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Best Critical reasoning shortcuts, tips, and notes

Assumptions -1

An assumption is merely an unstated (implied) premise.

In logically correct arguments which contain an assumption, the premise +
assumption = conclusion.
If the question stem asks you what is assumed then you should identify
unstated premise of passage. Look for a gap in logic.
Assumptions - 2

Ask yourself, What must be true to make the conclusion valid? (Using the premise +
assumption = equation formula).
Remember, since the assumption is an UNSTATED premise, any answer choice
that comes from the passage to support your assumption is necessarily
incorrect. The answer will be implied, not explicitly stated.

Assumption -3

An assumption bridges the gap between arguments stated premises and

conclusion.
Use denial test.
Compare premise words against conclusion.
For assumption questions, find the conclusion and determine which answer choice needs to be
true for a conclusion to be valid.

Strengthen the Argument

Find the logical gap and fix it with additional information. This is the ONLY type of GMAT
question where additional information (outside of the question) can/should be used.

Correct answers to this question type will:

Connect evidence with conclusion better.
Make conclusion stronger.
Strengthen the evidence with new information (perhaps an assumption is needed to make the
argument work

Strengthen/Weaken

Strengthen/Weaken questions are the most common Critical Reasoning (CR)

question type on the GMAT.

Break down piece of evidence.

Attack validity of an assumption.
Dont try to prove or disprove conclusion.
 Tip the scales.

Strengthen/Weaken

Dont be careless! Wrong answer choices often have exactly opposite of desired effect.

Double-check that your answer satisfies the question stem, not the opposite
of the question stem.
When you compare two items, you must be sure that the two items are indeed
comparable.

Inference
Inference questions are usually very basic, about one or more premises. PICK THE
OBVIOUS ANSWER (even if it seems too obvious).

Consider the evidence, draw a conclusion.

An inference is an extension of an argument, not a necessary part of it.
A valid inference is a conclusion, but not necessarily the conclusion, of a set of
statements.
For inference questions, determine which answer choice must absolutely, positively be
true based on what youve read.
Pick the obvious answer choice.
Avoid extreme answers (too strong or too weak)

Inference vs. Assumption

An inference is a conclusion that can be drawn based on one or more of the statements in the
stimulus. An inference must be true based on something that you read.
An assumption is a missing but necessary piece of evidence. An assumption is something that must
be true in order for the argument to be complete

Numbers, Percentages
Watch for the distinction between NUMBERS and PERCENTAGES.

Resolve the Paradox

To solve this type of question, look for a logically contradictory discrepancy.

Often the correct answer will take a similar format (in terms of answer length or
argument structure).

Mimic the Reasoning

Follow same line of reasoning from the passage in the answer.
Eliminate the question stem detail to create a shorthand version of the argument structure.

Question Stem: If it rains, then I will stay at home today.

Shorthand: If A, then B.
Answer: If A, then B.

Statistical Assumptions
Are the statistics representative?
Is the question stem doing a lure and switch in terms of numbers?
Is the question stem using numbers to assume something is so, when the numbers arent actually
helping explain the phenomenon given?

7 Principles of CR
1. Understand structure of argument. Identify premise (P), conclusion (C) and any unstated
assumptions. Look for structural signpost words which mark P and C.
2. Preview question before reading passage.
3. Paraphrase passages point or main idea using one verb i.e., explain, criticize, compare,
contrast.3
4. Judge arguments persuasiveness while reading actively.
5. Answer question being asked.
6. Prephrase answer.
7. Keep SCOPE in mind. Moderate rather than strong words / qualifiers usually correct.

Paraphrasing and Prephrasing

Paraphrasing

Actively translate passages into your own words.

Pretend you are explaining the information in a passage to a 10-year-old kid.
Pre phrasing

Think about what form the correct answer will take.

As you do more questions, you will begin to guess correctly, as you start to
think as the test makers do.

Strategy
Identify the conclusion and find the answer that addresses the conclusion. Most questions
follow this guideline.

4-Step Method
1. Preview question stem.
2. Read stimulus and paraphrase if tricky.
3. Prephrase answer.
4. Choose an answer which answers question stem

Indicate Flaw
Use the information that is present in the passage to answer Indicate the Flaw CR questions.
Not about new information like Weaken CR questions.

