Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Prehistoric man gathering honey, a rock painting made 6000 BC, Cueva de la
Arana, near Valencia, Spain
Hi
high,
higher
to bee or
not to bee
my sweet honey
sweetest blessing
in spite of all the
horrible and painful stings
3. Honey Technology 15
4. Physical Properties 19
5. Honey Composition 27
6. Honeys Types 37
9. Medicine 97
Be aware that this e-book is only for private personal use and should not be
released in public domains (Internet). No parts of the book can be published
without the persmission of the author.
Ancient Greece
St. Ambrosius
St. Haralampios
Central and South America
Africa
African beekeeper
Further reading
CRANE, E (1975) History of honey, In Crane, E (ed.) Honey, a comprehensive survey, William
Heinemann; London; pp 439-488.
CRANE, E (1999) The world history of beekeeping and honey hunting. Gerald Duckworth & Co
Ltd London
JONES R. (2001) Honey and healing through the ages, in Munn, P., Jones, R. (Eds.) Honey and
healing, IBRA, Cardiff, UK, pp. 1-4.
RANSOME, H.M., (1937) The sacred bee in ancient times and folklore, George Allen and Unwin,
London
HONEY FORAGING
Honey bees gather their honey from two sources: nectar and honeydew. There are no official statistics as to
the relative importance of these two honey sources. In some European countries like Greece, Switzerland,
Turkey, Slovenia and Austria honeydew seems to be at least as important as nectar.
Nectar
Honeydew
Honeydew is the secretion product of plant-sucking insects (Hemiptera, mostly aphids). These insects pierce
the foliage or other covering parts of the plant and feed on the sap. The ingested sap is passed through the
insects gut, and the surplus is excreted as droplets of honeydew, which are gathered by the bees. There are
different sorts of honeydew producing insects. Most plants are trees, the coniferous trees yielding worldwide
the highest amounts of honeydew. However, other plants, e.g. cotton, lucerne and sunflower can also
provide honeydew.
Honeydew is a solution with varying sugar concentration (5-60 %), containing mainly sucrose, besides
higher sugars (oligosacharides). There are also smaller amounts of amino acids, proteins, minerals, acids and
vitamins. In addition, honeydew contains cells of algae and fungi. Some insects produce high amounts of the
trisaccharide melezitose which is only very slightly soluble in water, thus yielding honey which can
crystallise in the combs.
Honeydew production is even less predictable than the nectar flow, as it depends on the build-up of plant
sucking insects. By evaluating the populations of the plant-sucking insects before the honeydew flow, the
potential for a possible honey flow can be estimated. However, the honeydew flow depends also on
favourable weather conditions during the honey flow period. In countries like Germany, Switzerland, Austria
and Slovenia, where honeydew honey is beloved by consumers, beekeepers optimise their honeydew honey
crops by estimating the honeydew flow potential. This is done by counting the honeydew drops, falling on
sheets, laid below the trees 8.
Honey yield
The honey yield of a bee colony depends on different factors: weather conditions, nectar- and honeydew
flow and colony strength. Assuming that a bee fills its stomach with 50 mg, 100000 flights would be
necessary to harvest 5 kg nectar or honeydew, or about 1-3 kg of honey. For this purpose each forager of an
average bee colony of about 10'000 workers makes about 10 forage flights. The greater part of the harvested
honey is used to cover the energy needs of the bee colony, the smaller part only remaining for the beekeeper
to be harvested.
HONEY HARVEST
A. melifera bee foragers collect nectar and honeydew from plants and carry it by means of their honey sac
and bring it to their colony. On their way they already add enzymes from their hypopharengeal glands and
transfer it to the colony bees. These nurse bees pass it over to each other and finally fill the honey into the
combs. During this process the bees fan with their wings, thus lowering honeys humidity, when the water
contents reaches 30-40 % the honey is filled into the combs. During that time the bees add additional
enzymes to the honey. The invertase transforms sucrose into fructose and glucose, while glucose oxidase
oxidates glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, the latter acting as an agent against bacterial
spoilage. The warm colony temperature (35o C) and more fanning lower further the honey humidity. Bees
also suck out the honey and deposit it back into the combs, and by this process further lower the water
content of the honey. This transformation process takes place in 1 to 3 days. Generally, when honey is ripe,
with a humidity of less than 20 %, the bees cap the combs, preventing absorption of moisture by honey. Only
rarely, under very humid or tropical conditions can honey with more than 20 % be capped by bees. The aim
of the beekeeper is to harvest honey with less than 18 % humidity.
The water content is of utmost importance for the quality and storage capacity of honey. It depends on many
different factors such as humidity, temperature, colony strength, hive type and intensity of honey flow. Some
unifloral honeys, like sunflower, heather 13 and strawberry tree 5 tend to have a higher water content than
others. The beekeeper can estimate honey ripeness by a simple test: a honey comb with open brood is
Honey humidity can be lowered by passing warm air over the combs, mostly
by placing them in special warm rooms, where the humidity of the rooms
should be kept low with a dehumidifier. 4, 9, 12, preferably below 18 % 12. This technique is close to what the
bees are doing when dehumidifying their honey in the hive. Indeed, dehumidification leading to a loss of
honey components is not allowed according to the Codex Alimentarius and other honey standards, it states
than no honey constituents may be removed from honey except where it is unavoidable in the removal of
foreign inorganic or organic matter. Industrial removal of water from honey will lead to a loss of honey
aroma.
The combs should have a temperature of about 300 before extraction. Today honey is harvested mostly by
centrifugation, except in most countries of Africa, where most of the honey is pressed out of the combs. The
honey is cleaned by passing it through filters, generally with a mesh size not greater than 0.2 mm, in order
that pollen are not filtered. In some countries filters with a small mesh size is used to filter off honey, the
honey containing no more pollen. According to the Codex Alimentarius and the EU honey standards such
honey should be labelled filtered and cannot be labelled for a specific geographic and botanical origin.
The filtered honey is poured in a tank, equipped with a filter. The tank is ideally kept at temperature of about
300 C and conditioned for several days, allowing the foam and small wax particles to diffuse up to the
surface. The clear honey is best filled into jars for final consummation. In other cases honey will be filled in
larger storage containers.
Storage
containers should be made out
of aluminium, stainless steel or plastic material. Corrosive metal containers should be coated with
appropriate coatings, resistant to acidity.
Honey is offered in a great variety of jars. Glass is used mostly, but other materials, e.g. plastic, earthenware
can be also used, provided that they are resistant to the action of honey. Containers and jars should be closed
hermetically to exclude spoilage by humidity and foreign odours. Optimum storage temperature is 10-16 C,
the relative humidity of the storage rooms should be less than 65 %. Honey quality decreases with
increasing temperature: the hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content increases, while the enzyme activity
decreases (see below). Prolonged storage at 50C results in a decrease of aroma compounds 19. Upon
prolonged storage the colour of honey becomes darker due to building of Maillard products6, 17.
The longer the storage and the higher the temperature, the
more rapid is the darkening of honey.
The same rape honey was stored under different conditions:
Left: at ambient temperature in the light. middle: in the dark at
ambient temperature (20-25); right: in the dark at 15 C.
Russia
Poland Romania
1. CRANE, E (1990) Bees and beekeeping: Science, practice and world resources. Cornell University Press
Ithaca, New York
2. CRANE, E; WALKER, P (1985) Important honeydew sources and their honeys. Bee World 66 (3): 105-112.
3. CRANE, E; WALKER, P; DAY, R (1984) Directory of important world honey sources. International Bee
Research Association London; 384 pp
4. DZIADYK, A (2004) Drying honey in the "hot room" - Several approaches. American Bee Journal 144 (5):
385-387.
5. FLORIS, I; SATTA, A; RUIU, L (2007) Honeys of Sardinia (Italy). Journal of Apicultural Research 46 (3):
198-209.
6. GONZALES, A P; BURIN, L; BUERA, M D (1999) Color changes during storage of honeys in relation to
their composition and initial color. Food Research International 32 (3): 185-191.
7. KLOFT, W; KUNKEL, H (1985) Waldtracht und Waldhonig in der Imkerei. Ehrenwirth Verlag Mnchen
9. MARLETTO, F; PITON, P (1976) Equipment for evaporating water from honey by a forced draught.
Preliminary note. Apicoltore Moderno 67 (3): 81-84.
10. MAURIZIO, A (1975) How bees make honey, In Crane, E (ed.) Honey. A Comprehensive survey, Heinemann
Edition; London; pp 77-105.
11. MAURIZIO, A; SCHAPER, F (1994) Das Trachtpflanzenbuch. Nektar und Pollen - die wichtigsten
Nahrungsquellen der Honigbiene. Ehrenwirth Mnchen; 334 pp
12. MURRELL, D; HENLEY, B (1988) Drying honey in a hot room. Amer.Bee J. 128 (5): 347-351.
13. PERSANO ODDO, L; PIRO, R (2004) Main European unifloral honeys: descriptive sheets. Apidologie 35
(special issue): S38-S81.
14. SHUEL, R W (1992) The production of nectar and pollen. In: The Hive and the Honeybee, Hrsg. J.M.
Graham. Dadant: Hamilton. unknown 3: 401-436.
15. TEW, J T (1992) Honey and wax a consideration of production, processing and packaging techniques, In
Graham, J (ed.) The Hive and the Honey Bee, Dadant & Sons; Hamilton, IL; pp 657-704.
16. TOWNSEND, G F (1975) Processing and storing liquid honey, In Crane, E (ed.), Heinemann, London: pp
269-292.
18. WHITE, J W (1975) Composition of honey., In Crane, E (ed.) Honey, a comprehensive survey, Heinemann
Edition; London; pp 157-206.
CRISTALLISATION
Natural crystallisation
The honey crystallization is a natural process, depending on the sugar content, the temperature, the
water content and the storage time.
Sugar content
The higher the glucose content, the faster the crystallization. Honeys with more than 28% glucose
crystallize fast, while those with less than 28 % remain generally liquid19. Honeydew honeys with
more than 10% melezitose crystallize to so-called cement honey8
Temperature
The optimal temperature for honey crystallization lies between 10 and 18o C constant temperature
of 14o C is regarded as optimal. At low temperatures crystallization is slowed down. In the deep-
freezer honey remains liquid for longer time. Very fast crystallizing honeys like rape honey
crystallize in a fine-crystalline texture. At higher temperatures (more than 25o C) the crystallization
is slowed down. At these temperatures the honey crystallizes with a rough crystalline texture.
Water content
Honeys with a water content between 15 and 18 % crystallize optimally. Honeys with more and less
and water crystallize more slowly. Best spreadability have crystalized honeys with water content
between 17 and 18%. Honeys with lower water content have harder crystallization texture, those
with more than 18% to remain softer.
Guided crystallization
The guided crystallization is applied with fast crystallizing blossom
honeys in order to avoid the building of frost and coarse crystallisation.
There are two procedures: mechanical cutting of the crystals up by
agitating the honey Inoculate the honey with 5 to 10% finely crystalline
starter honey and following agitating. Agitating can pass agitating devices
with motor drive, e.g. stronger hand drills by hand with a triangular staff,
with larger quantities is better suitable (with more than 800 W) with
special agitating staffs: (Illustration)
Crystallization defects
Formation of frosting
In some honeys with low humidity frosting arises on the surface of the honeys.
These are cavities, which are formed by air during crystallization. Frosting is a
natural process, which does not impair the honey quality. It can be prevented by
applying vacuum to the honey before filling or following the guided
crystallization. With guided granulation and storage at constant temperature
around 14 C frosting can be avoided.
This defect arises when honeys with high water content granulate (with more than 18
% water. Often yeast will develop in the liquid phase to cause fermentation.
Heating by air
Heating by air is widely used. Compared to a water bath, air heating needs a longer period of time.
When heating greater amounts of honey, air circulation should be used to prevent overheating. For
liquefaction of a granulated blossom honey with 17.5 % water, following relation between vessel
size, temperature and liquefaction time was found 10:
Wave application
There are different kind of waves, which can be used for honey liquefaction:
Ultrasonic waves 9, 11, 12
Microwave oven 1, 5, 7, 13, 15, 18
Infrared oven 7, 15
Microwave and infrared ovens are well distributed commercially and are suitable for use. Honey
can be liquefied very quickly, due to its specific composition13. Microwaves with frequency
between 915 MHz and 2450 MHz are widely used in for food heating and can be used for honey
liquefaction. However, the research results cited above show than both types of ovens cause HMF
increase and enzyme activity decrease, the effects depending on the time and the energy amount
applied, and also on the type of honey 1. Thus, special microwave ovens for liquefaction of honey,
taking into account the above mentioned factors should be constructed in order to avoid honey
damage.
DEHUMIDIFICATION
Honey with too high water content should be dehumidified before harvest, i.e. in the combs, by
placing the hives in warm rooms and using dehumidifiers. This can be done easily by beekeepers
and the procedure should not influence significantly honey quality.
However, if too humid honey is already harvested it can be dehumidified also in the honey plant.
This, however, leads to loss of honey volatiles and aroma. Thus, such dehumidification is also not
allowed according to the international honey standards, which state than no honey constituents
may be removed from honey except where it is unavoidable in the removal of foreign inorganic or
organic matter.
2. BOGDANOV, S (1994) Verflssigung von Honig mit dem Melitherm-Gert und dem
Abdeckelungswachsgert. Schweizerische Bienen-Zeitung 117 (8): 458-460.
3. BDEL, A; GRZIWA, J (1959) Die Erwrmung des Honigs im Heizschrank. Deutsche Bienenwirtschaft 10
(2): 30-35.
4. BDEL, A; GRZIWA, J (1959) Die Rolle des Wrmebergangs bei Erwrmung des Honigs. Sonderdruck
Z.Bienenforsch. 4 (7): 149-150.
5. DEVROYE, H (1990) Comparative study of the degradation of honey during liquefaction by treatment in a hot
room and by microwaves. Abeille de France (753): 418-420.
9. IVANOV, T; IVANOVA, T (1995) Effect of ultrasonic, microwave and x-ray treatments of honey on its
quality, Apimondia congress No 34, Lausanne: pp 385-388.
10. JANNE, F (1985) La refonte du miel. Bulletin Tchnique Apicole 12 (1): 33-40.
11. KALOYEREAS, S A; OERTEL, E (1958) Crystallization of honey as affected by ultrasonic waves, freezing,
and inhibitors. American Bee Journal 98 (11): 442-443.
12. LIEBL, D E (1978) Ultrasound and granulation in honey. American Bee Journal 118 (2): 107.
13. NATIONAL, H B (1998) Honey and microwaveable foods. Honey: A natural microwave reactive ingredient
for baked goods formulation. Honey Information Kit for the Food and Beverage Industries
14. SPRGIN, K N (1978) Method for processing honey and apparatus for carrying out the method. Verfahren
zum Behandeln von Bienenhonig und Gert zur Durchfhrung dieses Verfahrens, 13pp. German
Federal Republic Offenlegungsschrift (Patent Application) (27 02 132)
16. TABOURET, T; MATHLOUTHI, M (1972) Essai de pasteurisation de miel. Rev.franc.Apic. 299: 258-261.
17. TOWNSEND, G F (1975) Processing and storing liquid honey, In Crane, E (ed.), Heinemann, London: pp
269-292.
18. VALBUENA, A O; SILVA, M C (1995) Liquefazione del miele con microonde. Rivista di Apicoltura (No. 3):
24-26.
19. WHITE, J W; RIETHOF M.L.; SUBERS M.H.; KUSHNIR, I (1962) Composition of American honeys.
Bull.Tech.U.S.Dep.Agric. (1261): 1-65.
Knowledge of the physical characteristics of honey are important for the different aspects of honey
technology: harvest, processing, storage, granulation and liquefaction 8, 47, see chapter 3.
W is the water content in g per 100 g honey and R.I. is the refractive index
The water content is a quality parameter, important above all for honey shelf life. Higher honey humidity
will often cause fermentation. There is a relation between honey water content and the yeast count (see
chapter on honey microbiology). At 17 % humidity. there is a very minimal fermentation danger due to the
very low yeast content.
The capacity of honey to break the light is used for the refractometric determination of humidity. Both Abbe
and digital refractometers can be used. However, this measurement does not reflect the true water content.
Indeed, measurements of water content by the Karl Fischer method showed, that the refractometric
measurements overestimates the true water content by about 1 Brix unit 21, 51. As the refractometric moisture
determination has proved useful in routine control, there is no reason to replace this simple measurement by
the more complicated and expensive Karl Fischer technique.
The water activity (aw) is proportional to the free water content in food. In honey a part of the water is bound
to sugars and is thus unavailable for microorganisms, thus the aw value and not the overall water content is
the criteria determining bacterial spoilage. The aw values of honey vary between 0.55 und 0.75, honeys with
an aw value < 0,60 are microbiologically stable 7, 33, 35. Actually, it is the better quality criteria for honey than
the water content, because it will indicate the free water content, which is microbiologically active to
eventually cause fermentation. However, the simple and fast measurement of the water content has proven
sufficient for assaying the fermentation risk of honey.
Dependence of the viscosity (in poise) on the water content and temperature of liquid honey after 28
% humidity 15o C 20 o C 25 o C 30 o C 35 o C
18. 200 85 50 20 18
Dependence of the viscosity (in poise, p.) on temperature on the water content of liquid honey, after3
DENSITY
Another physical characteristic of practical importance is density. Honey density, expressed as specific
gravity, is greater than water density by about 50 %, and it also depends on the water content. Because of the
variation in density it is sometimes possible to observe distinct stratification of honey in large storage tanks.
The high water content (less dense) honey settles above the denser, drier honey. Such inconvenient
separation can be avoided by more thorough mixing.
HYGROSCOPICITY
Honey is strongly hygroscopic, this characteristics being important
in processing and storage. From the table below it can be seen that
normal honey with a water content of 18.3 % or less will absorb
moisture from the air at a relative humidity of above 60%. Thus it is
important to keep honey well closed when it is stored in humid
places. Also, under conditions of moist climate the bees have
difficulties to keep the moisture down to safe levels, and undesirable
fermentation might be the consequence.
Approximate equilibrium between relative humidity (RH) of ambient air and water
content of a clover honey 47
Air (%RH) 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
% honey water content 15.9 16.8 18.3 20.9 24.2 28.3 33.1
THERMAL PROPERTIES
For the design of honey processing plants its thermal properties have to be taken into account. The heat
absorbing capacity, i.e. specific heat, varies from 0.56 to 0.73 cal/g/0C according to its composition and state
of crystallisation. The thermal conductivity varies from 118 to 143 x 10 -5 cal/cm2/sec/0C 47 Thus, the
amount of heat for cooling and mixing which is necessary to treat honey, i.e. before and after filtration or
pasteurisation, can be calculated. The relatively low heat conductivity, combined with high viscosity leads to
rapid overheating from point-heat sources (see liquefaction in chapter 3).
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Honey contains minerals and acids, serving as electrolytes, which can conduct the electrical current. The
measurement of electrical conductivity (EC) was introduced in 1964 45. At present it is the most useful
quality parameter for the classification of unifloral honeys, which can be determined by a relatively
inexpensive instrumentation. This parameter was included recently in the new international standards for
COLOUR
Colour in liquid honey varies from clear and colourless (like water) to dark amber or black The various
honey colours are basically all nuances of yellow amber.
