
others,butitisonlyinrelativelymoderntimesthatstateshavealmostcompletelydisplacedalternative"stateless"
formsofpoliticalorganizationofsocietiesallovertheplanet.[76]Rovingbandsofhuntergatherersandevenfairly
sizableandcomplextribalsocietiesbasedonherdingoragriculturehaveexistedwithoutanyfulltimespecialized
stateorganization,andthese"stateless"formsofpoliticalorganizationhaveinfactprevailedforallofthe
prehistoryandmuchofthehistoryofthehumanspeciesandcivilization.[76]

Initiallystatesemergedoverterritoriesbuiltbyconquestinwhichoneculture,onesetofidealsandonesetoflaws
havebeenimposedbyforceorthreatoverdiversenationsbyacivilianandmilitarybureaucracy.[76]Currently,that
isnotalwaysthecaseandtherearemultinationalstates,federatedstatesandautonomousareaswithinstates.

Sincethelate19thcentury,virtuallytheentiretyoftheworld'sinhabitablelandhasbeenparcelledupintoareas
withmoreorlessdefinitebordersclaimedbyvariousstates.Earlier,quitelargelandareashadbeeneither
unclaimedoruninhabited,orinhabitedbynomadicpeopleswhowerenotorganisedasstates.However,even
withinpresentdaystatestherearevastareasofwilderness,liketheAmazonrainforest,whichareuninhabitedor
inhabitedsolelyormostlybyindigenouspeople(andsomeofthemremainuncontacted).Also,therearestates
whichdonotholddefactocontroloveralloftheirclaimedterritoryorwherethiscontrolischallenged.Currently
theinternationalcommunitycomprisesaround200sovereignstates,thevastmajorityofwhicharerepresentedin
theUnitedNations.

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Prehistoricstatelesssocieties

Formostofhumanhistory,peoplehavelivedinstatelesssocieties,characterizedbyalackofconcentrated
authority,andtheabsenceoflargeinequalitiesineconomicandpoliticalpower.

TheanthropologistTimIngoldwrites:

Itisnotenoughtoobserve,inanowratherdatedanthropologicalidiom,thathuntergathererslivein
'statelesssocieties',asthoughtheirsociallivesweresomehowlackingorunfinished,waitingtobe
completedbytheevolutionarydevelopmentofastateapparatus.Rather,theprincipaloftheirsocialty,
asPierreClastreshasputit,isfundamentallyagainstthestate.[77]

TheNeolithicperiod

DuringtheNeolithicperiod,humansocietiesunderwentmajorculturalandeconomicchanges,includingthe
developmentofagriculture,theformationofsedentarysocietiesandfixedsettlements,increasingpopulation
densities,andtheuseofpotteryandmorecomplextools.[78][79]

Sedentaryagricultureledtothedevelopmentofpropertyrights,domesticationofplantsandanimals,andlarger
familysizes.Italsoprovidedthebasisforthecentralizedstateform[80]byproducingalargesurplusoffood,which
createdamorecomplexdivisionoflaborbyenablingpeopletospecializeintasksotherthanfoodproduction.[81]
Earlystateswerecharacterizedbyhighlystratifiedsocieties,withaprivilegedandwealthyrulingclassthatwas
subordinatetoamonarch.Therulingclassesbegantodifferentiatethemselvesthroughformsofarchitectureand
otherculturalpracticesthatweredifferentfromthoseofthesubordinatelaboringclasses.[82]

Inthepast,itwassuggestedthatthecentralizedstatewasdevelopedtoadministerlargepublicworkssystems
(suchasirrigationsystems)andtoregulatecomplexeconomies.However,modernarchaeologicaland
anthropologicalevidencedoesnotsupportthisthesis,pointingtotheexistenceofseveralnonstratifiedand
politicallydecentralizedcomplexsocieties.[83]