Irrelevant
Watch for irrelevant or overly strong answer choices in CR.
Stay within SCOPE and TONE of passage

Negate (Counterattack)
For assumption questions, negate CR answer choice to see if the conclusion can survive

Statistics
When an argument is based on statistics, it is usually assumed that the people polled are representative
of the whole
Questions Involving Surveys, Consider: Does the survey accurately represent the views of the whole
group surveyed? Is there a statistics bait and switch?

Scope Shifts
Be wary of scope shifts. Look for tentmakers tricks:

Sometimes a passage will begin with one group and draw a conclusion about another
group. Similarly, a passage might have weak premises and then draw an overbroad
conclusion.
Other times the tone of the passage moves so far that the testtaker is left wondering,
How did that conclusion come about?

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1. Must be true/Inference/Conclusion CR: You have to consider whatever stated

in the stimulus as true.
Correct choices can be:
 Paraphrased of some part or entire stimulus
Combination of two or more premises

Incorrect choices can be:

Could be true or Likely to be true choices
Exaggerated/Extreme case answers
a. New information (not explicitly mentioned in the stimulus) containing
choices
b. Shell game (an idea, in one of the choices, similar to the one mentioned in the
stimulus, but in a modified form to make it attractive choice. This will be a Trap)
c. Opposite answer (opposite to the stated facts in the stimulus). For example,
stimulus shows case >>> effect while the choice says effect >>> cause.
d. Reverse order (rearrangement of some term in the answer choices which are
also mentioned in the stimulus). For example,
Many politicians are having some type of security gadgets.

While the choice says:

Some politicians are having many types of security gadgets.

2. Main Point Question: It is same as the Must be True/Inference types. You have to
consider whatever stated in the stimulus as true but the correct choice reflects the
authors point of view and all facts in this choice are also reflected in the stimulus .

Incorrect choices can be:

a. Choices that repeats one/some of the premise(s) of the argument.
b. Answers that are true as per the argument but do not capture authors point.
c. Exaggerated/Extreme case answers
e. New information (not explicitly mentioned in the stimulus) containing choices
d. Shell game
e. Choices mentioning the opposite answer
f. Choices in Reverse order

3. Weaken the argument/conclusion: The best part of this type of question is

availability of conclusion in the argument. If you can spot the conclusion then
your chances to select the best among weakening choices will be higher, because you
may find several choices may be weakening the conclusion but there will be one
which is weakening the MOST.

Remember, the following:

a. You need to question the validity of the argument not the answer choices .

b. In the question stem you will find words indicating weaken the conclusion:

Weaken, attack, undermine, contradicts, evidence against, challenge, damage,

counter, refute, argue against, cast doubt, criticize, call into question, etc.
c. There are traces of flaw/error in the reasoning given in the argument . Read closely to
spot them. This error can help you to select the best choice.

d. Even if the choice introduces new information, you need to accept them as correct
choices, if they are weakening the conclusion.

e. We need to call into question the conclusion by showing that the author fails to
address some crucial part/information to arrive at the conclusion . This missed part is
assumption on which the conclusion is based. We are not to destroy the
conclusion, though it can be a correct choice.

f. Try to personalize the choices as if these are asked to you. What would you
answer for them? This will become easier once you start practice.

Example: All software engineers go to US. Mr. X went to US. Therefore, Mr. X is
a software engineer.

Not necessarily. This is just oversimplified statement. Mr. X can be a child care
activist, who met the senator in US for some funds. If the argument were,

Only software engineers go to US. Mr. X went to US. Therefore, Mr. X is a software
engineer.

True.

Correct choices can be identified by:

a. Choices indicating incomplete information (new info), which is missed by
the author as one of the possibility.
b. Improper comparison b/w two things which are altogether different.