The most important aspect of honey colour lies in its value for marketing and determination of its end use.
Darker honeys are more often for industrial use, while lighter honeys are marketed for direct consumption.
While light honeys (e.g. acacia) achieve generally higher prices, there are also countries (Germany,
Switzerland, Austria, Greece, Turkey) where consumers prefer dark honeydew honeys.
The values of these comparators give a measure of colour intensity, but only along the normal amber tone of
honey. The Lovibond comparators are easier to handle than the Pfund graders, but honey is generally
marketed according to the Pfund colour scale. That is why at present Lovibond graders with a Pfund scale
are marketed. Other more objective methods have also been tested, as the determination of all colour
parameters through the CIE L*a*b* tristimulus method 5, 30, 44, or reflectance spectroscopy 29, 43
References
4. AUBERT, S; GONNET, M (1983) Mesure de la couleur des miels. Apidologie 14 (2): 105-118.
6. BATTAGLINI, M; BOSI, C (1973) Physico-chemical characterisation of monofloral honey on the basis of its
sugar composition and specific rotation. Sci.Tech.degli Alimenti 3 (4): 217-221.
7. BECKH, G; WESSEL, P; LULLMANN, C (2004) A contribution to yeasts and their metabolisms products as
natural components of honey - Part 2: Moisture content and water activity as quality parameters.
Deutsche Lebensmittel-Rundschau 100 (1): 14-17.
10. CHATAWAY, H D (1935) Honey tables, showing the relationship between various hydrometer scales and
refractive index to moisture content and weight per galon. Canadian Journal of Research 6: 532-547.
11. CHIRIFE, J; ZAMORA, M C; MOTTO, A (2006) The correlation between water activity and % moisture in
honey: Fundamental aspects and application to Argentine honeys. Journal of Food Engineering 72
(3): 287-292.
13. ECHIGO, T (1970) Determination of sugars in nectar and honey, and the mutarotation coefficient of glucose,
by gas liquid chromatography. Bulletin of the Faculty of Agriculture 10: 3-12.
14. FELL, R D (1978) The color grading of honey. American Bee Journal 118 (12): 782-789.
16. GLEITER, R A; HORN, H; ISENGARD, H D (2006) Influence of type and state of crystallisation on the water
activity of honey. Food Chemistry 96 (3): 441-445.
18. GONZALES, A P; BURIN, L; BUERA, M D (1999) Color changes during storage of honeys in relation to
their composition and initial color. Food Research International 32 (3): 185-191.
19. HORN, H; LLLMANN, C (1992) Das grosse Honigbuch. Entstehung, Gewinnung, Zusammensetzung,
Qualitt, Gesundheit und Vermarktung. Ehrenwirth Verlag Mnchen
20. HUIDOBRO, J F; SIMAL, J (1985) Determination of colour and turbidity of honey. Anales de Bromatologia
36 (2): 225-245.
21. ISENGARD, H D; SCHULTHEISS, D (2003) Water determination in honey - Karl Fischer titration, an
alternative to refractive index measurements? Food Chemistry 82 (1): 151-154.
23. KULMYRZAEV, A; MCCLEMENTS, D J (2000) High frequency dynamic shear rheology of honey. Journal
of Food Engineering 45 (4): 219-224.
25. MALISAN, M; MALTINI, E (1999) Thermal and physical behaviour of honeys. Industrie Alimentari 38
(381): 549-559.
26. MATEO CASTRO, R; JIMNEZ ESCAMILLA, M; BOSCH REIG, F (1992) Evaluation of the Color of some
Spanish Unifloral Honey Types as a Characterization Parameter. Journal of AOAC International 75
(3): 537-542.
27. MOSSEL, B; BHANDARI, B; D'ARCY, B; CAFFIN, N (2000) Use of an Arrhenius model to predict
rheological behaviour in some Australian honeys. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft + [i.e.und]
Technologie.Food science + technology.Science + technologie alimentaire 33 (8): 545-552.
28. MUNRO, J A (1943) The viscosity and thixotropy of honey. Journal of Economic Entomology 36 (5): 769-
777.
29. NEGUERUELA, A I; PEREZ ARQUILLUE, C (2000) Color measurement of rosemary honey in the solid
state by reflectance spectroscopy with black background. Journal of AOAC International 83 (3): 669-
674.
30. ODDO, L P; PIAZZA, M G; ZELLINI, G (1995) Caratteristiche cromatiche dei mieli uniflorali. Apicoltura 10:
109-120.
31. PAN, J Z; JI, C Y (1998) General rheological model for natural honeys in China. Journal of Food Engineering
36 (2): 165-168.
32. PERSANO ODDO, L; PIRO, R (2004) Main European unifloral honeys: descriptive sheets. Apidologie 35
(special issue): S38-S81.
33. QUILEZ, E M A; BARRADO, M A (1976) Water activity of honey and the growth of osmotolerant yeasts.
Anales de Bromatologia 28 (1): 33-44.
34. RAVEN, D J; CHEM, C (1989) Optical rotation and honeydew. Bee Craft (12): 370-373.
36. SANCHO, M T; MUNIATEGUI, S; HUIDOBRO, J F; SIMAL, J (1991) Correlation between the electrical
conductivity of honey in humid and dry matter. Apidologie 22 (3): 221-227.
38. SCHROEDER, A; HORN, H; PIEPER, H J (2005) The correlation between moisture content and water
activity (a(w)) in honey. Deutsche Lebensmittel-Rundschau 101 (4): 139-142.
39. SZCZESNA, T; RYBAK-CHMIELEWSKA, H (2004) The temperature correction factor for electrical
conductivity of honey. Journal of Apicultural Science 48 (2): 97-101.
40. TABOURET, T (1979) Rle de l'activit de l'eau dans la cristallisation du miel. Apidologie 10 (4): 341-358.
41. TAKUCHEV, N; DINKOV, D; DASKALOV, H (2001) Chromaticity index of unprocessed bee honey
768. Bulgarian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 4 (4): 249-254.
43. TERRAB, A; DIEZ, M J; HEREDIA, F J (2002) Chromatic characterisation of Moroccan honeys by diffuse
reflectance and tristimulus colorimetry - Non-uniform and uniform colour spaces. Food Science and
Technology International 8 (4): 189-195.
44. VALBUENA, A; LOSADA, C (1990) Caracterizacion cromatica (CIE L10, a10, b10) de las mieles de la
alcarria y zonas adyacentes. Cuadernos de Apicultura (No 8): 8-11.
45. VORWOHL, G (1964) Die Beziehungen zwischen der elektrischen Leitfhigkeit der Honige und ihrer
trachtmssigen Herkunft. Annales de l'Abeille 7 (4): 301-309.
46. WEDMORE, E B (1955) The accurate determination of the water content of honeys. The Bee World 36 (11):
197-206.
47. WHITE, J W (1975) Physical characeristics of honey, In Crane, E (ed.) Honey, a comprehensive survey,
Heinemann Edition; London; pp 207-239.
48. WHITE, J W (1984) Instrumental color classification of honey: collaborative study. Journal - Association of
Official Analytical Chemists 67 (6): 1129-1131.
49. YANNIOTIS, S; SKALTSI, S; KARABURNIOTI, S (2006) Effect of moisture content on the viscosity of
honey at different temperatures. Journal of Food Engineering 72 (4): 372-377.
50. ZAMORA, M C; CHIRIFE, J; ROLDAN, D (2006) On the nature of the relationship between water activity
and % moisture in honey. Food Control 17 (8): 642-647.
51. ZRCHER, K; HADORN, H (1980) Vergleichende Wasserbestimmungen in Honig nach Karl Fischer, aus
Dichte, refraktometrisch und gravimetrisch. Mitteilungen aus dem Gebiete der
Lebensmitteluntersuchung und Hygiene 71: 396-403.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Honey is composed mainly from carbohydrates, lesser amounts of water and a great number of minor
components.
Honey composition after 75, 80, values in g/100 g
Blossom honey Honeydew honey
average min-max average min-max
Water content 17.2 15-20 16.3 15-20
Fructose 38.2 30-45 31.8 28-40
Glucose 31.3 24-40 26.1 19-32
Sucrose 0.7 0.1-4.8 0.5 0.1-4.7
Other disaccharides 5.0 28 4.0 16
Melezitose <0.1 4.0 0.3-22.0
Erlose 0.8 0.56 1.0 0.16
Other oligosaccharides 3.6 0.5-1 13.1 0.1-6
Total sugars 79.7 80.5
Minerals 0.2 0.1-0.5 0.9 0.6-2
Amino acids, proteins 0.3 0.2-0.4 0.6 0.4-0.7
Acids 0.5 0.2-0.8 1.1 0.8-1.5
pH 3.9 3.5-4.5 5.2 4.5-6.5
8, 44, 75
Further reading:
Carbohydrates
Sugars are the main constituents of honey, comprising about 95 % of honey dry weight. Main sugars are the
monosaccharides hexoses fructose and glucose, which are products by the hydrolysis of the disaccharide
sucrose. Besides, about 25 different sugars have been detected 29, 62. The principal oligosaccharides in
blossom honeys are disaccharides: sucrose, maltose, turanose, erlose. Honeydew honeys contain besides,
Acidity and pH
The acid content of honey is relatively low but it is important for the honey taste. Most acids are added by
the bees 31. The main acid is gluconic acid, a product of glucose oxidation by glucose oxidase. However, it is
present as its internal ester, a lactone, and does not contribute to honeys active acidity. Honey acidity is
determined by titration 11 and is expressed in milli equivalents per kg. The following acid have been found
in minor amounts: formic, acetic, citric, lactic, maleic, malic, oxalic, pyroglutamic and succinic 48.
Most honeys are acidic, that means that the pH value is smaller than 7. The pH of blossom honeys varies
between 3.3 to 4.6. An exception is the chestnut honey with a relatively high pH value of 5 to 6. Honeydew
honeys, due to their higher mineral content, have a higher pH value, varying between 4.5 and 6.5. Honey is a
buffer, that means that that its pH does not change by the addition of small quantities of acids and bases. The
buffer capacity is due to the content of phosphates, carbonates and other mineral salts.
Further reading: 2-5, 16, 38, 40, 42, 46, 51, 52, 54, 55, 57
Hydroxymethylfurfuraldehyde (HMF)
Hydroxymethylfurfuraldehyde or HMF is a decomposition product of fructose. In fresh honey it is present
only in trace amounts and its concentration increases with storage and prolonged heating of honey. The HMF
Honey volatiles are the substances responsible for the honey aroma. Research on
honey volatiles started in the early 1960s. Recently, by studying volatiles isolated
from the blossom and from the respective unifloral honey, it was found that most
volatile compounds originate probably from the plant, but some of them are added
by bees 1, 14. Until the present time about 600 compounds have been characterised in
different honeys. As unifloral honeys differ in respect of their sensory properties, it
is probable that analysis of volatile compounds will allow classification of unifloral
honeys. Indeed, typical volatile substances have been found in many unifloral
honey and analysis of volatiles substances can be used for the authentification of
the botanical origin of honey 12, 21.
Phenolic acids and polyphenols are plant-derived secondary metabolites. These
compounds have been used as chemotaxonomic markers in plant systematics. They
have been suggested as possible markers for the determination of botanical origin of honey. Considerable
differences in composition and content of phenolic compounds between different unifloral honeys were
found. Dark coloured honeys are reported to contain more phenolic acid derivatives but less flavonoids than
light coloured ones (Amiot et al., 1989). It was shown that most of the studied 9 European unifloral honeys
can be distinguished by their typical flavonoid profile 69 .Honey samples contain also variable amounts of
propolis-derived phenolic compounds that were not helpful for the determination of botanical origin. On the
whole, the determination of the flavonoid patterns is useful for the classification of some but not all unifloral
honeys. For a more in depth analysis of the flavonoid spectra of unifloral honeys see 12, 28.
Further reading: 7, 10
MICROBIOLOGICAL COMPOSITION
Bacteria
Honey, is a very concentrated sugar solution with a high osmotic pressure, making impossible the growth of
any microorganisms. It contains less microorganisms than other natural food, especially there are no
dangerous Bacillus species. Honey contains Bacillus bacteria, causing the dangerous bee pests, but these are
not toxic for humans. That is why, in order to prevent bee pests, honey should not be disposed in open
places, where it can easily be accessed by bees.
Yeast
Honey contains naturally different osmotolerant yeast, which can cause undesirable fermentation.
Osmotolerant yeasts can particularly develop in honeys with high moisture content.
In 1933 Lochhead 45 summarised investigations on the relationship of moisture content and fermentation on
319 honey samples as follows:
Relationship of moisture content of honey and fermentation risk 45
These conclusions, although based on old research, have been confirmed by practice. Some honey types,
e.g. rape, sunflower and also honeys from tropical countries has a higher content of osmotolerant yeast and
are less stable than other honeys with normal yeast counts68
Honey fermentation is undesirable. The easiest way to control is to harvest honey with low humidity. Also, it
should be stored in air-tight vessels. Fermentation control is carried out by determination of yeast count,
ethanol and glycerin content. Honey should comply to following quality criteria:
Yeast count maximum 500000 per 10 g 6, 60
Glycerol, maximum content: 300 mg/kg 6, 60
Ethanol, maximum content 150 mg/kg 79
4. BABACAN, S; PIVARNIK, L F; RAND, A G (2002) Honey amylase activity and food starch degradation.
Journal of Food Science 67 (5): 1625-1630.
5. BABACAN, S; RAND, A G (2007) Characterization of honey amylase. Journal of Food Science 72 (1): C50-
C55.
6. BECKH, G; LLLMANN, C (1999) Natrliche Bestandteile des Honigs - Hefen und deren
Stoffwechselprodukte. Tel 1: Hefegehalt. Deutsche Lebensmittel-Rundschau 95 (11): 457-463.
10. BOGDANOV, S; JURENDIC, T; SIEBER, R; GALLMANN, P (2008) Honey for Nutrition and Health: A
Review. J.Am..Coll.Nutr. 27: 677-689.
11. BOGDANOV, S; MARTIN, P; LLLMANN, C (1997) Harmonised methods of the European honey
commission. Apidologie (extra issue): 1-59.
12. BOGDANOV, S; RUOFF, K; PERSANO ODDO, L (2004) Physico-chemical methods for the characterisation
of unifloral honeys: a review. Apidologie 35 (Special issue): 4-17.
13. BONVEHI, J S; COLL, F V (2003) Flavour index and aroma profiles of fresh and processed honeys. Journal
of the Science of Food and Agriculture 83 (4): 275-282.
14. CEPURNOI, I (2002) Expertise in honey quality. Editing House Dashkov and company, Moscow Moscow,
Russia
15. CLIVER, D O (2000) Honey, human pathogens, and HACCP. Dairy, Food and Environmental Sanitation 20
(4): 261-263.
22. DE BODT, G (1996) Les miels de rhododendrons. Les Carnets du CARI Abeilles et Cie (50): 10-12.
23. DE BODT, G; VLAYEN, P (1994) Miel et botulisme. Les Carnets du CARI Abeilles et Cie (46): 14-16.
27. DE MARIS, C A B; MOREIRA, R F A (2003) Volatile compounds in floral honeys. Quimica Nova 26 (1): 90-
96.
28. DIMITROVA, B; GEVRENOVA, R; ANKLAM, E (2007) Analysis of phenolic acids in honeys of different
floral origin by solid-phase extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography. Phytochemical
Analysis 18 (1): 24-32.
29. DONER, L W (1977) The sugars of honey - a review. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 28: 443-
456.
30. DUISBERG, H; HADORN, H (1966) Welche Anforderungen sind an Handelshonige zu stellen? Mitteilungen
aus dem Gebiete der Lebensmitteluntersuchung und Hygiene 57: 386-407.
32. EDGAR, J A; ROEDER, E L; MOLYNEUX, R J (2002) Honey from plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids:
A potential threat to health. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 50 (10): 2719-2730.
33. EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2002) Honey and microbiological hazards. Report European Commission of
Health & Consumer Protection Directorate-General: 1-40.
34. FALLICO, B; ZAPPALA, M; ARENA, E; VERZERA, A (2004) Effects of conditioning on HMF content in
unifloral honeys. Food Chemistry 85 (2): 305-313.
35. FELLER-DEMALSY, M J; VINCENT, B; BEAULIEU, F (1989) Mineral content and geographical origin of
Canadian honeys. Apidologie 20 (1): 77-91.
39. HEBBAR, H U; NANDINI, K E; LAKSHMI, M C; SUBRAMANIAN, R (2003) Microwave and infrared heat
processing of honey and its quality. Food Science and Technology Research 9 (1): 49-53.
40. HERMOSIN, I; CHICON, R M; CABEZUDO, M D (2003) Free amino acid composition and botanical origin
of honey. Food Chemistry 83 (2): 263-268.
41. HUHTANEN, C N; KNOX, D; SHIMANUKI, H (1981) Incidence and origin of Clostridium botulinum spores
in honey. Journal of Food Protection 44 (11): 812-814.
43. KUBIS, I; INGR, I (1998) Effects inducing changes in hydroxymethylfurfural content in honey. Czech Journal
of Animal Science 43 (8): 379-383.
44. LIPP, J; ZANDER, E; KOCH, A (1994) Der Honig. Eugen Ulmer Stuttgart
45. LOCHHEAD, A G (1933) Factors concerned with the fermentation of honey. Zent.Bakt.Paras.u.Infect.II 88:
296-302.
46. LOW, N H; VONG, K V; SPORNS, P (1986) A new enzyme, -glucosidase, in honey. Journal of Apicultural
Research 25 (3): 178-181.
47. MATEO, R; BOSCH-REIG, F (1997) Sugar profiles of Spanish unifloral honeys. Food Chemistry 60 (1): 33-
41.
49. NOZAL NALDA, M J; YAGUE, J L B; CALVA, J C D; GOMEZ, M T M (2005) Classifying honeys from the
Soria Province of Spain via multivariate analysis. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 382 (2):
311-319.
50. NOZAL, M J; BERNAL, J L; TORIBIO, L; ALAMO, M; DIEGO, J C; TAPIA, J (2005) The use of
carbohydrate profiles and chemometrics in the characterization of natural honeys of identical
geographical origin. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 53 (8): 3095-3100.
51. ODDO, L P; PIAZZA, M G; PULCINI, P (1999) Invertase activity in honey. Apidologie 30 (1): 57-65.
52. PAWLOWSKA, M; ARMSTRONG, D W (1994) Evaluation of enantiomeric purity of selected amino acids in
honey. Chirality 6: 270-276.
53. PEREZ, C; CONCHELLO, P; ARINO, A; YANGUELA, J; HERRERA, A (1989) Dosage des acides amins
des protines de diffrents miels espagnols. Sciences des Aliments 9: 203-207.
55. PERSANO ODDO, L; BALDI, E; ACCORTI, M (1990) Diastatic activity in some unifloral honeys.
Apidologie 21 (1): 17-24.
56. PERSANO ODDO, L; PIAZZA, M G; PULCINI, P (1999) Invertase activity in honey. Apidologie 30 (1): 57-
65.
58. RAMIREZ CERVANTES, M A; GONZALES NOVELO, S A; SAURI DUCH, E (2000) Die Wirkung der
zeitweiligen Wrmebehandlung des Honigs auf seine qualitativen Variationen whrend der Lagerung.