ThestateinancientEurasia

Mesopotamiaisgenerallyconsideredtobethelocationoftheearliestcivilizationorcomplexsociety,meaningthat
itcontainedcities,fulltimedivisionoflabor,socialconcentrationofwealthintocapital,unequaldistributionof
wealth,rulingclasses,communitytiesbasedonresidencyratherthankinship,longdistancetrade,monumental
architecture,standardizedformsofartandculture,writing,andmathematicsandscience.[84]Itwastheworld'sfirst
literatecivilization,andformedthefirstsetsofwrittenlaws.[85][86]

Thestateinclassicalantiquity

AlthoughstateformsexistedbeforetheriseoftheAncientGreekempire,theGreekswerethefirstpeopleknown
tohaveexplicitlyformulatedapoliticalphilosophyofthestate,andtohaverationallyanalyzedpolitical
institutions.Priortothis,statesweredescribedandjustifiedintermsofreligiousmyths.[87]

SeveralimportantpoliticalinnovationsofclassicalantiquitycamefromtheGreekcitystatesandtheRoman
Republic.TheGreekcitystatesbeforethe4thcenturygrantedcitizenshiprightstotheirfreepopulation,andin
Athenstheserightswerecombinedwithadirectlydemocraticformofgovernmentthatwastohavealongafterlife
inpoliticalthoughtandhistory.
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Thefeudalstate

DuringMedievaltimesinEurope,thestatewasorganizedontheprinciple
offeudalism,andtherelationshipbetweenlordandvassalbecamecentral
tosocialorganization.Feudalismledtothedevelopmentofgreatersocial
hierarchies.[88]

Theformalizationofthestrugglesovertaxationbetweenthemonarchand
otherelementsofsociety(especiallythenobilityandthecities)gaveriseto PaintingofRomanSenators
whatisnowcalledtheStandestaat,orthestateofEstates,characterizedby encirclingJuliusCaesar
parliamentsinwhichkeysocialgroupsnegotiatedwiththekingaboutlegal
andeconomicmatters.Theseestatesoftherealmsometimesevolvedinthe
directionoffullyfledgedparliaments,butsometimeslostoutintheirstruggleswiththemonarch,leadingto
greatercentralizationoflawmakingandmilitarypowerinhishands.Beginninginthe15thcentury,this
centralizingprocessgivesrisetotheabsolutiststate.[89]

Themodernstate

Culturalandnationalhomogenizationfiguredprominentlyintheriseofthemodernstatesystem.Sincethe
absolutistperiod,stateshavelargelybeenorganizedonanationalbasis.Theconceptofanationalstate,however,
isnotsynonymouswithnationstate.Eveninthemostethnicallyhomogeneoussocietiesthereisnotalwaysa
completecorrespondencebetweenstateandnation,hencetheactiveroleoftentakenbythestatetopromote
nationalismthroughemphasisonsharedsymbolsandnationalidentity.[90]

Weakstatesandlatestateformation
Somestatesareoftenlabeledasweakorfailed.InDavidSamuels'swords"...afailedstateoccurswhen
sovereigntyoverclaimedterritoryhascollapsedorwasnevereffectivelyatall".[91]AuthorslikeSamuelsandJoel
S.Migdalhaveexploredtheemergenceofweakstates,howtheyaredifferentfromWestern"strong"statesandits
consequencestotheeconomicdevelopmentofdevelopingcountries.

Earlystateformation

Tounderstandtheformationofweakstates,SamuelscomparestheformationofEuropeanstatesinthe1600with
theconditionsunderwhichmorerecentstateswereformedinthetwentiethcentury.Inthislineofargumentation,
thestateallowstoresolveacollectiveactionproblem,inwhichcitizensrecognizetheauthorityofthestateand
thisexercisethepowerofcoercionoverthem.Thiskindofsocialorganizationrequiredadeclineinlegitimacyof
traditionalformsofruling(likereligiousauthorities)andreplacedthemwithanincreaseinthelegitimacyof
depersonalizedruleanincreaseinthecentralgovernment'ssovereigntyandanincreaseintheorganizational
complexityofthecentralgovernment(bureaucracy).