Incorrect answer choices: I call them Fallacies/Traps.

a. Opposite answer: This is almost present as one of the answer choices.
Refer the Must be True question section for some details. This choice
will lead you to think in the opposite direction w.r.t. the conclusion.
b. Shell game choice: Refer the Must be True question section for some details.
Remember, in shell game, a similar reasoning/idea is presented similar to one of
the premises but it is in a modified form.
c. Out of scope choice: choices which are not as per the context. For
example, the argument is on plant in US while this choice is on plants
in other countries.
Now, lets take an example from OG10 to analyze different types of incorrect
weakening choices:

110. Robot satellites relay important communications and identify weather

patterns. Because the satellites can be repaired only in orbit, astronauts are
needed to repair them. Without repairs, the satellites would eventually
malfunction. Therefore, space flights carrying astronauts must continue.
 Which of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the argument
above?
(A) Satellites falling from orbit because of malfunctions burn up in the
atmosphere.
(B) Although satellites are indispensable in the identification of weather patterns,
weather forecasters also make some use of computer projections to identify
weather patters.
(C) The government, responding to public pressure, has decided to cut the budget
for space flights and put more money into social welfare programs.
(D) Repair of satellites requires heavy equipment, which adds to the amount of
fuel needed to lift a spaceship carrying astronauts into orbit.
(E) Technical obsolescence of robot satellites makes repairing them more costly and less
practical than sending new, improved satellites into orbit.

Conclusion: Therefore, space flights carrying astronauts must continue.

A choice should call into this conclusion as - space flights carrying astronauts
must NOT continue.

First thing you need to understand why space flights carrying astronauts must
continue. Is it because the satellites can be repaired only in orbit by astronauts? Is
there any other way the satellites can be repaired (by robots, technologies such as
remote sensing from Earth, etc) or send new and efficient satellites which are
more economical to sending satellites carrying astronauts.

(A) Satellites falling from orbit because of malfunctions burn up in the

atmosphere. [Out of scope choice. Although new info but irrelevant to our case.
Incorrect]
(B) Although satellites are indispensable in the identification of weather patterns,
weather forecasters also make some use of computer projections to identify
weather patters. [Some details, in fact, are mentioned in the argument on weather
patterns but nothing on the use of computer projections. This is indeed new info
but it is out of scope to our concern. Incorrect]
(C) The government, responding to public pressure, has decided to cut the budget
for space flights and put more money into social welfare programs. [All
underlined parts are new info and irrelevant to this case. Incorrect]
(D) Repair of satellites requires heavy equipment, which adds to the amount of
fuel needed to lift a spaceship carrying astronauts into orbit. [Beware, this is Shell
Game fallacy. Both underlined parts are mentioned in the argument but there is
some modification in their connectivity to mislead the test taker. Incorrect]
(E) Technical obsolescence of robot satellites makes repairing them more costly
and less practical than sending new, improved satellites into orbit. [This is what
missing as one of the possibilities against sending satellites carrying astronauts.
Correct]

Cause-Effect Reasoning
 Strengthen and Assumption: Most challenging and frequently occurring types of questions on
GMAT.

Remember the following:

c. There will always be one main conclusion present either in argument or in the
question stem.
d. You need to understand the organization of the argument, premises and
conclusion, in order to find the correct answer choices.
e. Read the stimulus carefully as there can be reasoning errors/gaps , which are crucial
for assumption based questions.
f. Even if the choice introduces new information, you need to accept them as correct
choices, if they are fitting in the context for the conclusion .
g. Assumptions are unstated premises, which connect the premises/facts with
the main conclusion, while the Strengthen part provides additional support
to the conclusion. You can say Strengthen choices advocate the
conclusion.
h. This is most critical-You need to consider all the answer choices as correct
and the stimulus is in question. Only the metal each choice carry varies. I
mean these all may support the argument from 1%-100% but there is only
one choice which is strengthening the argument the MOST.

Strengthen types:
a. The question stem will have indicators such as:

strengthen, support, helps, justifies

Correct choices:
a. Identify the conclusion and connect the answer choices with it to answer the
question does this choice helps the author? Is yes, this is your answer.
b. While understanding the organization of the argument, if you find
weaknesses/flaws/gaps, which are made intentionally, and one of the answer choices
is removing this problem then its your answer .
c. If there is conclusion in the question stem then there are good chances of
finding the:
1. EXCEPT/LEAST Strengthen choices
2. A missing info (assumption) is asked to support the conclusion.

Incorrect choices:
a. Opposite answers: These answers are just the opposite of strengthening
the conclusion, i.e., these weaken the conclusion.
b. Shell Game answers: This type of answer support a conclusion that is
similar to, but slightly different from, the one present in the stimulus. In
other words, this choice will have a similar but slightly different
conclusion.
c. Out of scope: These are the most common and more in number among the
5 choices. These bring irrelevant or narrow scope information to the
argument.
 d. Paraphrased premise: One of the premises is represented in a
paraphrased form just to mislead.