Apiacta 35 (4): 162-170.
59. RAUDE-ROBERG, L (1994) Analyse der Saccharide Spaltenden Enzyme des Bienenhonigs. Dr. Dissertation;
Celle, Deutschland Niederschsisches Landesinstitut fr Bienenkunde
60. RUSSMANN, H (1998) Hefen und Glycerin in Bltenhonigen - Nachweis einer Grung oder einer
abgestoppten Grung. Lebensmittelchemie 52: 116-117.
61. SEVLIMLI, H; BAYULGEN, N; VARINIOGLU (1992) Determination of trace elements in honey by INAA
in Turkey. J.Radioanal.Nucl.Chem., Letters 165 (5): 319-325.
62. SIDDIQUI, I R (1970) The sugars of honey. Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry 25: 285-
309.
65. TABOURET, T; MATHLOUTHI, M (1972) Essai de pasteurisation de miel. Rev.franc.Apic. 299: 258-261.
66. TANZI, M G; GABAY, M P (2002) Association between honey consumption and infant botulism.
Pharmacotherapy 22 (11): 1479-1483.
67. THRASYVOULOU, A (1997) Heating times for Greek honeys. Melissokomiki Epitheorisi 11 (2): 79-80.
68. TIMMROTH, R; SPEER, K; BECKH, G; LLLMANN, C (2005) Comparison of European honeys to tropical
honeys - effects of yeast cell numbers on the concentration of especially selected components
Apimondia abstracts Ireland 2005, Apimondia International Apicultural Congress Dublin, Ireland;
Dublin, Ireland; pp 110.
70. TOSI, E; CIAPPINI, M; RE, E; LUCERO, H (2002) Honey thermal treatment effects on
hydroxymethylfurfural content. Food Chemistry 77 (1): 71-74.
71. VON DER OHE, W; DUSTMANN, J H; VON DER OHE, K (1991) Prolin als Kriterium der Reife des
Honigs. Deutsche Lebensmittel-Rundschau 87 (12): 383-386.
72. VON DER OHE, W; VON DER OHE, K (1996) Characterisation of honeydew honey guided with specific
saccharides. Charakterisierung von Honigtauhonig anhand spezifischer Saccharide. Apidologie 27 (4):
270-272.
73. VON DER OHE, W; VON DER OHE, K; RAUDE-ROBERG, L; DUSTMANN, J H (1999) Vergleich der
Methoden zur Bestimmung der Saccharase-Aktivitt im Honig. Apidologie 30: 412-413.
74. WEIGEL, K U; OPITZ, T; HENLE, T (2004) Studies on the occurrence and formation of 1,2-dicarbonyls in
honey. European food research and technology 218 (2): 147-151.
75. WHITE, J W (1975) Composition of honey., In Crane, E (ed.) Honey, a comprehensive survey, Heinemann
Edition; London; pp 157-206.
78. ZUCCHI, P; BASSIGNANI, V; CARPANA, E (2001) Honey microbiology. Industrie Alimentari 40 (409):
1346-1350.
80. [ANON] (1995) Swiss food manual, Chapter 23 A, Honey. Eidgenssische Druck und Materialzentrale Bern
Drained honey
Organic honey
Organic honey is produced by apiaries with certified organic beekeeping. The composition of organic honey
is the same as normal natural honey. The only difference is that such honey should not contain toxic residues
of pesticides used in agriculture and beekeeping.
Honey may be designated according to the following styles according to the processing procedure:
Normal honey which is honey in liquid or crystalline state or a mixture of the two;
Comb Honey which is honey stored by bees in the cells of freshly built broodless combs and which is sold in
sealed whole combs or sections of such combs;
Cut comb in honey or chunk honey which is honey containing one or more pieces of comb honey.
References
1. BOGDANOV, S; RUOFF, K; PERSANO ODDO, L (2004) Physico-chemical methods for the characterisation
of unifloral honeys: a review. Apidologie 35 (Special issue): 4-17.
2. CRANE, E; WALKER, P (1984) Composition of honeys from some important honey sources. Bee World 65
(4): 167-174.
3. CRANE, E; WALKER, P (1985) Important honeydew sources and their honeys. Bee World 66 (3): 105-112.
4. CRANE, E; WALKER, P; DAY, R (1984) Directory of important world honey sources. International Bee
Research Association London; 384 pp
6. JIE, W; JILIAN, L; WENJUN, P; JIANKE, L (2006) Major honey plants and their utilisation in china part I of
two parts. American Bee Journal 146 (1): 59-64.
11. MOSSEL, B (2002) Antimicrobial and Quality Parameters of Australian Unifloral Honeys. University of
Queensland Australia; pp 1-328.
13. PERSANO ODDO, L; BOGDANOV, S (2004) Determination of honey botanical origin: problems and issues.
Apidologie 35: 2-3.
15. PERSANO ODDO, L; PIRO, R (2004) Main European unifloral honeys: descriptive sheets. Apidologie 35
(special issue): S38-S81.
16. PIAZZA, M G; PERSANO ODDO, L (2004) Bibliographical review of the main European unifloral honeys.
Apidologie 35 (special issue): S94-S111.
18. TERRAB, A; DIEZ, M J; HEREDIA, F J (2002) Characterisation of Moroccan unifloral honeys by their
physicochemical characteristics. Food Chemistry 79 (3): 373-379.
19. TERRAB, A; DEZ, M J; HEREDIA, F J (2003) Palynological, physico-chemical and colour characterization
of Moroccan honeys. II. Orange (Citrus sp.) honey
792. International Journal of Food Science & Technology 38 (4): 387-394.
20. TERRAB, A; DEZ, M J; HEREDIA, F J (2003) Palynological, physico-chemical and colour characterization
of Moroccan honeys: I. River red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh) honey
791. International Journal of Food Science & Technology 38 (4): 379-386.
21. TERRAB, A; DEZ, M J; HEREDIA, F J (2003) Palynological, physico-chemical and colour characterization
of Moroccan honeys: III. Other unifloral honey types
793. International Journal of Food Science & Technology 38 (4): 395-402.
22. VON DER OHE, W; PERSANO ODDO, L; PIANA, L; MORLOT, M; MARTIN, P (2004) Harmonized
methods of melissopalynology. Apidologie 35 (Special issue): S18-S25.
CONTROL STEPS
Honey control is carried on different levels. The beekeeper himself can perform a self control, following the
guidelines of good apicultural practice. Honey control according to the scheme given below will be carried
out by apiaries, honey companies and food control authorities. Laboratory control will include the
conformity to the standard. Trade honeys should conform to the Honey Standard of the Codex
Alimentarius
SENSORY ANALYSIS
The honey consumer establishes the quality of honey with eye,
nose and mouth. Therefore, the sensory properties of honey
have a great importance. Sensory evaluation enables us to
distinguish the botanical origin of honey and to identify and
quantify certain defects (fermentation, impurities, off odours
and flavours). It also plays an important role in defining honey
products in the honey industry. There, honeys from different
origin are mixed in order that a honey with specific sensory
property be attained. The method for honey sensory analysis
have been introduced by Gonnet 16. The modern methods for
honey sensory analysis were recently laid down 28. Honey
should be assayed by a panel of a minimum of 7 trained assessors. However, in practice this number is
difficult to attain, but any number more than one is better than a single opinion! Here it will not be dealt in
detail with these methods, but the different principles of honey sensorics will be shortly discussed.
Honey aroma will be judged directly by smelling with the nose or indirectly in the mouth through the nose
channel. It is difficult to characterise the aroma with words. Mostly, associations are used. For instance:
Linden honey: menthol-like, pharmacy; fresh
AUTHENTICITY TESTING
Adulteration by sweeteners
Adulteration by sweeteners is the most important authenticity issue. As a natural product of a relatively high
price, honey has been a target for adulteration for a long time. Addition of sweeteners, feeding the bees
during the nectar flow or extracting combs containing bee feed may adulterate of honey. The following
sweeteners have been detected in adulterated honeys: sugar syrups and molasses inverted by acids or
enzymes from corn, sugar cane, sugar beet and syrups of natural origin such as maple.
Many methods have been tested for adulteration proof but most of them are not capable to detect
unequivocally adulteration 5. We discuss here only the most promising methods.
Adulteration by addition of cane- and corn sugar can be screened microscopically 21 and verified by
measuring the 13C/12C isotopic ratio 8, 35, 48, 49. Recently this method has been further developed to include
Site-Specific Natural Isotopic Fractionation (SNIF) measured by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 10. A recent
development is further the inclusion of sugar chromatography in this method 9, 12, claiming, that the addition
of beet sugar can also be detected. The addition of high fructose corn syrup may be detected by detection of
oligosaccharides naturally not present in honey through capillary GC 24 Recently infrared spectroscopic
methods have been described for the detection of adulteration by adding beet and cane sugar to honey 18, 19, 43
These results were obtained by adding the adulterants to honey and comparing to the products with the
RESIDUE CONTROL
Residues have become recently a major consumer concern. A recent review on the subject shows that the
trace quantities of the residues in honey will pose in most cases cause no health risk4. This control activity
needs nowadays a very sophisticated instrumentation and can be performed only by specialized laboratories.
Environment Beekeeping
Pesticides Acaricides for Varroa control
Heavy metals Antibiotics against AFB, EFB
Bacteria Pesticides for wax moth control
GMO
Pesticides against SHB
Radioactivity
Bee repellents at honey harvest
Plants
Air, Water
The review of the subject has shown that the contamination of honey originates less from
environmental and more from the beekeeping practice 4
Further reading:
Sensory testing: 16, 28, 30.
Melissopaynology: 25, 33, 34
Routine chemical and residue testing: 4, 6.
WORLD HONEY PRODUCTION
Today, honey is one of the last untreated natural foods. At present the annual world honey
production is estimated at about 1.4 million tons (FAO, 2005) which is less than 1% of the total
sugar production.
www.apiservices.com provides data until 2001, which has been compiled by
www.apicultura.com/malka considering the available national production figures. Later data on different
countries is provided the Commodity Research Buro, 2005.
Table 1: World production of honey after www.apiservices.com, downloaded in August 2009, data
in thousand tons
Continent 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Africa 117 129 131 138 142 140 139 141 144 145
North and Central America 216 223 195 183 174 189 218 201 208 205
South America 87 95 97 105 100 109 109 133 141 131
Asia 328 326 354 365 362 402 401 435 457 465
Europe 182 181 291 319 278 281 291 293 286 288
Oceania 29 30 38 27 35 36 31 29 29 29
total 958 984 1103 1137 1091 1156 1188 1232 1265 1263
Countries & Years 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2009
China 267 295 298 299 305 303 407
Argentina 83 75 80 110 84 81 62
Turkey 75 70 74 82 80 74 82
Ukraine 51 54 58 71 76 68 74
USA 78 82 83 73 70 67 66
Mexico 59 57 57 50 56 54 56
Russian Federation 49 48 53 52 55 55 54
India 52 52 52 52 52 52 55
Ethiopia 40 38 41 36 44 44 41
Iran 28 28 28 28 36 36 46
Brazil 24 30 32 34 36 35 38
Canada 37 34 34 36 48 31 31
Spain 36 35 37 27 31 31 32
Tanzania 27 27 27 27 27 27 33
Kenya 22 22 22 22 25 25 25
1. BECKH, G; LLLMANN, C (1999) Natrliche Bestandteile des Honigs - Hefen und deren
Stoffwechselprodukte. Tel 1: Hefegehalt. Deutsche Lebensmittel-Rundschau 95 (11): 457-463.
2. BECKH, G; WESSEL, P; LULLMANN, C (2005) Contribution to yeasts and their metabolisms products as
natural components of hone - part 3: Contents of ethanol and glycerol as quality parameters. Deutsche
Lebensmittel-Rundschau 101 (1): 1-6.
5. BOGDANOV, S; MARTIN, P (2002) Honey authenticity. Mitteilungen aus dem Gebiete der
Lebensmitteluntersuchung und Hygiene 93: 232-254.
7. BOGDANOV, S; RUOFF, K; PERSANO ODDO, L (2004) Physico-chemical methods for the characterisation
of unifloral honeys: a review. Apidologie 35 (Special issue): 4-17.
8. BROOKES, S T; BARRIE, A; DAVIES, J E (1991) A rapid 13C/12C test for determination of corn syrups in
honey. Journal - Association of Official Analytical Chemists 74 (4): 627-629.
9. CABANERO, A I; RECIO, J L; RUPEREZ, M (2006) Liquid chromatography coupled to isotope ratio mass
spectrometry: A new perspective on honey adulteration detection. Journal of agricultural and food
chemistry 54 (26): 9719-9727.
11. EDDER, P; ORTELLI, D; COGNARD, E; BOGDANOV, S (2006) Nur eine sehr kleine Gefahr fr die
Biohonigproduktion aus Pestizidanwendungen in der Landwirtschaft. Schweizerische Bienen-Zeitung
129 (7): 6-7.
12. ELFLEIN, L; RAEZKE, K P (2005) Coupling of liquid chromatography with carbon stable isotope ratio mass
spectrometry (LC-IRMS) - a promising new technique for detection of sugar adulteration of honey
Apimondia abstracts Ireland 2005, Apimondia International Apicultural Congress; Dublin, Ireland;
pp 35-36.
15. FLORIS, I; SATTA, A (2002) Approach to the diagnostics of the botanical and geographical origin of honey,
In Sabatini, A G; Bolchi, G; Frilli, F; Porrini, C (eds) Il ruolo della ricerca in apicoltura, Litosei;
Bologna; pp 229-234.
16. GONNET, M; VACHE, G (1995) The taste of honey. Apimondia Bukarest Bukarest
17. GUYOT-DECLERCK, C; LE BERRE, E; BRUNEAU, E (2001) Analyse sensorielle: mode d' emploi. Abeilles
& Cie (No 82): 22-26.
18. KELLY, J D; PETISCO, C; DOWNEY, G (2006) Application of Fourier transform midinfrared spectroscopy
to the discrimination between Irish artisanal honey and such honey adulterated with various sugar
syrups. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 54 (17): 6166-6171.
19. KELLY, J D; PETISCO, C; DOWNEY, G (2006) Potential of near infrared transflectance spectroscopy to
detect adulteration of Irish honey by beet invert syrup and high fructose corn syrup. JOURNAL OF
NEAR INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY 14 (2): 139-146.
20. KELLY, S D (2003) Using stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) in food authentication and
traceability. Food authenticity and traceability: 156-183.
21. KERKVLIET, J D; MEIJER, H A J (2000) Adulteration of honey: relation between microscopic analysis and
deltaC-13 measurements. Apidologie 31 (6): 717-726.
22. LOUVEAUX, J; MAURIZIO, A; VORWOHL, G (1970) Methods of melissopalynology. Bee World 51 (3):
125-138.
23. LOUVEAUX, J; MAURIZIO, A; VORWOHL, G (1978) Methods of melissopalynology. Bee World 59 (4):
139-162.
24. LOW, N H; SOUTH, W (1995) Determination of honey authenticity by capillary gas chromatography. Journal
- Association of Official Analytical Chemists 78: 1106-1113.
25. OHE, W; PERSANO ODDO, L; PIANA, L; MORLOT, M; MARTIN, P (2004) Harmonized methods of
melissopalynology. Apidologie 35 (special issue): S18-S25.
26. PERSANO ODDO, L; BOGDANOV, S (2004) Determination of honey botanical origin: problems and issues.
Apidologie 35: 2-3.
27. PERSANO ODDO, L; PIRO, R (2004) Main European unifloral honeys: descriptive sheets. Apidologie 35
(special issue): S38-S81.
29. PIANA, M L (1997) La determinazione dell'origine geografica nel miele e le frodi collegate. Apis 5 (5): 8-17.
31. PIASENTIER, E; VALUSSO, R; CAMIN, F; VERSINI, G (2003) Stable isotope ratio analysis for
authentication of lamb meat. MEAT SCIENCE 64 (3): 239-247.
32. PIRO, R; GUIDETTI, G; PERSANO ODDO, L; PIAZZA, M G (2002) Methematical diagnosis of unifloral
honeys, In Sabatini, A G; Bolchi Serrini, G; Frilli, R; Porrini, C (eds) Il ruolo della ricerca in
apicoltura, Litosei; Bologna; pp 235-239.
36. RUOFF, K (2006) Authentication of the botanical origin of honey. ETH Zrich Zrich; pp 1-203.
39. RUOFF, K; LUGINBUHL, W; KUNZLI, R; BOGDANOV, S; BOSSET, J O; DER OHE, K; DER OHE, W;
AMADO, R (2006) Authentication of the botanical and geographical origin of honey by front-face
fluorescence spectroscopy. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 54 (18): 6858-6866.
41. RUSSMANN, H (1998) Hefen und Glycerin in Bltenhonigen - Nachweis einer Grung oder einer
abgestoppten Grung. Lebensmittelchemie 52: 116-117.
42. RUSSMANN, H (1998) Hefen und Glyzerin in Blutenhonigen - Nachweis einer Garung oder einer
abgestoppten Garung. Imkerei-Technik-Magazin (4): 10-13.
43. SIVAKESAVA, S; IRUDAYARAJ, J (2001) Detection of inverted beet sugar adulteration of honey by FTIR
spectroscopy. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 81 (8): 683-690.
45. VON DER OHE, W (2003) Control of american foulbrood by using alternatively eradication method and
artificial swarms. Apiacta 38 (2): 137-139.
46. VON DER OHE, W; PERSANO ODDO, L; PIANA, L; MORLOT, M; MARTIN, P (2004) Harmonized
methods of melissopalynology. Apidologie 35 (Special issue): S18-S25.
47. WAITE, R (2004) The biological control of EFB. Bee Craft 86 (9): 15-17.
48. WHITE, J W (1992) Internal standard stable carbon isotope ratio method for determination of C-4 plant sugars
in honey: Collaborative study, and evaluation of improved protein preparation procedure. J.AOAC Int.
75 (3): 543-548.
49. WHITE, J W; WINTERS, K; MARTIN, P; ROSSMANN, A (1998) Stable carbon isotope ratio analysis of
honey: Validation of internal standard procedure for worldwide application. Journal of AOAC
International 81 (3): 610-619.
Stefan Bogdanov
INTRODUCTION
As the only available sweetener honey was an important food for Homo sapiens since his very beginnings.
Indeed, the relation between bees and Homo sapiens started as early as stone age 84. In order to reach the
sweet honey, man was ready to risk his life (Figure 1). Already the first written reference to honey, a
Sumerian tablet writing, dating back to 2100-2000 BC, mentions honeys use as a drug and an ointment 83.
In most ancient cultures honey has been used for both nutritional purposes and for medicine 26, 83, 85, 150.
According to the bible, the wise Solomon has said: Eat honey my son, because it is good (Old Testament,
proverb 24:13). The belief, that honey is a nutrient, drug and an ointment has been carried into our days. For
a long time in human history it was the only known sweetener, until industrial sugar production began to
replace it after 1800 83. In the long human history honey has been not only as a nutrient but also as a
medicine 150. A medicine branch, called apitherapy, has developed in recent years, offering treatments for
many diseases by honey and the other bee products (see Chapter 7).