ThetransitiontothismodernstatewaspossibleinEuropearound1600thankstotheconfluenceoffactorslikethe
technologicaldevelopmentsinwarfare,whichgeneratedstrongincentivestotaxandconsolidatecentralstructures
ofgovernancetorespondtoexternalthreats.Thiswascomplementedbytheincreasingontheproductionoffood
(asaresultofproductivityimprovements),whichallowedtosustainalargerpopulationandsoincreasedthe
complexityandcentralizationofstates.Finally,culturalchangeschallengedtheauthorityofmonarchiesandpaved
thewaytotheemergenceofmodernstates.[92]

Latestateformation

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TheconditionsthatenabledtheemergenceofmodernstatesinEuropeweredifferentforothercountriesthat
startedthisprocesslater.Asaresult,manyofthesestateslackeffectivecapabilitiestotaxandextractrevenuefrom
theircitizens,whichderivesinproblemslikecorruption,taxevasionandloweconomicgrowth.Unlikethe
Europeancase,latestateformationoccurredinacontextoflimitedinternationalconflictthatdiminishedthe
incentivestotaxandincreasemilitaryspending.Also,manyofthesestatesemergedfromcolonizationinastateof
povertyandwithinstitutionsdesignedtoextractnaturalresources,whichhavemademoredifficulttoformstates.
Europeancolonizationalsodefinedmanyarbitrarybordersthatmixeddifferentculturalgroupsunderthesame
nationalidentities,whichhasmadedifficulttobuildstateswithlegitimacyamongallthepopulation,sincesome
stateshavetocompeteforitwithotherformsofpoliticalidentity.[92]

Asacomplementofthisargument,MigdalgivesahistoricalaccountonhowsuddensocialchangesintheThird
WorlkduringtheIndustrialRevolutioncontributedtotheformationofweakstates.Theexpansionofinternational
tradethatstartedaround1850,broughtprofoundchangesinAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmericathatwereintroduced
withtheobjectiveofassuretheavailabilityofrawmaterialsfortheEuropeanmarket.Thesechangesconsistedin:
i)reformstolandownershiplawswiththeobjectiveofintegratemorelandstotheinternationaleconomy,ii)
increaseinthetaxationofpeasantsandlittlelandowners,aswellascollectingofthesetaxesincashinsteadofin
kindaswasusualuptothatmomentandiii)theintroductionofnewandlesscostlymodesoftransportation,
mainlyrailroads.Asaresult,thetraditionalformsofsocialcontrolbecameobsolete,deterioratingtheexisting
institutionsandopeningthewaytothecreationofnewones,thatnotnecessarilyleadthesecountriestobuild
strongstates.[93]Thisfragmentationofthesocialorderinducedapoliticallogicinwhichthesestateswerecaptured
tosomeextentby"strongmen",whowerecapabletotakeadvantageoftheabovementionedchangesandthat
challengethesovereigntyofthestate.Asaresult,thesedecentralizationofsocialcontrolimpedestoconsolidate
strongstates.[94]

Seealso
Civiliancontrolofthemilitary
Internationalrelations
Ruleoflaw
Statism
Warlordism

References
Notes
1.Thetwoareespeciallysynonymouswhenphrasedas"thestate"and"thegovernment."See"government"underListof
wordshavingdifferentmeaningsinAmericanandBritishEnglish:AL.
1.Thompson,Della,ed.(1995)."state".ConciseOxfordEnglishDictionary(9thed.).OxfordUniversityPress."3(also
State)aanorganizedpoliticalcommunityunderonegovernmentacommonwealthanation.bsuchacommunity
formingpartofafederalrepublic,esptheUnitedStatesofAmerica"
2.Forexample,theVichyFrance(19401944)officiallyreferredtoitselfasl'tatfranais(theFrenchstate).
3.anne(18August2014)."AnatomyoftheState"(https://mises.org/pdf/anatomy.pdf)(PDF).mises.org.
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Furtherreading
Barrow,ClydeW.(2002)."TheMilibandPoulantzasDebate:AnIntellectualHistory".InAronowitz,StanleyBratsis,
Peter.Paradigmlost:statetheoryreconsidered(https://books.google.com/books?id=occGXv3T0ycC&pg=PA3).
UniversityofMinnesotaPress.ISBN9780816632930.
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