Now, take an example from OG10 to analyze different types of strengthening

choices:

60. Since the routine use of antibiotics can give rise to resistant bacteria
capable of surviving antibiotic environments, the presence of resistant
bacteria in people could be due to the human use of prescription antibiotics.
Some scientists, however, believe that most resistant bacteria in people derive
from human consumption of bacterially infected meat.

Which of the following statements, if true, would most significantly strengthen

the hypothesis of the scientists?

(A) Antibiotics are routinely included in livestock feed so that livestock producers
can increase the rate of growth of their animals.
(B) Most people who develop food poisoning from bacterially infected meat are
treated with prescription antibiotics.
(C) The incidence of resistant bacteria in people has tended to be much higher in
urban areas than in rural areas where meat is of comparable quality.
(D) People who have never taken prescription antibiotics are those least likely to
develop resistant bacteria.
(E) Livestock producers claim that resistant bacteria in animals cannot be
transmitted to people through infected meat.

Premises: The routine use of antibiotics can give rise to resistant bacteria capable
of surviving antibiotic environments.

Sub-conclusion: The presence of resistant bacteria in people could be due to the

human use of prescription antibiotics.

Counter Conclusion: Some scientists, however, believe that most resistant

bacteria in people derive from human consumption of bacterially infected meat.

In the question stem, the author asked for strengthening the scientists hypothesis.
So, this question type is our category c of Correct choices section (refer above).
We are asked for the missing link to prove the hypothesis as the correct
conclusion. Now, lets check individual answer choices:
(A) Antibiotics are routinely included in livestock feed so that livestock producers
can increase the rate of growth of their animals. [This is the missing link.
Correct]
(B) Most people who develop food poisoning from bacterially infected meat are
treated with prescription antibiotics. [New information, which is Out of scope
answer. Incorrect]
 (C) The incidence of resistant bacteria in people has tended to be much higher in
urban areas than in rural areas where meat is of comparable quality. [Out of scope
answer. Incorrect]
(D) People who have never taken prescription antibiotics are those least likely to
develop resistant bacteria. [This is a Shell Game trap. This option is in negation
to above premises and very narrow in scope. Incorrect]
(E) Livestock producers claim that resistant bacteria in animals cannot be
transmitted to people through infected meat. [It is a case of Opposite answer. This
is just stating against the scientists hypothesis. Incorrect]

Assumption based questions: Assumption based questions are usually the most
challenging and trickiest questions on GMAT.

Remember the following (Most of the following points are same as of the
Strengthen types):
a. There will always be one main conclusion present either in argument or in
the question stem.

b. You need to understand the organization of the argument, premises and

conclusion, in order to find the correct answer choices .

c. Read the stimulus carefully as there can be reasoning errors/gaps,

which are crucial for assumption based questions.

d. Even if the choice introduces new information, you need to accept

them as correct choices, if they are fitting in the context for the
conclusion. Remember, if the new information is present in the answer choices
then to qualify for a correct contender, this info should be a subset of the main
statement in the stimulus. For example Men (main statement): White
men, Black men, small men, etc (subsets of Men).

e. Assumptions are unstated premises, which connect the premises/facts with

the main conclusion. This is the most important part of the stimulus.
Thus, assumption will work like either a Supporter or a Defender:

Premise 1, premise 2, assumption, premise 3, conclusion

In this case, it is supporting the premises to lead to the conclusion.

Premise 1, premise 2, premise 3, assumption, conclusion

In this case, it is supported by the premises to lead to the conclusion.

Often, new information is added as assumption in such cases. If you

find an answer choice that contain new info, stop and check whether
 this new info is in context and filling some gaps in the argument. If
Yes, then that is your correct answer.

The author reasoning must be air-tight and every possible objection has been
considered and rejected. It means the idea that can weaken the conclusion
is already addressed in the stimulus or cannot occur. Here comes the
role of Defending Assumption types. If you do not find gaps in the
argument then this indicates that you can expect a Defender based assumption
question. For example:

People who read a lot are more intelligent than the other people.
Thus, reading must cause a person to be intelligent

Conclusion: Reading must cause a person to be intelligent.