At present the annual world honey production is about 1.2 million tons, which is less than 1% of the total
sugar production. Today, honey is one of the last untreated natural foods. The consumption of honey differs
strongly from country to country. In the major honey producing and exporting countries China and
Argentina the annual consumption is small: 0.1 to 0.2 kg per capita. It is higher in developed countries,
where the home production does not always cover the market needs. In the European Union, which is both a
major honey importer and producer, the annual consumption per capita varies from medium (0.3-0.4 kg) in
Italy, France, Great Britain, Denmark, Portugal to high (1-1.8 kg) in Germany, Austria, Switzerland,
Portugal, Hungary, Greece, while in overseas countries such as USA, Canada and Australia the average per
capita consumption is 0.6 to 0.8 kg/year (see Honey Chapter on this homepage)
Different surveys on nutritional and health aspects of honey have been compiled 17, 27, 31, 133, 136, 205, 210
COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Carbohydrates
Main sugars are the monosaccharides fructose and glucose. Beyond the two monosaccharides, about 25
different oligosacharides have been detected, between them nutrition relevant ones such as panose, 1-
kestose, 6-kestose, palatinose 95, 259. The principal oligosaccharides in blossom honey are the disaccharides
sucrose, maltose, trehalose and turanose. Honeydew honey compared to blossom honey contains higher
amounts of oligosaccharides, and also trisaccharides such as melezitose and raffinose. During digestion the
principal carbohydrates fructose and glucose are quickly transported into the blood and can be utilized for
energy requirements of the human body. A daily dose of 20 g honey will cover about 3% of the required
daily energy
Proteins, enzymes and amino acids
Honey contains about 0.5% proteins, mainly enzymes and amino acids. Its contribution to human protein
intake is marginal with respect to quantity (Table 2).
Three main honey enzymes are diastase (amylase), decomposing starch or glycogen into smaller sugar units,
invertase (sucrase, glucosidase), decomposing sucrose into fructose and glucose, as well as glucose oxidase,
producing hydrogen peroxide and gluconic acid from glucose. Since the saliva yields a sufficiently high
Minerals mg
Sodium (Na) 1.6-17 300 410-550 550
Calcium (Ca) 3-31 600 700-1200 1000-1200
Potassium (K) 40-3500 1000 1400-1900 2000
Magnesium (Mg) 0.7-13 80 120-310 300-400
Phosphorus (P) 2-15 500 600-1250 700-1250
Zinc (Zn) 0.05-2 3 5-9.5 7-10
Copper (Cu) 0.02-0.6 0.5-1 0.5-1 0.5-1
Iron (Fe) 0.03-4 8 8-15 10-15
Manganese (Mn) 0.02-2 1-1.5 1.5-5 2-5
Chromium (Cr) 0.01-0.3 0.02-0.06 0.02-0.1 0.03-1.5
Selenium (Se) 0.002-0.01 0.001- 0.001-0.006 0.003-0.007
0.004
Vitamins mg/kg
Phyllochinon (K) ca. 0.025 15 20-50 60-70
Thiamin (B1) 0.02-0.9 0.6 0.8-1.4 1-1.3
Riboflavin (B2) 0.01-0.9 0.7 0.9-1.6 1.2-1.5
2
Niacin (B3) 0.10-2.7 (170-355)* 7 10-18 13-17
Panthothenic acid (B5) 0.02-1.9 4 4-6 6
Pyridoxin (B6) 0.01-0.32 0.4 0.5-1.4 1.2-1.6
Folic acid (B9) 0.01-0.7 0.2 0.3 0.4
Ascorbic acid (C) 0.1-2.5 (52-62)* 60 70-100 100
2
Niacin equivalents: 1 mg nicotinamide = 1 mg niacin = 60 mg tryptophan ( = niacin-precursor), *- according to Chua
et al.79 for Malaysian honey
Table 2 Other trace elements in honey, after 58
Element mg/100 g Element mg/100 g
Aluminium (Al) 0.01-2.4 Lead (Pb)* 0.001-0.03
Arsen (As) 0.014-0.026 Lithium (Li) 0.225-1.56
Barium (Ba) 0.01-0.08 Molybdenum (Mo) 0-0.004
Boron (B) 0.05-0.3 Nickel (Ni) 0-0.051
Bromine (Br) 0.4-1.3 Rubidium (Rb) 0.040-3.5
Cadmium (Cd)* 0-0.001 Silicium (Si) 0.05-24
Chlorine (Cl) 0.4-56 Strontium (Sr) 0.04-0.35
Cobalt (Co) 0.1-0.35 Sulfur (S) 0.7-26
Floride (F) 0.4-1.34 Vanadium (V) 0-0.013
Iodine (I) 10-100 Zirkonium (Zr) 0.05-0.08
In 1937 Dold et al. determined the antibacterial acivity as inhibine. The antibacterial assay carried out with
Staph. aureus was senstitive to hydrogen peroxide. Researchers using this method found a good correlation
between the capacity of honey to produce peroxide and the inhibine value. Honey glucose oxidase produces
the antibacterial agent hydrogen peroxide 289, while another enzyme, catalase breaks it down98. Honey with
a high catalase activity have a low antibacterial peroxide activity70, 71. White established a good correlation
between the peroxide accumulation capacity and the antibacterial activity expressed as inhibine100, 288. Lavie
was the first to postulate the existence of other antibacterial substances in honey174.
Table 4 Infections caused by bacteria that have found to be sensitive to honey 206, 209
Pathogen INFECTION CAUSED
Bacillus anthracis anthrax
Corynebacterium diphtheriae diphtheria
Escherichia coli diarrhoea, septicaemia, urinary infections,
wound infections
Haemophilus influenzae ear infections, meningitus, respiratory
infections, sinusitis
Klebsiella pneumoniae pneumonia
Mycobacterium tuberculosis tuberculosis
Proteus sp. septicaemia, urinary infections
Pseudomonas aeruginosa urinary infections, wound infections
Salmonella sp. diarrhoea
Salmonella cholerae-suis septicaemia
Salmonella typhi typhoid
Salmonella typhimurium wound infections
Serrata marcescens septicaemia, wound infections
Shigella sp. dysentery
Staphylococcus aureus abscesses., boils, carbuncles, impetigo, wound
infections
Streptococcus faecalis urinary infections
Streptococcus mutans dental carries
Streptococcus pneumoniae ear infections, meningitis, pneumonia, sinusitis
Streptococcus pyogenes ear infections, impetigo, puerperal fever,
rheumatic fever, scarlet fever, sore throat,
wound infections
Vibrio choleriae cholera
Actin. pyogenes, Kleb. Pneum., Noc. asteroids, Staph. aureus, mastitis
Streptoc. agal., dysgal.,
Epiderm floccosum, Microsp. canis, M.. gypseum, Trichoph. tinea
rubrum, T. tonsurans, T. mentagr. var.
E coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio, Hel. pylori peptic ulcer
It was reported that depending on the antibacterial test it is possible to differentiate between the peroxide
and non peroxide antibacterial action. Using this test different types of antibacterial substances have been
determined, the chemical identity of which remains to be determined. The substances have different
chemical characteristics: acidic, basic or neutral and that the main non-peroxide antibacterial activity is
acidic54.
Studies with Malaysian Tualang honey showed also, that the main non-peroxide antibacterial activity is
acidic158. Interestingly, honey acts best against bacteria in acedic medium. This is important from therapeutic
point of view as the wound medium is also acidic19
Truchado et al, using another antibacterial test measured also mainly non-peroxide antibacterial activity275.
Thus, depending on the antibacterial test different types of antibacterial activity can be determined.
Summarising, antimicrobial effect of honey is due to different substances and depends on the botanical
origin of honey 54, 206, 207, 209. There are non-peroxide antibacterial substances with different chemical origin,
e.g. and compounds with different chemical properties:
1. Phenolics and flavonoids, present in honey are also likely candidates, as many of them have been shown
to have antibacterial activity 24, 87, 113, 190, 214, 285, but there was no correlation between honey phenolics and
antibacterial action275. In a study with Cuban unifloral honeys honeys with higher phenolic content tended to
have a higher antibacterial activity29
2. The high sugar concentration of honey218, and also the low honey pH294 can be responsible for the
antibacterial activity.
3. Undetermined components of the water and methanolic extract of chestnut honey inhibit pathogenic
bacteria like Erwinia carotovora, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Aeromonas hydrophila interfering in the
quorum signal (QS) system of bacteria. The bacterial QS system is thought to determine the virulence of
bacteria. The substances are thought to belong to the carbohydrate fraction of honey 274.
4. Carbohydrate break-down Maillard products, present in Canadian honey67, 69 and probably also in any
honey, have an antibacterial activity. These substances are also present in fresh honey.
5. Antibacterial aromatic acids 246 and 10-HDA, the main royal jelly acid with antibacterial properties146
have also been found in honey.
6. An antibacterial honey protein as defensin-1, which originates in royal jelly, was also found in honey171.
7. Honey bacteria produce antibiotic-like antifungal peptide compounds, e.g. bacillomycin F 177, 178
8. The strong antibacterial activity of Manuka honey is due to the presence of the antibacterial substance
methylglyoxal196.
9. Lysozyme 179
Summarising, following antibacterial factors are responsible for the antibacterial action
Osmotic effect of sugars
pH and honey acids
Hydrogen peroxide
Others: phenolics, carbohydrates, Maillard products, proteins, antibiotic-like peptides
methylglyoxal, and other non-determined substances
Contrary to the non-peroxide activity, the peroxide one can be destroyed by heat, by light and by storage 54
(Table 6). The antibacterial activity of light blossom honey was more influenced by these different factors
that of the dark honeydew honey. Thus, for optimum antibacterial activity, honey should be stored in a cool,
dark place and should be consumed when fresh.
Some of the antimicrobial activity originates from the bees (the peroxide producing enzymes, the honey
acids, carbohydrates, defensin-1, antibiotic-like compounds) while some of it originate of it from the plants
(methylglyoxal, polyphenols) while a third part might be created during honey storage (Maillard products).
Only fresh and unheated honey has optimum antibacterial activity. Early research showed that the peroxide
activity is destroyed by heat and by storage in the light 99, 286, 287. On the other hand it was shown that the
non-peroxide activity is less susceptible to heat and light53, 56, 131. On the other hand, Maillard products which
are produced upon heating and storage of honey have also antibacterial activity67, 69. The results are difficult
to interpret as it is not clear which type of antibacterial activity has been tested in many studies. However,
taken a whole there is an overall decrease of all activity upon storage, less if stored in the dark.
For optimum activity store unheated honey in a dark cool place.
Bactericidal or bacteriostatic?
In most of the reports on honey antibacterial action no distinction has been made between the two. Most
experiments report on stop of bacterial growth after a certain time. The higher the concentration the longer is
the period of growth inhibition. Complete inhibition of growth is important for controlling infections207
The bactericidal action of honey seems to be dependent on the time of honey action. The time for
bactericidal action depends on the bacteria type and vary from several to 40 hours. The concentration of
honey also plays a role. Honey concentrations varying from 5 to 50 % have been found to be bactericidal.
Generally, the higher the concentration, the faster the bactericidal action can take place 207.
Antiviral, fungicide, anti-parasite activity and neamaticidal activity
Antiviral activity: it was reported that honey has been shown to inhibit in vitro the Rubella virus 297 and
Herpes virus21.
Anti-parasite activity: it was reported that honey inhibited the growth of three species of the Leishmania
parasite 298.
Neamticidal activity of honey against the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is reported247
Honey has fungicide acitivity, but not many funghi species have been tested. It has antifungal activity
against dermatophytes, that can cause human mycoses (Tinea). Such mycoses is a common disease in
humans. Honey has been shown to have a fungicide activity agains dermatopytes from the genera
Epidermophyton, Microsporum and Thrichophyton, all species that can affect humans 209.
Recently honey samples from different floral sources were evaluated for their ability to inhibit the growth of
40 yeast strains (Candida albicans, C. krusei, C. glabrata and Trichosoporon spp.). Rhododendron and
multifloral honeys have generally more inhibitory effect than eucalyptus and orange honeys (P < 0.05) 161.
Different unifloral honey from Slovakia also showed antifungal activity against Penicillium crustosum, P.
expansum, P. griseofulvum, P. raistrickii and P. verrucosum , mostly at concentration higher than 10% 151.
Further studies are now required to demonstrate if this antifungal activity has any clinical application.
A mixture of honey and yoghurt was successfully tested to control vulvovvaginal candidasis of pregnant
women1
The fungicide effect of honey against Candida albicans is due to the effect of honey flavonoids 71. On the
other hand bacteria strain BH072 with a antifungal peptide was isolated in honey299
New Zealand rewarewa, manuka and kanuka honey samples exhibited potent, dose-dependent reduction of
human neutrophil superoxide production in vitro. This inhibitory activity did not correlate with levels of
known phenolic-based free radical scavengers. Furthermore, the active honeys did not scavenge superoxide
generated in a cell-free xanthine/xanthine oxidase assay. In C57BL/6J mice, topical application of manuka
and rewarewa honey samples with the highest in vitro activity suppressed arachidonic acid-induced ear
oedema, and rewarewa honey suppressed both oedema and leukocyte (monocyte and neutrophil) infiltration.
Together, these findings demonstrate that some indigenous NZ honeys exhibit clinically relevant anti-
inflammatory activity180
Gelam honey from Malaysia attenuates Carrageenan-induced rat paw inflammation via NF-kappa B
pathway140
Honey flavonoids significantly inhibited the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-alpha and
IL-1 beta. The expressions of iNOS and the production of reactive oxygen intermediates (ROS) were also
significantly inhibited. Accordingly, the present study demonstrates that HFE is a potent inhibitor of
microglial activation and thus a potential preventive therapeutic agent for neurodegenerative diseases
involving neuroinflammation72
If honey is fermented to mead it loses some of its antioxidant activity, this loss is less pronounced in acacia
and linden honey94.
In a review by Erejuwa et al. the antioxidant properties of honey are reviewed and honey is praised as a
novel antioxidant. This review presents findings that indicate honey may ameliorate oxidative stress in the
gastrointestinal tract (GIT), liver, pancreas, kidney, reproductive organs and plasma/serum. Besides, the
Hepatoprotective effects
Generally, antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties correlate well with each other, as decreasing harmful
radicals will protect the liver from them.
The amelioration of oxidative stress, as a result of honey administration, was accompanied by significant
reductions in the size of enlarged hepatocytes and edema, restoration of bile canal iculidilatation and
reduced number of apoptotic cells157. Similar hepatoprotective effect of honey was also reported in rats with
obstruction of the common bile duct111.
In rats with N-ethylmaleimide (NEM)-induced liver injury, honey supplementation significantly restored the
levels of hepatic glutathione, ameliorated the (NEM)-induced congestion and mononuclear cell infiltration
in the liver162. These findings, generally, suggest that amelioration of oxidative stress in the liver may
contribute to the hepatoprotective effect of honey.
Honey can be used as an effective hepatoprotective agent against paracetamol-induced liver damage125
Anti-inflammatory effects
Inflammation in the body is often caused by free radicals. Thus antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of
honey are probably linked to each other. Indeed, the anti-inflammatory action of honey is well documented
(see above).
Radioprotective effects
Gelam honey from Malaysia modulates the expression of antioxidant enzymes at gene and protein levels in
irradiated HDFs indicating its potential as a radioprotectant agent10 Tualang honey protects keratinocytes
from ultraviolet radiation-induced inflammation and DNA damage9
Honey, oxidative stress, hypertension and diabetes
Oxidative stress is implicated in the pathogenesis and/or complications of hypertension and/or diabetes
mellitus. A combination of these disorders increases the risk of developing cardiovascular events. This study
investigated the effects of streptozotocin (60 mg/kg; ip)-induced diabetes on blood pressure, oxidative stress
and effects of honey on these parameters in the kidneys of streptozotocin-induced diabetic Wistar-Kyoto
(WKY) and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Diabetic WKY and SHR were randomized into four
groups and received distilled water (0.5 mL) and tualang honey (1.0 g/kg) orally once daily for three weeks.
Control SHR had reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) and increased systolic blood pressure (SBP), catalase
(CAT) activity, and total antioxidant status (TAS). SBP, activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and
glutathione reductase (GR) were elevated while TAS was reduced in diabetic WKY. In contrast, SBP, TAS,
activities of GPx and GR were reduced in diabetic SHR. Antioxidant ( tualang honey) treatment further
reduced SBP in diabetic SHR but not in diabetic WKY. It also increased TAS, GSH, reduced glutathione
(GSH)/oxidized glutathione (GSSG) ratio, activities of GPx and GR in diabetic SHR. These data suggest
that differences in types, severity, and complications of diseases as well as strains may influence responses
to blood pressure and oxidative stress108
Antioxidant scavenging activity is linked to the prevention of many chronic and age dependent pathological
conditions like cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis, cataract and others chronic pathological conditions 32, 110.
Stingless bee honeys from west Amazonian Ecuador showed anti-mutagenic activity assayed with
Saccharomyces cerevisiae D7 strain, inhibiting back mutation over the entire tested concentration range134
Nigerose, another sugar, present in honey 95, 259, has immunoprotective activity221.
The antimetastatic effect of honey and its possible mode of antitumor action was studied by applying honey
in spontaneous mammary carcinoma, in methylcholanthrene-induced fibrosarcoma of CBA mouse and in
anaplastic colon adenocarcinoma of Y59 rats 225. A statistically significant antimetastatic effect was
achieved by oral application of honey. These findings indicate that honey activates the immune system and
honey ingestion may be advantageous with respect to cancer and metastasis prevention. In addition, the
authors postulate that honey given orally before tumour cell inoculation may have an impact on tumour
spreading. In another work of the same group the effect of honey on tumour growth, metastasising activity
and induction of apoptosis and necrosis in murine tumour models (mammary and colon carcinoma) was
investigated. A pronounced antimetastatic effect was observed when honey was applied before tumour-cell
inoculation (peroral 2 g kg-1 for mice or 1 g kg-1 for rats, once a day for 10 consecutive days) 226.
The anti-proliferative effect of honey in colon cancer cells was explained by its antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory properties 147.
Honey exerted antiproliferative potential against the HCT-15 and HT-29 colon cancer cells as assessed by 3-
(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Flow cytometric analysis
showed the increasing accumulation of hypodiploid nuclei in the sub-G(1) phase of cell cycle indicating
apoptosis. Honey transduced the apoptotic signal via initial depletion of intracellular non protein thiols,
consequently reducing the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and increasing the reactive oxygen
species (ROS) generation. An increasing earlier lipid layer break was observed in the treated cells compared
to the control. Honey induced apoptosis was accompanied by up-regulating the p53 and modulating the
expression of pro and anti-apoptotic proteins. Further apoptosis induction was substantiated using DNA
fragmentation assay and YO-PRO-1 staining. Results showed honey as a plausible candidate for induction
of apoptosis through ROS and mitochondria-dependent mechanisms in colon cancer cells. This will promote
honey as a potential chemotherapeutic agent against colon cancer148. Gelam and Nenas monofloral honeys
inhibit proliferation of HT 29 colon cancer cells by inducing DNA damage and apoptosis284
Honey ingestion by rats induced antitumor and pronounced antimetastatic effects. The experimental
evaluation of antitumor properties of honey was carried out using five strains of rat and murine tumors.
Honey potentiated the antitumor activity of 5-fluorouracil and cyclophosphamide132
In another study the antitumour effect of bee honey against bladder cancer was examined in vitro and in vivo
in mice 262. According to these results honey is an effective agent for inhibiting in vitro the growth of
different bladder cancer cell lines (T24, RT4, 253J and MBT-2). It is also effective when administered
intralesionally or orally in the MBT-2 bladder cancer implantation mice models.
3 Spanish honeys induced apoptosis in a concentration and time dependent-manner, in addition, honeys with
the higher phenolic content, heather and polyfloral, were the most effective to induce apoptosis in HL-60
cells. However, honeys did not generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC)
could not block honeys-induced apoptosis in HL-60 cells. These data support that honeys induced apoptosis
in HL-60 cells through a ROS-independent cell death pathway, indicating that the antiproliferative and
apoptotic effects of honey varied according to the floral origin and the phenolic content215
Tsiapara et al. investigated the influence of Greek honey extracts (thyme, pine and fir honey) on the
oestrogenic activity and cell viability of breast (MCF-7), endometrial (Ishikawa) and prostate (PC-3) cancer
Stefan Bogdanov, Bee Product Science, February 2014, www.bee-hexagon.net 66
cells. Thyme honey reduced the viability of Ishikawa and PC-3 cells, whereas fir honey stimulated the
viability of MCF-7 cells. The authors concluded that modulation of oestrogen activity was linked to the rich
phenolic content of Greek honeys and suggested that a thyme honey-enriched diet may prevent cancer
related processes in breast, prostate and endometrial cancer cells276.
The antiproliferative activity, apoptosis, and the antitumor effects of honey on human renal cancer cell lines
(ACHN) were studied. Honey decreased the cell viability in the malignant cells in a concentration-and time-
dependent manner. Honey induced apoptosis of the ACHN cells in a concentration-dependent manner. It is
concluded that honey may cause cell death in the ACHN cells by inducing apoptosis 249
HMF, a compound found in heated honey has been found to possess antitumor properties203. Thus,
overheated honeys could potentially compensate the loss of quality by winning anti-cancer properties.
Jungle honey, collected from tree blossom by wild honeybees that live in the tropical forest of Nigeria)
enhanced immune functions and antitumour activity in mice124.
Tualang honey from Malaysia has: antiproliferative activity on OSCC and HOS cell lines, exerting early
apoptosis effects127 and antitumor effects in experimental breast cancer in rats152. This honey induces
apoptosis and disrupts the mitochondrial membrane potential of human breast and cervical cancer cell
lines118 and inhibits also primary human keloid fibroblasts263
Manuka honey has antiproliferative activity of manuka honey on three different cancer cell lines, murine
melanoma (B16.F1) and colorectal carcinoma (CT26) as well as human breast cancer (MCF-7) cells in
vitro119
A 2012 publication on honey against cancer reviews the anticancerogenic properties of a number of honey
flavonoids4
IMMUNOACTIVATING AND IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE PROPERTIES
Immuno-activating properties
The effect of honey on the antibody production against thymus-dependent antigen sheep
red blood cells and thymus-independent antigen (Escherichia coli) in mice was studied
23
. According to this study oral honey stimulates antibody production during primary and
secondary immune responses against thymus-dependent and thymus-independent
antigens.
It has been reported that honey stimulates T-lymphocytes in cell culture to multiply, and
activates neutrophils 5
In a study with humans receiving a diet supplemented with a daily honey consumption for two weeks of 1.2
g/kg body weight ingestion of honey following effects were observed: Increase of serum iron by 20% and
decrease of plasma ferritin by 11%, an 50 % increase of monocytes and slight increases of lymphocyte and
eosinophil percentages, reduction in serum of immunoglobulin E (34%) aspartate transaminase (22%) and
alanine transaminase (18%), lactic acid dehydrogenase (41%), fasting sugar (5%) and creatine kinase and
finally an increase in blood of copper (33%) and slight elevations of zinc and magnesium, hemoglobin and
packed cell volume 18
Honey increase proliferation of B- and T-lymphocytes and neutrophils in vitro5.
In another study with rats, feeding of honey caused an increase of lymphocytes in comparison with the
sucrose fed controls76.
Apalbumine 1, the dominant royal jelly in honey with immunostimulating properties, is present in honey49
Immuno-supressive propeties
In animal experiments honey showed an immunosuppressive activity 97. In experiments with isolated
leukocytes honey inhibited phagocytic myeloperoxidase activity 202.
These findings is in line with the common belief that ingestion of honey can relieve pollen hypersensitivity.
Immuno suppression plays also a positive role in autoimmune diseases.
Honey causes both an enhancement of the immune response and an immuno-supression. The
immunoactivating effects are in line with the common belief that honey improves human reaction to viral
Against osteoporosis
Honey improves on the short term Ca absorption in rat bones in a positive dose response fashion, but this
effect disappears on the long term36. It was shown in a review article that Tualang honey can be used as an
alternative treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis of women106
Against radiation-induced inflammation
Tualang honey protects keratinocytes from ultraviolet radiation-induced inflammation and DNA Damage 9
B2 B3 B5 B9 C Sum
Eucalyptus (n = 5) <1.458 <2.262 <3.686 5.6 0.4 3.2 0.7 <16.2
Sulla (n = 3) <0.417 51 5.2 0.7 <0.383 1.3 0.8 <12
Citrus (n = 3) 2.2 0.2 26 2 <5.613 <0.383 22 <36
Asphodel (n = 3) 3.7 0.3 5.8 0.1 16 6 <1.1 22 <28
Acacia (n = 2) <0.25 51 <1.75 <0.325 1.2 0.2 <8.5
Lavender (n = 2) 41 <3.125 <0.58 <1.575 2.2 0.4 <11.5
Thistle (n = 3) <4.16 8.6 0.8 <1.75 <1.447 2.3 0.3 <18.3
Strawberry-tree (n = 3) <0.87 <4.633 <10.11 <0.39 41 <20
Heather (n = 1) <0.25 5.92 0.01 <0.58 <0.50 2.7 0.9 <10.0
Rosemary (n = 1) <0.25 <0.75 <0.58 1.7 0.2 1.5 0.2 <4.8
Linden (n = 1) <0.25 7.0 0.3 <0.58 1.28 0.05 <0.10 <9.2
Multifloral (n = 1) 1.1 0.5 81 <0.58 1.8 0.3 <0.10 <11.6
The antibacterial properties of honey have been reviewed above. The dependence of the antibacterial
activity on the botanical origin is less clear cut than the antioxidant properties of honey. This can be
explained by two facts. On one hand, there are different antibacterial factors: hydrogen peroxide, different
honey components, most of all acids, and also phenolics, on the other a part of the antibacterial substances
are added by the bees54.
The hydrogen peroxide in honey is produced by glucose oxidase and destroyed by catalase. The resultant
between the two enzymes will determine the peroxide accumulation capacity of honey.
According to White and Dustmann the peroxide accumulation capacity of honey depends on the botanical
origin of honey. Generally, dark honeys have a higher activity100, 288.
The non-peroxide, antibacterial activity depends also on the botanical source of honey 54, 275, but there was
no clear cut correlation between honey colour and non-peroxide activity. Taormina et al found that darker
honeys (buckwheat, blueberry) have a significant non-peroxide activity267
Manuka is considered the honey with the strongest antibacterial properties 209, but there is increasing
evidence that other unifloral honeys, most of them with a dark colour have a similarly high antibacterial
potency (table 7).
Antioxidant properties
The antioxidant activity of honey has been reviewed above. The antioxidant properties of honey depend on
the botanical origin of honey, the darker the honey the higher its antioxidative power 30, 47, 74, 120, 122, 129, 160, 169,
170, 170, 195, 229, 232-234, 245, 281
. Exceptions are some relatively lighter honeys like arbutus honey from southern
Europe,30 and sourwood honey from Malaysia213.
Following dark honey types have especially high antioxidant power:
Buckwheat (Fagopyrum sp.)
Chinese milk vetch (Astragalus adsurgens)
Heather (Caluna vulgaris, Erica umbellata)
Honeydew (all types of honeydew honeys)
Manuka (Leptospermum Scoparium
Strawberry tree honey (Arbutus menziesii)
Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa)
Tualang (Koompassia excelsa)
Ceratonia
Peppermint
Imunostimulating effects
Apalbumine 1, the dominant royal jelly in honey with immunostimulating properties, is present in unifloforal
honeys in different quantities. The quantity of apalbumine decreases in the following order: Chestnut >
dandelion > Rape, Linden, Acacia 49
8
7
% des RDI at 20 g / day
6 Fir
5
Rape
4
Linden
3
2 Rododendron
1 Chestunut
0 Lavandula stoechas, Citrus spp. and
Echium K Cu Mn plantagineum honeys collected in Portugal
were determined by fluorometry after reaction
with 2.3-diaminonaphthalene. The selenium levels of the honey samples studied were low, ranging from
<1.0 to 2.91 g/100 g fresh weight. The honeys from Erica spp., C sativa and E. plantagineum presented the
highest selenium values from all the honeys studied (median values 1.69, 1.51 and 1.51 g /100 g fresh
weight), and the honeys from Eucalyptus spp., L stoechas and Citrus spp. presented the lowest values
(median values 1.33, 1.28 and 1.20 g /100 g fresh weight). The selenium content of Erica spp., was
significantly higher than that observed for the Eucalyptus spp., L. stoechas and Citrus spp. and the selenium
level of the Eucalyptus spp., was also significantly lower than that observed C. sativa and E. plantagineum
honeys81.
Gastroprotective properties
The content of nitrate (NO3) in honey is thought to be the causative action of the gastroprotective action of
honey. Dark honeys like honeydew and sweet chestnut had considerably higher concentration than light
honeys (acacia, orange blossom, lavender, sunflower, arbutus) 45
HONEY USES
Food industry
Due to its various favourable properties honey is used as an additive to a variety of food and beverages (see
Table 5). The application of honey as a food additive is based on its manifold properties. The antibacterial
effect of honey (see part II) counteracts microbial spoilage of food, e.g. of meat 222. The antioxidant effect of
honey prevents oxidation of food during storage. Honey acts against lipid oxidation of meat 197, 222 and is thus
a efficient meat additive for preventing oxidation spoilage, e.g. to poultry 34 or to meat and muscle of
unspecified origin 222. Effects of honey against enzymatic browning of fruits and vegetables 75, soft drinks 175
light raisin 198, apple slices 227 have been reported. Honey enzymes have a clearing effect in fruit juices and
fruit drinks manufacturing 176, 227. Other physical and sensory properties make honey a good candidate for an
additive to a wide variety of food: good sensory and rheological properties, superior microwave reactivity
than synthetic sugars etc. More information on honey application in food is available through the American
National Honey Board (http://www.nhb.org/foodtech/index.html).
Honey enhances the growth of dairy starter cultures in milk and milk products. Especially species with week
growth rates in milk such as bifidobacteria are usually fortified by growth enhancers or by honey. The
growth rate of two bifidobacteria Bf-1 and Bf-6 in milk can be stimulated by the addition of honey to milk
279
. The effect of honey was more pronounced than the one caused by common growth enhancers based on
other oligosaccharides. Thus, honey can be used as a prebiotic additive to probiotic milk products.
Shampoo, Hairbalm and purifying lotion A hand cream and sun cream with honey
with honey
Mask is the best form that complies with the consistency of honey. It nourishes the skin and keeps it
moisturized. Regular use of them keeps skin juvenile and retards wrinkle formation. To mix the ingredients
you can use mixer. They are left for about an hour, then removed using a gauze and warm water and then
washed.
Simple recipes for honey cosmetics taken from different Internet sources
Face Masks
Cleopatra mask Honey mask
Honey 1 teaspoonful Place a cloth in warm water and apply to your face to
Milk 1 tablespoonful open the pores. Smear on honey, and leave on for 15
Egg white of 1 egg to 30 minutes. Rinse off with warm water, then use
cold water to close the pores.
Use once a week.
Honey Bath
Add 200-250 g of 1/2 cup sea salt
honey to the bathing 2 tablespoons baking soda
water. 1 cup boiling water
If used once in a while 1 cup honey
(e.g. every 2 weeks), it 2 cups milk
will keep on a good 10 drops of vanilla oil
turger of the cells and dissolve sea salt and baking soda in bathwater,
nourishes the skin. dissolve honey in boiling water and add milk, add
milk-honey mixture and vanilla oil to bathwater, swirl
water to blend all ingredients
Cracked Lips
Honey 10 g
Lemon juice 10 g
To be used concomitantly with lip moisturizer
containing Panthenol.
Immunity
Long term ingestion of honey can improve the immunological reaction towards infections
References
5. ABUHARFEIL, N; AL ORAN, L; ABO-SHEHADA, M (2008) The effects of bee honey on the proliferative
activity of human B and T lymphocytes and activity of phagocytes. Food and Agricultural
Immunology (11): 169-177.
8. AHMAD, A; KHAN, R A; MESAIK, M A (2009) Anti inflammatory Effect of Natural Honey on Bovine
Thrombin-induced Oxidative Burst in Phagocytes. Phytotherapy Research 23 (6): 801-808.
9. AHMAD, I; JIMENEZ, H; YAACOB, N S; YUSUF, N (2012) Tualang Honey Protects Keratinocytes from
Ultraviolet Radiation-Induced Inflammation and DNA Damage. Photochemistry and Photobiology 88
(5): 1198-1204.
11. AHMED, A; KHAN, R A; AZIM, M K; SAFEED, S; MESAIK, M A; AHMED, S; IMRAN, I (2011) Effect
of Natural Honey on Human Platelets and Blood Coagulation Proteins. Pak J Pharm Sci 24: 389-397.
13. AL WAILI, N S (2004) Natural honey lowers plasma glucose, C-reactive protein, homocysteine, and blood
lipids in healthy, diabetic, and hyperlipidemic subjects: Comparison with dextrose and sucrose
152. Journal Med.Food 7 (1): 100-107.
14. AL WAILI, N S; SALOM, K; BUTLER, G; AL GHAMDI, A A (2011) Honey and Microbial Infections: A
Review Supporting the Use of Honey for Microbial Control. Journal of Medicinal Food 14 (10):
1079-1096.
16. AL-MAMARY, M; AL-MEERI, A; AL-HABORI, M (2002) Antioxidant activities and total phenolics of
different types of honey. NUTRITION RESEARCH 22 (9): 1041-1047.
17. AL-QUASSEMI, R; ROBINSON, R K (2003) Some special nutritional propeties of honey - a brief review.
Nutrition & Food Science 33 (6): 254-260.
18. AL-WAILI, N S (2003) Effects of daily consumption of honey solution on hematological indices and blood
levels of minerals and enzymes in normal individuals. Journal of Medicinal Food 6 (2): 135-140.
19. AL-WAILI, N S (2004) Investigating the antimicrobial activity of natural honey and its effects on the
pathogenic bacterial infections of surgical wounds and conjunctiva
154. Journal of Medicinal Food 7 (2): 210-222.
20. AL-WAILI, N S (2004) Natural honey lowers plasma glucose, C-reactive protein, homocysteine, and blood
lipids in healthy, diabetic, and hyperlipidemic subjects: Comparison with dextrose and sucrose.
Journal of Medicinal Food 7 (1): 100-107.
21. AL-WAILI, N S (2004) Topical honey applications vs. acyclovir for the treatment of recurrent herpes simplex
lesions. Medical Science Monitor 10 (8): 94-98.
22. AL-WAILI, N S; BONI, N S (2003) Natural honey lowers plasma prostaglandin concentrations in normal
individuals. Journal of Medicinal Food 6 (2): 129-133.
23. AL-WAILI, N S; HAQ, A (2004) Effect of honey on antibody production against thymus-dependent and
thymus-independent antigens in primary and secondary immune responses. Journal of Medicinal
Food 7 (4): 491-494.
25. ALJADI, A M; KAMARUDDIN, M Y (2004) Evaluation of the phenolic contents and antioxidant capacities
of two Malaysian floral honeys. Food Chemistry 85 (4): 513-518.
26. ALLSOP, K A; MILLER, J B (1996) Honey revisited: A reappraisal of honey in pre-industrial diets. B.J.Nutr.
75 (4): 513-520.
31. AMERICAN HONEY BOARD (2005) Honey-Nutrition and Health. National honey board: 1-27.
32. AMES, B N; SHIGENAGA, M; HAGEN, T (1993) Oxidants, antioxidants, and the degenerative diseases of
aging. Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.USA 90: 7915-7922.
33. ANTHIMIDOU, E; MOSSIALOS, D (2013) Antibacterial Activity of Greek and Cypriot Honeys Against
Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Comparison to Manuka Honey. Journal of
Medicinal Food 16 (1): 42-47.
34. ANTONY, S; RIECK, J R; DAWSON, P L (2000) Effect of dry honey on oxidation in turkey breast meat.
Poultry Science 79 (12): 1846-1850.
35. ARCOT, J; BRAND-MILLER, J (2005) A preliminary assesment of the glycemic index of honey.
http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/HBE/05-027sum.html (2005): 1-24.
36. ARIEFDJOHAN, M W; MARTIN, B R; LACHCIK, P J; WEAVER, C M (2008) Acute and chronic effects of
honey and its carbohydrate constituents on calcium absorption in rats. Journal of agricultural and
food chemistry 56 (8): 2649-2654.
37. ASP, N; BRYNGELSSON, S (2008) Health Claims in Europe: New Legislation and PASSCLAIM for
Substantiation. The Journal of nutrition 138: 1210S-1215S.
41. BEJAN, V; LACATIS, D; PETRUS, V; BEJAN, V V; CRETEANU, G (1978) L'emploi du fructose dans le
regime du diabete sucre insulino-dependant, IIIe Symposium International d'Apitherapie, 11-15
Septembre 1978, Portoroz, Yougoslavie, Apimondia, Bukarest, 1978: pp 382-384.
45. BERETTA, G; VISTOLI, G; CANEVA, E; ANSELMI, C; FACINO, R M (2009) Structure elucidation and
NMR assignments of two new pyrrolidinyl quinoline alkaloids from chestnut honey. Magnetic
resonance in Chemistry 47 (5): 456-459.
46. BERG, A; KONIG, D (2008) The glycaemic index of different German honeys. Ernahrungs-Umschau 55 (12):
720-725.
47. BERTONCELJ, J; DOBERSEK, U; JAMNIK, M; GOLOB, T (2007) Evaluation of the phenolic content,
antioxidant activity and colour of Slovenian honey. Food Chemistry 105 (2): 822-828.
48. BIANCHI, E M (1977) Honey: Its importance in children's nutrition. Amer.Bee J. 117 (12): 733.
49. BILIKOVA, K; SIMUTH, J (2010) New Criterion for Evaluation of Honey: Quantification of Royal Jelly
Protein Apalbumin 1 in Honey by ELISA. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 58 (15): 8776-
8781.
50. BILSEL, Y; BUGRA, D; YAMANER, S; BULUT, T; CEVIKBAS, U; TURKOGLU, U (2002) Could honey
have a place in colitis therapy? Effects of honey, prednisolone, and disulfiram on inflammation, nitric
oxide, and free radical formation. Digestive Surgery 19 (4): 306-311.