So, to defend the argument, the author must have assumed that
intelligence is solely based on reading and cannot happen by other
factors such as sleeping more, regular exercise, a good diet or genetics,
which, if proved, can weaken the conclusion.

f. So, Defender assumptions eliminate a possible source of attack on conclusion.

g. This is most critical-You need to consider all the answer choices as

correct and the stimulus is in question. Only the metal each choice
carry varies. The conclusion must pass the correct assumption test else
it will fall apart.

h. Assumption question stem contains following types of indicating

words:
Author assumes,
conclusion cant be true unless which of the following is also true
i. validity of the conclusion is checked by
j. argument above depends on which of the following
Steps to find the correct/incorrect assumption answers choices:
a. Logically negate the answer choice, which you feel is the assumption (dont
apply this rule to all 5 choices as this will be time consuming). If by
logically negating the choice, the argument and the conclusion falls
apart (in simpler terms, if negated answer choices weakens the
conclusion), then this is your correct choice. Remember, only one
option, upon negation, can decide the validity of argument/conclusion.

b. If an answer choice starts with At least one or At least some then the chances
are high for this option to be the correct one. But, do not simply assume that
this is the only one. Try to negate and check the argument.

c. Shell Game Trap. These will usually be present as one of the option.
 d. If any answer choice mentions extreme/strong reasons such as:
The most
Main factor/objective
Primary reason

Usually these answers fall in the incorrect choice category.

k. Watch out for negative indictors (not, never, no). These can be
l. your Defender assumption answer choice.

e. Cause-Effect relationship in Assumptions:

When the author mentions a certain cause-effect relation then it is
assumed that it is true. The stated cause is the only cause which will
always produce the effect. So, correct answer choice will fall into one
of the following:
m. Eliminate an alternate cause for the stated effect in the argument.
n. Shows that when the cause occurs, the effect occurs.
f. Shows when the cause does not occur, the effect does not
occur.
g. Eliminates the reversed relationship (effect >>> cause). This type is one of
the most frequently occurring types.
o. Shows that the data used to make the casual statement are accurate, or eliminate
possible problems with the data.

Now, lets analyze one CR question from OG10:

48. A researcher discovered that people who have low levels of immune-system
activity tend to score much lower on tests of mental health than do people with normal or high
immune-system activity. The researcher concluded from this experiment that the
immune system protects against mental illness as well as against physical
disease.

The researchers conclusion depends on which of the following assumptions?

p. A. High immune-system activity protects against mental illness better than normal
immune-system activity does.
B. Mental illness is similar to physical disease in its effects on body systems.
C. People with high immune-system activity cannot develop mental illness.
D. Mental illness does not cause peoples immune-system activity to decrease.
E. Psychological treatment of mental illness is not as effective as is medical
treatment.

Premise 1: A researcher discovered that, on tests of mental health, people who

have low levels of immune-system activity tend to score much < people with
normal or high immune-system activity.

Conclusion: Immune system protects against mental illness as well as against

physical disease.
In the premises, we are given some details on mental health tests, low levels of
immune system activity, normal or high immune-system activity and score while
in the conclusion, we are given Immune system, protection, mental illness and
physical disease. We are provided with info on MENTAL TESTS and the direct
relationship b/w them:

The higher the level of immune-system activity >>> the higher score you will get

But wait, no details on mental illness in the premises. The researcher forgot to
mention the relationship b/w immune system and mental-illness. Also, this is the
catch to decide that we will have Defender assumption.

Now, lets break and analyze the answer choices:

A. High immune-system activity protects against mental illness better than normal
immune-system activity does. [There is no casual relationship b/w mental illness
and immune-system activity mentioned in the conclusion. Incorrect]

B. Mental illness is similar to physical disease in its effects on body systems.

[This is a case of Shell Game fallacy. In the conclusion statement, mental illness
and physical decease are mentioned and thus this choice is created to mislead.
But, it fails to connect with mental illness. Incorrect]

C. People with high immune-system activity cannot develop mental illness.

[There is no casual relationship b/w mental illness and immune-system activity
mentioned in the conclusion. This is adding extreme case and also, this is
OPPOSITE to the conclusion. Incorrect]

D. Mental illness does not cause peoples immune-system activity to decrease. [If mental
illness doesnt change the immune-system activity then this is the case which author missed to
defend the argument. Correct]

E. Psychological treatment of mental illness is not as effective as is medical

treatment. [This is completely out of scope new information. No relationship b/w
treatment and illness is in context of the conclusion. Incorrect]