51. BISWAS, B K (2009) Effects of Honey on Feed Consumption and Body Weight of Sprague-Dawley and
Obese Rats. Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science 48 (5): 613.
54. BOGDANOV, S (1997) Nature and origin of the antibacterial substances in honey. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft
+ [i.e.und] Technologie.Food science + technology.Science + technologie alimentaire 30 (7): 748-
753.
56. BOGDANOV, S; BLUMER, P (2001) Natrliche antibiotische Eigenschaften des Honigs. Schweizerische
Bienen-Zeitung 124 (2): 18-21.
58. BOGDANOV, S; JURENDIC, T; SIEBER, R; GALLMANN, P (2008) Honey for Nutrition and Health: A
Review. J.Am..Coll.Nutr. 27: 677-689.
59. BOGDANOV, S; RUOFF, K; PERSANO ODDO, L (2007) Physico-chemical methods for the characterisation
of unifloral honeys: a review. Apidologie 35: S4-S17.
63. BOUSQUET, J; CAMPOS, J; MICHEL, F B (1984) Food intolerance to honey. Allergy 39 (1): 73-75.
64. BOUSQUET, J; CAMPOS, J; MICHEL, F B (1984) Food intolerance to honey. Allergy 39 (1): 73-75.
65. BRADY, N; MOLAN, P; BANG, L (2004) A survey of non-manuka New Zealand honeys for antibacterial and
antifungal activities
69. Journal of Apicultural Research 43 (2): 47-52.
66. BRUDZYNSKI, K (2006) Effect of hydrogen peroxide on antibacterial activities of Canadian honeys.
Canadian Journal of Microbiology 52: 1228-1237.
67. BRUDZYNSKI, K; KIM, L (2010) Storage-induced chemical changes in active components of honey de-
regulate its antibacterial activity. Food Chem doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.11.151
68. BRUDZYNSKI, K; MIOTTO, D (2011) The recognition of high molecular weight melanoidins as the main
components responsible for radical-scavenging capacity of unheated and heat-treated Canadian
honeys. Food Chem 125 (doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.09.049): 570-575.
69. BRUDZYNSKI, K; MIOTTO, D (2011) The relationship between the content of Maillard reaction-like
products and bioactivity of Canadian honeys. Food Chemistry 124 (3): 869-874.
70. BUSSEROLLES, J; GUEUX, E; ROCK, E; MAZUR, A; RAYSSIGUIER, Y (2002) Substituting honey for
refined carbohydrates protects rats from hypertriglyceridemic and prooxidative effects of fructose.
The Journal of nutrition 132 (11): 3379-3382.
73. CEYHAN, N; UGUR, A (2001) Investigation of in vitro antimicrobial activity of honey. RIVISTA DI
BIOLOGIA BIOLOGY FORUM 94 (2): 363-371.
74. CHANG, X; WANG, J H; YANG, S H; CHEN, S; SONG, Y J (2011) Antioxidative, antibrowning and
antibacterial activities of sixteen floral honeys. Food & Function 2 (9): 541-546.
75. CHEN, L; MEHTA, A; BERENBAUM, M; ZANGERL, A R; ENGESETH, N J (2000) Honeys from different
floral sources as inhibitors of enzymatic browning in fruit and vegetable homogenates. Journal of
agricultural and food chemistry 48 (10): 4997-5000.
76. CHEPULIS, L M (2007) The Effects of Honey Compared With Sucrose and a Sugar-free Diet on Neutrophil
Phagocytosis and Lymphocyte Numbers after Long-term Feeding in Rats. JCIM 4: DOI:
10.2202/1553-3840.1098.
77. CHEPULIS, L M; STARKEY, N J; WAAS, J R; MOLAN, P C (2009) The effects of long-term honey, sucrose
or sugar-free diets on memory and anxiety in rats. Physiology & Behavior 97 (3-4): 359-368.
79. CHUA, L S; RAHAMAN, N L A; ADNAN, N A; TAN, T T E (2013) Antioxidant Activity of Three Honey
Samples in relation with Their Biochemical Components. Journal of Analytical Methods in Chemistry
82. COX, N; HINKLE, R (2002) Infant botulism. American Family Physician 65 (7): 1388-1392.
83. CRANE, E (1975) History of honey, In Crane, E (ed.) Honey, a comprehensive survey, William Heinemann;
London; pp 439-488.
84. CRANE, E (1983) The archaeology of beekeeping. Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. London
85. CRANE, E (1999) The world history of beekeeping and honey hunting. Gerald Duckworth & Co Ltd London
86. CRANE, E; WALKER, P; DAY, R (1984) Directory of important world honey sources. International Bee
Research Association London; 384 pp
87. CUSHNIE, T; LAMB, A (2005) Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids. International Journal of Antimicrobial
Agents 26 (5): 343-356.
A
n
t
i
o
x
i
d
a
n
t
s
i
n
A
u
s
t
r
a
l
i
a
n
F
l
o
r
a
l
H
o
n
e
y
s
-
I
d
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
h
e
a
l
t
h
-
e
n
h
a
n
c
i
n
g
n
u
t
r
i
e
n
t
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s
89. DAVIS, E A (1995) Functionality of sugars: physicochemical interactions in foods. The American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition 62 (1 Suppl): 170-177.
90. DE BODT, G (1996) Les miels de rhododendrons. Les Carnets du CARI Abeilles et Cie (50): 10-12.
92. DEIBERT, P; KOENIG, D; KLOOK, B; GROENEFELD, A; BERG, A (2009) Glycaemic and insulinaemic
properties of some German honey varieties. European journal of clinical nutrition
doi:10.1038/ejcn.2009.103: 1-3.
95. DONER, L W (1977) The sugars of honey - a review. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 28: 443-
456.
99. DUSTMANN, J H (1972) ber den Einfluss des Lichtes auf den Peroxid-Wert (Inhibin) des Honigs.
Z.Lebensm.Unters.Forsch. 148 (5): 263-268.
101. DUTAU, G; RANCE, F (2009) Honey and honey-product allergies. Revue Francaise D Allergologie 49 (6):
S16-S22.
105. EDGAR, J A; ROEDER, E L; MOLYNEUX, R J (2002) Honey from plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids:
A potential threat to health. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 50 (10): 2719-2730.
107. ELLIOTT, S S; KEIM, N L; STERN, J S; TEFF, K; HAVEL, P J (2002) Fructose, weight gain, and the insulin
resistance syndrome. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76: 911-922.
114. EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2002) Honey and microbiological hazards. Report European Commission of
Health & Consumer Protection Directorate-General: 1-40.
115. EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2002) Honey and microbiological hazards. Report European Commission of
Health & Consumer Protection Directorate-General: 1-40.
117. FAHEY, J W; STEPHENSON, K K (2002) Pinostrobin from honey and Thai ginger (Boesenbergia
pandurata): A potent flavonoid inducer of mammalian phase 2 chemoprotective and antioxidant
enzymes. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 50 (25): 7472-7476.
118. FAUZI, A N; NORAZMI, M N; YAACOB, N S (2011) Tualang honey induces apoptosis and disrupts the
mitochondrial membrane potential of human breast and cervical cancer cell lines. Food and Chemical
Toxicology 49 (4): 871-878.
123. FRAUENFELDER, R A (1921) Der Honig als Genuss-, Nhr- und Krftigungsmittel. Buchdruckerei A.
Umiker Biel-Madretsch; 32 pp
125. GALAL, R M; ZAKI, H F; EL-NASR, M M; AGHA, A M (2012) Potential Protective Effect of Honey
Against Paracetamol-induced Hepatotoxicity. Archives of Iranian Medicine 15 (11): 674-680.
126. GAUTAM, I (2014) Antibacterial activity and elemental spectrum of Nepali honey from different bee species.
University of Natural Resources and Applied Sciences Vienna Vienna; pp. 215pp.
128. GHELDOF, N; ENGESETH, N J (2002) Antioxidant capacity of honeys from various floral sources based on
the determination of oxygen radical absorbance capacity and inhibition of in vitro lipoprotein
oxidation in human serum samples. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 50 (10): 3050-3055.
130. GHELDOF, N; WANG, X H; ENGESETH, N J (2003) Buckwheat honey increases serum antioxidant capacity
in humans. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 51 (5): 1500-1505.
131. GONNET, M; LAVIE, P (1960) Influence du chauffage sur le facteur antibiotique prsent dans les miels.
Annales de l'Abeille 3 (4): 349-364.
132. GRIBEL', N V; PASHINSKII, V G (1990) [The antitumor properties of honey]. Voprosy Onkologii 36 (6):
704-709.
135. HEGAZI, A; EL-HADY, F K A (2007) Influence of Honey on the Supression of Human Low Density
Lipoprotein (LDL) Peroxidation (In vitro). eCam: 1-9.
136. HEITKAMP, K (1984) Pro und kontra Honig - Sind Aussagen zur Wirkung des Honigs "wissenschaftlich
hinreichend gesichert"? Schriften zur Oecotrophologie: 1-60.
138. HOLT, S; JOHNSON, K; RYAN, J; CATCHPOLE, O; ZHANG, S; MITCHELL, K A (2012) New Zealand
Kanuka Honey Has High Levels of Methylglyoxal and Antimicrobial Activity. Journal of Alternative
and Complementary Medicine 18 (3): 203-204.
139. HBNER, B (1958) Suglingsernhrung mit Honigmilch (Nektar-Mil). MMW, Mnchener medizinische
Wochenschrift 100 (8): 311-313.
143. IRISH, J; BLAIR, S; CARTER, D (2011) The Antibacterial Activity of Honey Derived from Australian Flora.
Plos One 6 (3): e18229.
144. IRISH, J; CARTER, D A; BLAIR, S E; HEARD, T A (2008) Antibacterial activity of honey from the
Australian stingless bee Trigona carbonaria
37. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 32 (1): 89-90.
145. ISCHAYEK, J I; KERN, M (2006) US honeys varying in glucose and fructose content elicit similar glycemic
indexes. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 106 (8): 1260-1262.
147. JAGANATHAN, S; MANDAL, M (2009) Honey Constituents and their apoptotic effect in colon cancer cells.
JAAS 1: 29-36.
150. JONES, R (2001) Honey and healing through the ages, In Munn, P; Jones, R (eds) Honey and healing,
International Bee Research Association IBRA; Cardiff, GB; pp 1-4.
152. KADIR, E A; SULAIMAN, S A; YAHYA, N K; OTHMAN, N H (2013) Inhibitory Effects of Tualang Honey
on Experimental Breast Cancer in Rats: A Preliminary Study. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer
Prevention 14 (4): 2249-2254.
153. KAJIWARA, S; GANDHI, H; USTUNOL, Z (2002) Effect of honey on the growth of and acid production by
human intestinal Bifidobacterium spp.: An in vitro comparison with commercial oligosaccharides and
inulin. Journal of Food Protection 65 (1): 214-218.
154. KASSIM, M; MANSOR, M; AL-ABD, N; YUSOFF, K M (2012) Gelam Honey Has a Protective Effect
against Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-Induced Organ Failure. International Journal of Molecular
Sciences 13 (5): 6370-6381.
156. KENJERIC, D; MANDIC, M L; PRIMORAC, L; BUBALO, D; PERL, A (2007) Flavonoid profile of Robinia
hoenys produced in Croatia. Food Chemistry: in press.
158. KIRNPAUL-KAUR, B S; TSE TAN, H; BOUKRAA, L; HUA GAN, S (2011) Different Solid Phase
Extraction Fractions of Tualang (Koompassia excelsa) Honey Demonstrated Diverse Antibacterial
Properties Against Wound and Enteric Bacteria. JAAS: 59-65.
159. KIRNPAUL-KAUR, B S; TSE TAN, H; BOUKRAA, L; HUA GAN, S (2011) Different Solid Phase
Extraction Fractions of Tualang (Koompassia excelsa) Honey Demonstrated Diverse Antibacterial
Properties Against Wound and Enteric Bacteria. JAAS: 59-65.
160. KISHORE, R K; HALIM, A S; SYAZANA, M S N; SIRAJUDEEN, K N S (2011) Tualang honey has higher
phenolic content and greater radical scavenging activity compared with other honey sources.
NUTRITION RESEARCH 31 (4): 322-325.
162. KORKMAZ, A; KOLANKAYA, D (2009) Anzer honey prevents N-ethylmaleimide-induced liver damage in
rats. Experimental and toxicologic pathology 61 (4): 333-337.
163. KREIDER, R (2001) Honey and sports nutrition: Report for the American Honey Board. published on line (4)
164. KREIDER, R (2001) Researches discover honey is good for muscles (Clinical Innovations) (Brief Article).
Assoc.Perioperat.Regist.Nurses J. (10)
173. KWAPONG, P; ILECHIE, A; KUSI, R (2013) Comparative antibacterial activity of stingless bee honey and
standard antibiotics against common eye pathogens. J.Microbiol.Biotetechn.Res. 3: 9-15.
174. LAVIE, P; GRASS, P P (1963) Sur l'identification des substances antibactriennes prsentes dans le miel.
Comptes rendus des Sances de l'Academie des Sciences 256: 1858-1860.
175. LEE, C Y (1996) Substitution of honey for sulfur dioxide in grape juice processing. American Bee Journal 136
(12): 872-873.
176. LEE, C Y; SMITH, N L; UNDERWOOD, B A; MORSE, R A (1990) Honey protein from different bee
species in relation to apple juice clarification activity. American Bee Journal 130: 478-479.
177. LEE, H; CHUREY, J J; WOROBO, R W (2008) Purification and structural characterization of bacillomycin F
produced by a bacterial honey isolate active against Byssochlamys fulva H25
116
77722. JOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 105 (3): 663-673.
178. LEE, H J; CHUREY, J J; WOROBO, R W (2008) Antimicrobial activity of bacterial isolates from different
floral sources of honey
22
77723. International Journal of Food Microbiology 126 (1-2): 240-244.
180. LEONG, A G; HERST, P M; HARPER, J L (2012) Indigenous New Zealand honeys exhibit multiple anti-
inflammatory activities. Innate Immunity 18 (3): 459-466.
181. LEUTHOLZ, B; KREIDER, R (2001) Optimising nutrition of exercise and sport, In Wilson, T; Temple, N
(eds) Humana Press; Totowa, NJ; pp 207-235.
183. LIU, J R; YE, Y L; LIN, T Y; WANG, Y W; PENG, C C (2013) Effect of floral sources on the antioxidant,
antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities of honeys in Taiwan. Food Chemistry 139 (1-4): 938-
943.
186. LUDWIG, D (2000) Dietary Glycemic Index and Obesity. The Journal of nutrition 130: 280S-283S.
188. MADDOCKS, S E; JENKINS, R E (2013) Honey: a sweet solution to the growing problem of antimicrobial
resistance? Future Microbiology 8 (11): 1419-1429.
189. MADEJCZYK, M; BARALKIEWICZ, D (2008) Characterisation of honey from different areas of Poland by
their physico-chemical parametres and trace elements. Proceedings of Ecopole 2007, Vol 2 2 (1): 59-
63.
194. MANDAL, D; MANDAL, S (2011) Honey: its medicinal property and antibacterial activity.
doi:10.1016/S2221-1691(11)60016-6: 154-160.
197. MCKIBBEN, J; ENGESETH, N J (2002) Honey as a protective agent against lipid oxidation in ground turkey.
Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 50 (3): 592-595.
198. MCLELLAN, M R; KIME, R W; LEE, C Y; LONG, T M (1995) Effect of honey as an antibrowning agent in
light raisin processing. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 19: 1-8.
199. MCMASTER, P; PIPER, S; SCHELL, D; GILLIS, J; CHONG, A (2000) A taste of honey. Journal of
Paediatrics and Child Health 36 (6): 596-597.
205. MOLAN, P (1999) Why honey is effective as a medicine. 1. Its use in modern medicine. 2. The scientific
explanation of its effects
1907. Bee World 80; 82 (2; 1): 79-92.
206. MOLAN, P C (1992) The antibacterial activity of honey. 1. The nature of the antibacterial activity. Bee World
73 (1): 5-28.
207. MOLAN, P C (1992) The antibacterial activity of honey. 2. Variation in the potency of the antibacterial
activity. Bee World 73 (2): 59-76.
208. MOLAN, P C (1992) The antimicrobial activity of honey 1. The nature of antibacterial activity. Bee World 73
(1): 5-28.
209. MOLAN, P C (1997) Honey as an antimicrobial agent, In Mizrahi, A; Lensky, Y (eds) Bee
Products.Properties, Applications, and Apitherapy, Symposium Tel Aviv: pp 27-37.
210. MOLAN, P C (2001) Why honey is effective as a medicine - 2. The scientific explanation of its effects. Bee
World 82 (1): 22-40.
211. MOLAN, P C; SMITH, I M; REID, G M (1988) A comparison of the antibacterial activities of some New
Zealand honeys. Journal of Apicultural Research 27 (4): 252-256.
212. MOMMSEN, H (1957) Honig statt Zucker in der Ernhrung des Suglings. Sonderdruck Deutsche
Hebammen-Zeitschrift 9 (1): 10-12.
214. MONTENEGRO, G; SALAS, F; PENA, R C; PIZARRO, R (2009) Antibacterial and antifungic activity of the
unifloral honeys of Quillaja saponaria, an endemic Chilean species. Phyton-International Journal of
Experimental Botany 78: 141-146.
215. MORALES, P; ISABEL HAZA, A (2013) Antiproliferative and apoptotic effects of spanish honeys.
Pharmacognosy Magazine 9 (35): 231-237.
216. MLLER, L (1956) Der Bienenhonig in der Suglingsernhrung bei Bercksichtigung einer neuen
Fertignahrung. Medizinische Monatsschrift 10 (11): 729-732.
224. OLOFSSON, T C; VASQUEZ, A (2008) Detection and identification of a novel lactic acid bacterial flora
within the honey stomach of the honeybee Apis mellifera. Current Microbiology 57 (4): 356-363.
225. ORSOLIC, N; BASIC, I (2004) Honey as a cancer-preventive agent. Periodicum Biologorum 106 (4): 397-
401.
227. OSZMIANSKI, J; LEE, C Y (1990) Inhibition of polyphenol oxidase activity and browning by honey. Journal
of agricultural and food chemistry 38: 1892-1895.
231. PERSANO ODDO, L; PIRO, R (2004) Main European unifloral honeys: descriptive sheets. Apidologie 35
(special issue): S38-S81.
232. PICHICHERO, E; CANUTI, L; CANINI, A (2009) Characterisation of the phenolic and flavonoid fractions
and antioxidant power of Italian honeys of different botanical origin. Journal of the Science of Food
and Agriculture 89 (4): 609-616.
233. PICHICHERO, E; CANUTI, L; CANINI, A (2009) Characterisation of the phenolic and flavonoid fractions
and antioxidant power of Italian honeys of different botanical origin. Journal of the Science of Food
and Agriculture 89 (4): 609-616.
234. PILJAC-EGARAC, J; STIPCEVIC, T; BELSCAK, A (2009) Antioxidant properties and phenolic content of
different floral origin honeys. JAAS 1: 43-50.
235. PIMENTEL, R; DA COSTA, C; ALUBQUERCE, P; JUNIOR, S (2013) Antimicrobial activity and rutin
identification of honey produced by the stingless bee Melipona compressipes manaosensis and
commercial honey. BMC-CAM 13: 151.
236. POPA, D; USTUNOL, Z (2011) Influence of sucrose, high fructose corn syrup and honey from different floral
sources on growth and acid production by lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria. INTERNATIONAL
JOURNAL OF DAIRY TECHNOLOGY 64 (2): 247-253.
238. POTSCHINKOVA, P (1999) Apitherapie: Die Heilkraft von Honig and Co. Ehrenwirth Verlag Mnchen
239. RAKHA, M K; NABIL, Z I; HUSSEIN, A A (2008) Cardioactive and vasoactive effects of natural wild honey
against cardiac malperformance induced by hyperadrenergic activity
132. Journal of Medicinal Food 11 (1): 91-98.
240. RAMENGHI, L A; AMERIO, G; SABATINO, G (2001) Honey, a palatable substance for infants: from De
Rerum Natura to evidence-based medicine. European journal of pediatrics 160 (11): 677-678.
241. RASHED, M N; SOLTAN, M E (2004) Major and trace elements in different types of Egyptian mono- floral
and non-floral bee honeys. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 17 (6): 725-735.
247. SAJID, M; AZIM, M (2012) Characterization of the Nematicidal Activity of Natural Honey. Journal of
agricultural and food chemistry 60 (30): 7428-7434.
248. SAMANTA, A; BURDEN, A C; JONES, G R (1985) Plasma glucose responses to glucose, sucrose and honey
in patients with diabeetes mellitus: an analysis of glycaemic and peak incremental indices. Diabetic
medicine 2: 371-373.
249. SAMARGHANDIAN, S; AFSHARI, J T; DAVOODI, S (2011) Honey induces apoptosis in renal cell
carcinoma. Pharmacognosy Magazine 7 (25): 46-52.
255. SHAMALA, T R; JYOTHI, Y S; SAIBABA, P (2000) Stimulatory effect of honey on multiplication of lactic
acid bacteria under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Letters in Applied Microbiology 30 (6): 453-455.
257. SHIN, H S; STRASBURG, G M; USTUNOL, Z (2003) Influence of different unifloral honeys on heterocyclic
aromatic amine formation and overall mutagenicity in fried ground-beef patties. Journal of Food
Science 68 (3): 810-815.
258. SHIN, H S; USTUNOL, Z (2005) Carbohydrate composition of honey from different floral sources and their
influence on growth of selected intestinal bacteria: An in vitro comparison. Food Research
International 38 (6): 721-728.
259. SIDDIQUI, I R (1970) The sugars of honey. Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry 25: 285-
309.
260. SLACANAC, V; HARDI, J; LUCAN, M; KUN, S; HAVAS, P; KRSTANOVIC, V (2011) Effect of Honey
Addition on Fermentation Activity of Lactobacillus Casei Lc-01 in Cow'S and Goat'S Milk: A Kinetic
Study. Acta Alimentaria 40 (2): 270-281.
261. STRAIT, M J (1997) The effect of liquid or dry honey as a partial replacement for sugar on the baking and
keeping qualities of fat reduced muffins. Ph.D. Dissertation; Blacksburg, Virginia, USA Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University; pp 1-175.
264. TAKUMA, D T (1955) Honig bei der Aufzucht von Suglingen. Monatsschrift fr Kinderheilkunde 103 (2):
160-161.
266. TANZI, M G; GABAY, M P (2002) Association between honey consumption and infant botulism.
Pharmacotherapy 22 (11): 1479-1483.
267. TAORMINA, P J; NIEMIRA, B A; BEUCHAT, L R (2001) Inhibitory activity of honey against foodborne
pathogens as influenced by the presence of hydrogen peroxide and level of antioxidant power.
International Journal of Food Microbiology 69 (3): 217-225.
268. TEJPAL, D; GOYAL, N (2009) Effect of Inulin, Honey and Gum Acacia on Growth of Human Faecal
Potential Probiotic Lactobacilli. The IUP Journal of Life Sciences 3: 29-34.
269. TEMARU, E; SHIMORA, S; AMANO, K; KARASAWA, T (2007) Antibacterial activity of honey from
stingless honeybees. Pol.J.Microbiol. 56: 281-285.
273. TROPP, C (1957) Der Honig und seine Bedeutung in der Suglings- und Kinderernhrung. Der Landarzt 33
(9): 250-252.
278. USTUNOL, Z (2000) The effect of honey on the growth of bifidobacteria: report for the National honey
board.: 1-8.
279. USTUNOL, Z; GANDHI, H (2001) Growth and viability of commercial Bifidobacterium spp. in honey-
sweetened skim milk. Journal of Food Protection 64 (11): 1775-1779.
280. VARGA, L (2006) Effect of acacia (Robinia pseudo-acacia L.) honey on the characteristic microflora of
yogurt during refrigerated storage. International Journal of Food Microbiology 108 (2): 272-275.
281. VELA, L; DE LORENZO, C; PREZ, R A (2007) Antioxidant capacity of Spanish honeys and its correlation
with polyphenol content and other physicochemical properties. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture 87 (6): 1069-1075.
282. WANG, X H; ANDRAE, L; ENGESETH, N J (2002) Antimutagenic effect of various honeys and sugars
against Trp-p-1. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 50 (23): 6923-6928.
283. WANG, X H; GHELDOF, N; ENGESETH, N J (2004) Effect of processing and storage on antioxidant
capacity of honey. Journal of Food Science 69 (2): C96-C101.
285. WESTON, R J; MITCHELL, K R; ALLEN, K L (1999) Antibacterial phenolic components of New Zealand
manuka honey. Food Chemistry 64 (3): 295-301.
286. WHITE, J W; SUBERS M.H. (1964) Studies on honey inhibine. 3. Effect of heat. Journal of Apicultural
Research 3: 45-50.
287. WHITE, J W; SUBERS M.H. (1964) Studies on honey inhibine. 4. Destruction of the peroxide accumulation
system by light. Journal of Food Science 29: 819-828.
288. WHITE, J W; SUBERS, M H (1963) Studies on honey inhibine. 2. A chemical assay. Journal of Apicultural
Research 2 (3): 93-100.
290. WILKINSON, J M; CAVANAGH, H (2005) Antibacterial Activity of 13 Honeys Against Escherichia coli
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J.Med.Food 8: 100-103.
291. WILLERSON, J; RIDKER, P (2004) Inflammation as a Cardiovascular Risk Factor. Circulation 109: II2-II10.
292. WOO, K S; YONG-HO, C; EUN-MI, J (2009) Review of antioxidant activity and antibacterial capacity of
Koreand produced black locust honey and chestnut honey, Proceedings of the 9th international
conference on Apitherapy Health Care and International Forum of Apitherapy and Bee Products,
Asoam Apicultural Association, Nopburee Press, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 14.Nov.2009: pp 30-39.
293. WU, Q (2011) Antimicrobial effect of Manuka and Kanuka honey alone and in combination with the
bioactives against the growth of Propionbacterium acnes ATCC 6919. Massey University Albany
New Zealand; pp.383pp.
294. YATSUNAMI, K; ECHIGO, T (1984) Antibacterial action of honey and royal jelly (japanisch). Honeybee
Science 5 (3): 125-130.
295. YUN, Y W (1996) Fructooligosaccharides - occurrence, preparation and application. Enzyme and microbial
technology 19: 107-117.
296. ZAID.S.; SULAIMAN, S; SIRAJUDEEN, K; OTHMAN, N (2010) The Effects of Tualang honey on Female
Reproductive Organs, Tibia Bone and Hormonal Profile in Ovariectomised Rats - animal model for
menopause. BMC-CAM 10:82: doi:10.1186/1472-6882-10-82.
297. ZEINA, B; OTHMAN, O; AL-ASSAD, S (1996) Effect of honey versus thyme on Rubella virus survival in
vitro. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 2 (3): 345-348.
298. ZEINA, B; ZOHRA, B I; AL ASSAD, S (1997) The effects of honey on Leishmania parasites: an in vitro
study. Tropical Doctor 27 Suppl 1: 36-38.
299. ZHAO, X; ZHOU, Z J; HAN, Y; WANG, Z Z; FAN, J; XIAO, H Z (2013) Isolation and identification of
antifungal peptides from Bacillus BH072, a novel bacterium isolated from honey. Microbiological
Research 168 (9): 598-606.
Stefan Bogdanov
Wound healing was probably the first use of honey for human health. In
the oldest human scriptures from Sumer, dating back about 2000 BC a
prescription for treating wounds states: Grind to a powder river dust and
. (words missing) then knead it in water and honey and let plain oil and
hot cedar oil be spread over it65
According to the Ebers papyrus (1550 BC) honey is included in 147
prescriptions in external applications: Mix honey, red ochre, powdered
alabaster to cure spotted baldness or includes honey after surgery, as
suppository and to reduce inflammation. 65
According to the Smith papyrus (1700 BC) it was used in wound healing:
Pabasa tombs, 26th Dynasty, 760-656 BC Thou shouldst bind [the wound] with fresh meat the first day [and] treat
afterwards with grease, honey [and] lint every day until he recovers. 65
In the first compendium of ancient Chinese Medicine Shen Nang,
compiled many years BC, and mentioned in a written form for the first
time around 200 AD there are many prescriptions and medical indications
which contain honey119.
In ancient India ayuruvedic medicine uses honey for many purposes.
According to the Ayruveda classic Ashtanga Hridaya, written about 500
AD honey can be used against many diseases, e.g. healing and cleaning
wounds, against different internal and external infections72
The ancient Greeks considered honey as medicine and believed that if bee
honey is taken regularly human life could be prolonged. Early thinkers
such as Homer, Pythagoras, Ovid, Democritus, Hippocrates and Aristotle
mentioned that people should eat honey to preserve their health and
vigour. Dioscorides, in the first century AD (see picture to the left) used
honey for treating wounds75
Honey was the most useful substance used in old Roman pharmacopoeia.
Pliny writes that it is good for afflictions of the mouth, pneumonia,
65
pleurisy and snake bites
The wise Solomon praises the virtues of honey in the old testament. The
Koran says thy Lord taught the bee to build its cells in hills, on trees and
in (men's) habitations..... there issues from within their bodies a drink of
varying colours, wherein is healing for mankind (Quran 16:68-69).
The ancient Maya civilisations used Melipona (stingless bee) honey in the
Preparation of honey medicine from Materia 65
treatment of cataracts
Medica, Dioscorides, Arab translation 1224
Today the knowledge on the healing virtues of honey and the other bee
product is called apitherapy is compiled in many books or on the Internet
www.apitherapy.com, www.apitherapy.org
Unifloral honeys are used in folk medicine for different purposes. The applications given in the
table below remain to be confirmed by experimental science. Indeed, in most scientifically
conducted clinical studies the botanical origin of the honey was not determined. On the other hand,
the antibacterial and the antioxidant activity of honey depends strongly on the botanical origin.
Health enhancing effects of different unifloral honey have been claimed in different practical
apitherapy books, e.g. 32, 89, 100. The table below has been compiled from them. At present there is
no scientific explanation of many of the claimed effects.
Stefan Bogdanov, Bee Product Science, February 2014, www.bee-hexagon.net 99
HONEY AND WOUND CARE: AN OVERVIEW
By Keith Cutting, with some additions by S. Bogdanov
After two months the wound was completely closed. The cicatrise
is almost invisible and he skin is healthy, tender and elastic at the
same time.
The applications of honey in wound and burn healing have been treated in different reviews, the recent ones
being: 14, 32, 33, 45, 66, 67, 77, 114
Manuka and acacia honey have been successfully used against halitosis (malodour) 118
Summarising the different findings, it can be concluded that honey is probably not as cariogenic as other
sugars and in some cases can be also carioprotective, especially when strong antibacterial honey is
ingested. However, for safety reasons, after consumption of honey it is advised to clean the teeth.
OTHER EXTERNAL APPLICATIONS
Besides the application in wounds and burns honey has also other external applications:
Against catheter infection
Topical medihoney can be successfully use against catheter infections64
Against virus action on lips and genitals 13:
Apply honey on gauze auf critical point and change once a day
Against boils and furuncles
Mix liquid honey and flour 1:1, add a little water and brush with it affected area. Cover with gauze and
leave it overnight.
Against muscle cramps
Cover affected area with honey, cover with gauze or cloth and fix it with adhesive plaster. Ev. cover with a
warm wool cloth. Leave at least 2 hours.
Against bruises and contusions
Mix honey and olive oil 1:1 and cover with mixture affected area. Cover with gauze and leave for 4-6 hours.
Enhances post tonsilitis inflammation healing
Tualang honey from Malaysia enhances post tonsilitis inflammation healing process76
Bardy et al tested the effect of active manuka honey on radiation-induced mucositis. A total of 131 patients
diagnosed with head and neck cancer who were having radiotherapy to the oral cavity or oropharyngeal area
were recruited into the study, and were randomly allocated to take either manuka honey or placebo (golden
syrup) 20 ml 4 times daily for 6 weeks. Mucositis was assessed according to the Radiation Therapy
Oncology Group (RTOG) scale at baseline, weekly during radiotherapy, and twice weekly thereafter until
the mucositis resolved. The patient's weight was recorded at the same time as the mucositis was assessed.
Throat swabs to identify bacterial or fungal infections were taken at baseline, and during and after
Honey has a supportive effect on human patients who have undergone a cancer radiation therapy, decreasing
radiation mucositis. Patients with head and neck cancer treated with radiation therapy were given honey.
There was a significant reduction in the symptomatic grade 3/4 mucositis among honey-treated patients
compared to controls; i.e. 20 versus 75%. The compliance of honey-treated group of patients was better than
controls. Fifty-five percent of patients treated with topical honey showed no change or a positive gain in
body weight compared to 25% in the control arm, the majority of whom lost weight 29.
Patients with head and neck cancer treated with radiation therapy were given honey. There was a significant
reduction in the symptomatic grade 3/4 mucositis among honey-treated patients compared to controls; i.e. 20
versus 75%. The compliance of honey-treated group of patients was better than controls. Fifty-five percent
of patients treated with topical honey showed no change or a positive gain in body weight compared to 25%
in the control arm, the majority of whom lost weight29.
A randomized controlled clinical trial was conducted on 90 patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and
oral mucositis grades 2 and 3. The mean age of enrolled patients was 6.9 years. The patients were assigned
into 3 equal treatment groups: Honey, HOPE (honey, olive-oil propolis), and control groups. Recovery time
in grade 2 mucositis was significantly reduced in the honey group as compared with either HOPE or controls
(P < .05). In grade 3 mucositis, recovery time did not differ significantly between honey and HOPE (P =
0.61) but compared with controls, healing was faster with either honey or HOPE (P < .01). Generally, in
both grades of mucositis, honey produced faster healing than either HOPE or controls (P < .05). Based on
our results that showed that honey produced faster healing in patients with grade 2/3 chemotherapy-induced
mucositis, we recommend using honey and possibly other bee products and olive oil in future therapeutic
trials targeting chemotherapy-induced mucositis3
Pediatric oncology
In paediatric oncology patients, the immune system is often suppressed by cytotoxic antineoplastic agents or
radiation therapy and wound healing is impaired. In the Department of Paediatric Oncology at the Childrens
Hospital in the University of Bonn, Medihoney has become a readily accepted treatment with a positive
impact on patient and parent satisfaction120.
Honey and chemotherapeutic drugs in combined supportive therapy
This use of honey has been reviewed81. Honey has been used to support chemotherapeutic action and reduce
its side effects in myelosuppression, neutropenia etc.
The effect of honey under clinical condition on more than 40 gastric ulcer patients was studied in a Russian
hospital. Control treatments were with water. It was found that ingestion of 120 ml of 33 % honey solution
by gastric ulcer patiens improves the micro capillary blood circulation, which can beneficially influence the
gastric ulcers. Ingestion of 120 ml of 33 % honey warm honey solution decreases the acidity of the gastric
juice, while the ingestion of the same amount and concentration of a cold honey solution increased the
acidity of the gastric juice. The sleep of the gastric ulcer patients was also improved by ingestion of 50 g
honey before sleep. In order to decrease gastric juice acidity the author recommends the intake of warm
honey solution 40 to 60 minutes before eating. The function of the gall bladder is improved by the ingestion
of cool solution of 100 ml 50 % honey (13-15 0C ) The author concludes that ingestion of warm honey ev. in
combination with propolis ingestion, is a good way to treat gastric ulcers48.
There are reports on healing of patients of suffering from gastritis, duodenitis and duodenal ulcers by intake
of 30 ml of honey115.
Clinical and animal studies have shown that honey reduces the secretion of gastric acid. Additionally, gastric
ulcers have been successfully treated by the use of honey as a dietary supplement. An 80% recovery rate of
600 gastric ulcer patients treated with oral administration of honey has been reported. Radiological
examination showed that ulcers disappeared in 59% of patients receiving honey68.
Laxative effect against constipation
In certain cases, consumption of relatively large amounts of honey (50 to 100 g) can lead to a mild laxative
effect in individual with insufficient absorption of honey fructose74 . Fructose is less readily absorbed in the
intestinal tract than fructose together with glucose113. The mild laxative properties of honey are used for the
treatment of constipation in Eastern Europe, China and the Near East. However one should not give honey
against constipation of infants younger than 1 year old because of the children botulism risk.
Against acute gastroenteritis in children
A clinical study of honey treatment in infantile gastroenteritis was reported by Haffejee and Moosa. They
found that by replacing the glucose (111 mmol/l) in the standard electrolyte-containing oral rehydration
solution recommended by the World Health Organisation/UNICEF as well as the solution of electrolyte
composition 48 mmol/ l sodium, 28 mmol/l potassium, 76 mmol/l chloride ions, with 50 ml/l honey (29), the
mean recovery times of patients (aged 8 days to 11 years) were significantly reduced. Honey was found to
shorten the duration of diarrhoea in patients with bacterial gastroenteritis caused by organisms such as
Salmonella, Shigella and E. coli. They recommended that honey was a safe substitute for glucose as long as
it provided 111 mmol/l each of glucose and fructose. The high sugar content of honey means that it could be
used to promote sodium and water absorption from the bowel59 .
CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH
The effects of ingestion of 75 g of natural honey by humans compared to the same amount of artificial
honey (fructose plus glucose) or glucose on plasma glucose, plasma insulin, cholesterol, triglycerides (TG),
blood lipids, C-reactive proteins and homocysteine, most of them being risk factors for cardiovascular
diseases were studied in humans. Elevation of insulin and C-reactive protein was significantly higher after
dextrose than after honey.
Dextrose reduced cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C). Artificial honey slightly
decreased cholesterol and LDL-C and elevated TG. Honey reduced cholesterol, LDL-C, and TG and slightly
elevated high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C). In patients with hyperlipidemia, artificial honey
increased LDL-C, while honey decreased LDL-C12.
A similar study has been recently carried out in normal and overweight persons carrying a higher risk for a
cardiovascular disease. These patients were given 70 g honey for 30 days. Results showed that honey caused
a mild reduction in body weight (1.3%) and body fat (1.1%). Honey reduced total cholesterol (3%), LDL-C
(5.8), triacylglycerole (11%), FBG (4.2%), and CRP (3.2%), and increased HDL-C (3.3%) in subjects with
normal values, while in patients with elevated variables, honey caused reduction in total cholesterol by
3.3%, LDL-C by 4.3%, triacylglycerole by 19%, and CRP by 3.3% (p < 0.05). The conclusion of the authors
is that consumption of natural honey reduces cardiovascular risk factors, particularly in subjects with
elevated risk factors, and it does not increase body weight in overweight or obese subjects138. Honey
decreases also platelet aggregation and blood coagulation5
The above cited studies suggest small effects of honey on arteriosclerosis risk factors such as cholesterol,
LDL-c and TG, the first studies being carried out with only 9 patients.
In a study with 30 persons and 30 controls it was shown that no significant decrease of cholesterol HDL and
TG was encountered after ingestion of 75 g honey daily for a period of 14 days. While there were no effects
Ingestion of one to two table spoons of buckwheat honey (10-20 g) by children of 6 to 18 years (6-
11 years old- one table spoon, 12-18 yeas old 2 table spoons) improved also the sleep of coughing
children102, 135. These results were confirmed with 3 honeys (eucalyptus, citrus and labiatae) for the
improvement of sleep in children (1-5 year old) with upper respiratory tract infections39
According to a theoretical model for the influence of honey on sleep honey stabilizes blood sugar levels and
contributes to the release of melatonin, the hormone required for recovery and rebuilding of body tissues
during rest82
HONEY AGAINST DIABETES ?
A clinical trial in Egypt showed that that long-term consumption of honey might have positive effects on the
metabolic derangements of type 1 diabetes4
THE EXPERIENCE IN RUSSIA
Ludyansky, a chief doctor in a big Russian hospital, with life-long practice in apitherapy, has summarised
the apitherapy knowledge in his monograph Apitherapia (in Russian)79
10. AL WAILI, N S; SALOOM, K Y (1999) Effects of topical honey on post-operative wound infections due to
gram positive and gram negative bacteria following caesarean sections and hysterectomies. European
journal of medical research 4 (3): 126-130.
11. AL-BUKHAARI, M (1994) Holy Hadith (Sahih Al-Bukhari, Arabic). Kazi Publications Chicago (3rd. edition)
12. AL-WAILI, N S (2004) Natural honey lowers plasma glucose, C-reactive protein, homocysteine, and blood
lipids in healthy, diabetic, and hyperlipidemic subjects: Comparison with dextrose and sucrose.
Journal of Medicinal Food 7 (1): 100-107.
13. AL-WAILI, N S (2004) Topical honey applications vs. acyclovir for the treatment of recurrent herpes simplex
lesions. Medical Science Monitor 10 (8): 94-98.
14. AL-WAILI, N S; SALOM, K; AL-GHAMDI, A A (2011) Honey for Wound Healing, Ulcers, and Burns; Data
Supporting Its Use in Clinical Practice. ScientificWorldJournal: 766-787.
15. ALI, A T M (1995) Natural honey accelerates healing of indomethacin-induced antral ulcers in rats. Saudi
Med.J. 16 (2): 161-166.
16. ALI, A T M M (1991) Prevention of ethanol-induced gastric lesions in rats by natural honey, and its possible
mechanism of action. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 26: 281-288.
18. ALI, A T M M (1997) Natural honey prevents ischaemia-reperfusion-induced gastric mucosal lesions and
increased vascular permeability in rats. European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 9
(11): 1101-1107.
19. ALI, A T M M (2003) Prevention of ammonia-induced gastric lesions in rats by natural honey. Journal of
Nutritional & Environmental Medicine 13 (4): 239-246.
21. ALTMAN, N (2010) The honey prescription. Healing art press Rochester; Vermont 05767
25. BARDY, J; SLEVIN, N J; MAIS, K L; MOLASSIOTIS, A (2008) A systematic review of honey uses and its
potential value within oncology care. Journal of Clinical Nursing 17 (19): 2604-2623.
27. BERETTA, G; GELMINI, F; LODI, V; PIAZZALUNGA, A; FACINO, R M (2010) Profile of nitric oxide
(NO) metabolites (nitrate, nitrite and N-nitroso groups) in honeys of different botanical origins:
Nitrate accumulation as index of origin, quality and of therapeutic opportunities. Journal of
Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 53 (3): 343-349.
28. BETTS, J A; MOLAN, P C (2001) A pilot trial of honey as a wound dressing has shown the importance of the
way that honey is applied to wounds. Paper of the European Wound Management Association
Conference, Dublin, Eire
29. BISWAL, B M; ZAKARIA, A; AHMAD, N M (2003) Topical application of honey in the management of
radiation mucositis. A preliminary study. Supportive Care in Cancer 11 (4): 242-248.
31. BOUKRAA, L E (2010) Honey in Traditional and Modern Medicine. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group
32. BOUKRAA, L (2010) Honey in burn and wound management, In Boukraa, L (ed.) Honey in Traditional and
Modern Medicine, CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group; pp 125-153.
33. BOUKRAA, L; SULAIMAN, S A (2010) Honey Use in Burn Management: Potentials and Limitations.
Forschende Komplementarmedizin 17 (2): 74-80.
34. BOWEN, W H; LAWRENCE, R A (2005) Comparison of the cariogenicity of cola, honey, cow milk, human
milk, and sucrose. Pediatrics 116 (4): 921-926.
36. CAVANAGH, D; BEAZLEY, J; OSTAPOWICZ, F (1970) Radical operation for carcinoma of the vulva. A
new approach to wound healing. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 77 (11): 1037-1040.
38. CHAUVIN, R (1968) Action physiologique et therapeutique des produits de la ruche Traite de biologie de
l'abeille, Masson; Paris; pp 116-154.
40. COOPER, R A; HALAS, E; MOLAN, P C (2002) The efficacy of honey in inhibiting strains of Pseudomonas
aeruginosa from infected burns. Journal of Burn Care and Rehabilitation 23 (6): 366-370.
41. CROFT, L (1990) Honey and hay fever: a report on the treatment of hay fever with honey.
42. CUTTING K.; WHITE R. (2002) Maceration of the skin: 1. The nature and causes of skin maceration. Journal
of Wound Care 11: 275-278.
43. CUTTING, K F (2007) Honey and contemporary wound care: An overview. Ostomy/Wound Management 53
(11): 49-54.
44. DARBY-STEWART, A; DACHS, R; GRABER, M A (2009) Honey as a Treatment for Cough in Children.
American Family Physician 80 (2): 120-121.
45. DAVIES, P (2005) Recent Clinical Usage of Honey in the Treatment of Wounds - A Review. Wounds 5 (1):
14-22.
46. DECAIX, C (1976) Comparative study of sucrose and honey. Le Chirurgien-dentiste de France 46 (285-286):
59-60.
47. DESCOTTES, B (2009) Cicatrisation par le miel, l'xprience de 25 annes. Phytotherapie 7: 112-116.
48. DUBTSOVA, E (2009) Clinical studies with bee products for therapy of some nutritional diseases (in
Russian). Central Moscow Institute of Gastroenterology Moscow; pp 1-38.
49. DUNFORD, C; COOPER, R; MOLAN, P (2000) Using honey as a dressing for infected skin lesions. NT Plus
96 (14): 7-9.
50. EDGAR, W M; JENKINS, G N (1974) Solubility-reducing agents in honey and partly-refined crystalline
sugar. British Dental Journal 136: 7-14.
51. EFEM, S E E (1988) Clinical observations on the wound healing properties of honey
183. British Journal of Surgery 75: 679-681.
52. EL-HADDAD, S; SHAWAF, M (2013) Effect of honey for treatment of some common oral lesions: Follow up
of 50 cases. Journal of Dentistry and Oral Hygiene 5: 55-61.
53. EMARAH, M H (1982) A clinical study of the topical use of bee honey in the treatment of some occular
diseases. Bulletin of Islamic Medicine 2 (5): 422-425.
54. FROLOV, V M; PERESSADIN, N A (2006) Honey against influenza and sore throat. Pcelovodstvo 10 (529):
52-53.
58. GROBLER, S R; DU TOIT, I J; BASSON, N J (1994) The effect of honey on human tooth enamel in vitro
observed by electron microscopy and microhardness measurements. Archives of Oral Biology 39:
147-153.
59. HAFFEJEE, I E; MOOSA, A (1985) Honey in the treatment of infantile gastroenteritis. British Medical
Journal 290: 1866-1867.
60. HARNISCH, G (2008) Die Entgiftungsmassage mit Honig. Altes russisches Heilwissen neu entdeckt - leicht
anzuwenden. Lorber U. Turm Verlag; 88 pp
61. HAYDAK, M H; PALMER, L S; TANQUARY, M C (1942) The role of honey in the prevention and cure of
nutritional anemia in rats. Journal of Pediatrics 21 (6): 763-768.
62. HEPPERMANN, B; JONES, J S (2009) Honey for the Symptomatic Relief of Cough in Children with Upper
Respiratory Tract Infections. Emergency Medicine Journal 26 (7): 522-523.
63. IRISH, J; CARTER, D; BLAIR, S (2005) Honey kills some of our most dangerous microbial enemies
Apimondia abstracts Ireland 2005, Dublin; pp 124.
64. JOHNSON D.W.; VAN EPS C.; MUDGE DW .; WIGGINS KJ; ARMSTRONG K; HAWLEY CM;
CAMPBELL SB; ISBEL NM; NIMMO GR; GIBBS H (2005) Randomized, controlled trial of topical
exit-site application of honey (Medihoney) versus mupirocin for the prevention of catheter-associated
infections in hemodialysis patients. J.Am.Soc.Nephrol. 16: 1456-1462.
65. JONES, R (2001) Honey and healing through the ages, In Munn, P; Jones, R (eds) Honey and healing, IBRA
International Bee Research Association; Cardiff, GB; pp 1-4.
66. JULL, A B; RODGERS, A; WALKER, N (2008) Honey as a topical treatment for wounds. Cochrane
Database of Systematic Reviews ( Issue 4. Art. No.: CD005083. DOI:
10.1002/14651858.CD005083.pub2.)
67. JULL, A B; WALKER, N; DESHPANDE, S (2013) Honey as a topical treatment for wounds. Cochrane
Database of Systematic Reviews (2)
69. KARAYIL, S; DESHPANDE, S D; KOPPIKAR, G V (1998) Effect of honey on multidrug resistant organisms
and its synergistic action with three common antibiotics. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine 44 (4):
93-96.
71. KHOTKINA, M L (1955) Honey as part of therapy for patients with stomach ulcers. Collection of papers from
the Irkutsk State Medical Institute: 252-262.
73. KUMAR, A; SHARMA, V K; SINGH, H P; PRAKASH, P; SINGH, S P (1993) Efficacy of some indigenous
drugs in tissue repair in buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 70 (1): 42-44.
75. LAHANAS, M (2010) Examples of Ancient Greek Medical Knowledge.: accessed 8.2.2010 on
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Med.htm.
76. LAZIM, N M; ABDULLAH, B; SALIM, R (2013) The effect of Tualang honey in enhancing post
tonsillectomy healing process. An open labelled prospective clinical trial. International Journal of
Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology 77 (4): 457-461.
77. LEE, D S; SINNO, S; KHACHEMOUNE, A (2011) Honey and Wound Healing An Overview. American
Journal of Clinical Dermatology 12 (3): 181-190.
82. MCINNIS, M (2008) The Uniqueness of Honey - - its impact on Human Metabolism and its role in Restorative
Sleep, First International Symposium on honey and health, Sacremento
83. MENSHIKOV, F K; FEIDMAN, S I (1949) Curing stomach ulcers with honey. Sovetskaya Meditsing 10: 13-
14.
84. MOHAMED, S A; SHEBL, A; WEHEIDA, S M (2012) The Effect of Topical Application of Honey on
Management of Chemotherapy Induced Oral Stomatitis. Life Science Journal-Acta Zhengzhou
University Overseas Edition 9 (4): 5128-5134.
85. MOLAN, P (2002) Not all honeys are the same for wound healing. Eur Tissue Repair Soc Bulletin 9: 5-6.
86. MOLAN, P (2005) Mode of action, In White, R; Molan, P; Copper, R (eds) Honey: A modern wound
management product, Wounds UK; Aberdeen; pp 1-23.
87. MOLAN, P C (2001) Honey as a topical antibacterial agent for treatment of infected wounds. http: www.World
Wide Wounds.com.Report: 1-13.
88. MOLAN, P C (2001) Honey for oral health. Journal of Dental Research 80 (special issue): 1-130.
89. MOLAN, P C (2001) Why honey is effective as a medicine - 1. Its use in modern medicine, In Munn, P; Jones,
R (eds); pp 5-13. (82. edition)
90. MOLAN, P C (2002) Re-introducing honey in the management of wounds and ulcers - theory and practice.
Ostomy/Wound Management 48 (11): 28-40.
91. MOOLENAAR, M; POORTER, R L; VAN DER TOORN, P P; LENDERINK, A W (2006) The effect of
honey compared to conventional treatment on healing of radiotherapy--induced skin toxicity in
breast cancer patients. Acta Oncologica 45: 623-624.
96. ODUWOLE, O; MEREMIKWU, M M; OYO-ITA, A; UDOH, E E (2012) Honey for acute cough in children.
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (3)
97. ONYESOM, I (2004) Effect of Nigerian citrus (Citrus sinensis Osbeck) honey on ethanol metabolism. Samj
South African Medical Journal 94 (12): 984-986.
98. ONYESOM, I (2005) Honey-induced stimulation of blood ethanol elimination and its influence on serum
triacylglycerol and blood pressure in man. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 49 (5): 319-324.
100. ORYAN, A; ZAKER, S R (1998) Effects of topical application of honey on cutaneous wound healing in
rabbits. Journal of veterinary medicine.A, Physiology, pathology, clinical medicine 45 (3): 181-188.
101. OSATO, M S; REDDY, S G; GRAHAM, D Y (1999) Osmotic effect of honey on growth and viability of
Helicobacter pylori. Digestive diseases and sciences 44 (3): 462-464.
104. PERSANO ODDO, L; PIRO, R (2004) Main European unifloral honeys: descriptive sheets. Apidologie 35
(special issue): S38-S81.
105. PIAZZA, M G; PERSANO ODDO, L (2004) Bibliographical review of the main European unifloral honeys.
Apidologie 35 (special issue): S94-S111.
106. POKORN, D; VUKMIROVIC, V (1978) Velocity of gastric emptying of saccharides after administering
honey, apicompleks and pure invert sugar, IIIe Symposium International d'Apitherapie, 11-15
Septembre 1978, Portoroz, Yougoslavie, Apimondia, Bukarest, 1978: pp 277-279.
107. POSTMES, T; VANDEPUTTE, J (1999) Recombinant growth factors or honey? Burns 25 (7): 676-678.
108. POTSCHINKOVA, P (1999) Apitherapie: Die Heilkraft von Honig and Co. Ehrenwirth Verlag Mnchen
109. POURAHMAD, M; SOBHANIAN, S (2009) Effect of Honey on the Common Cold. Arch Med Res 40: 224-
225.
110. PRAKASH, S; RATNA, R (2014) Honey in Ayurvedic Medicine, In Boukraa, L (ed.) Honey in Traditional
and Modern Medicine, CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group; pp 13-20.
111. RAEESSI, M A; ASLANI, J; RAEESSI, N; GHARAIE, H; ZARCHI, A A K; RAEESSI, F (2013) Honey plus
coffee versus systemic steroid in the treatment of persistent post-infectious cough: a randomised
controlled trial. Primary Care Respiratory Journal 22 (3): 325-330.
112. RAJAN, T V; TENNEN, H; LINDQUIST, R L; COHEN, L; CLIVE, J (2002) Effect of Ingestion of Honey on
Symptoms of Rhinoconjunctivitis. Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology 88 (2): 198-203.
114. RIPPON, M; JONES, D (2005) A Review of the Physical Performance Characteristics of Honey-based Wound
Dressings and Ointments. Wounds, Honey Supplement 5: 50-60.
115. SALEM, S N (1981) Honey regimen in gastrointestinal disorders. Bulletin of Islamic Medicine 1: 358-362.
117. SHANNON, I L; EDMONDS, E J; MADSEN, K O (1979) Honey: Sugar content and cariogenicity. Journal of
dentistry for children: 29-33.
118. SHIGA, H; JO, A; TERAO, K; NAKANO, M; OSHIMA, T; MAEDA, N (2010) Decrease of halitosis by
intake of manuka honey, General Session of IADR Barcelona, 14.July2010
119. SIEDENTOPP, W (2009) Honey: Effective Against Inflammation, Cough and Hoarseness. Deutsche
Zeitschrift fuer Akkupunktur 52: DOI: 10.1016/ j .dza.2009.10.004.
121. SIRNIK, V; KOCH, V; GOLOB, T (1978) The influence of honey on the digestibility of nutritive substances
for albin rats (L'influence du miel sur la digestibilit des substances nutritives chez le rat albinos), IIIe
Symposium International d'Apitherapie, 11-15 Septembre 1978, Portoroz, Yougoslavie, Apimondia,
Bukarest, 1978: pp 286-290.
122. SIU-WAN, IP (2007) Honey in Chinese Culture. Malays J Med Sci 14: 101-127.
123. SLOBODIANIUK, A A; SLOBODIANIUK, M S (1969) Complex treatment of gastritis patients with high
stomach secretion in combination with (and without) a 15-20% solution of honey, Resorts ofBashkiria
in the Service of Health., Ufa, Bashkir. Khniz. izd.-vo: pp 249-253.
125. STEINBERG, D; KAINE, G; GEDALIA, I (1996) Antibacterial effect of propolis and honey on oral bacteria.
American Journal of Dentistry 9 (6): 236-239.
126. STEPHEN-HAYNES, J (2004) Evaluation of honey impregnated tulle dressing in primary care. Brit J
Community Nurs, Wound Care Supplement: S21-S27.
127. SUBRAHMANYAM, M (1997) A prospective randomised clinical and histological study of superficial burn
wound healing with honey and silver sulfadiazine. Burns 24: 157-161.
129. SUBRAHMANYAM, M; SAHAPURE, A; NAGANE, N (2003) Free radical control the main mechanism of
the action of honey in burns. Ann Burns Fire Disasters 16: 135-138.
131. UWAYDAT, S; JHA, P; TYTARENKO, R; BROWN, H; WIGGINS, M; BORA, P S; BORA, N S (2011) The
Use of Topical Honey in the Treatment of Corneal Abrasions and Endotoxin-Induced Keratitis in an
Animal Model. Current eye research 36 (9): 787-796.
133. WAHDAN, H A (1998) Causes of the antimicrobial activity of honey. Infection 26 (1): 26-31.
134. WARREN, M D; COOPER, W O (2008) Honey improves cough in children compared to no treatment.
Journal of Pediatrics 152 (5): 739-740.
136. WHITE, R; MOLAN, P; COPPER, R; EDS. (2005) Honey: A modern wound management product. Wounds
UK Aberdeen; 160 pp
137. WOOD, B; RADEMAKER, M; MOLAN, P (1997) Manuka honey, a low cost leg ulcer dressing. The New
Zealand medical journal 110 (1040): 107.
141. ZUMLA, A; LULAT, A (1989) Honey - a remedy rediscovered. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 82:
384-385.