Unit I

Modern Surveying Equipments

Introduction:

Revolutionary changes have taken place in last few years in surveying instruments that are
used for measuring level differences, distances and angles. This has become possible because
of introduction of electronics in these measurements. With rapid advancements in the technology
and availability of cheaper and innovative electronic components, these instruments have
become affordable and easy to use.

Digital Level:

Traditionally various types of levels have been used for measurement of elevation
differences such as dumpy level, tilting level, automatic level etc. Recently electronic digital levels
have evolved as a result of development in electronics and digital image processing.

Digital levels use electronic image processing to evaluate the special bar-coded staff
reading. The observer is in effect replaced by a detector diode array, which derives a signal
pattern from the bar-coded leveling staff. This bar-coded pattern is converted into elevation and
distance values using a digital image matching procedure within the instrument. Automatic data
conversion eliminates personal errors in reading the staff and the field data is stored by the
instrument on its recording medium, thus further eliminating booking errors

Digital levels electronically read a bar-coded scale on the staff. These instruments usually
include data recording capability. The automation removes the requirement for the operator to
read a scale and write down the value, and so reduces blunders. It may also compute and apply
refraction and curvature corrections.

A digital level offers the following advantages compared to the conventional leveling and
recording procedures:

1. Fatigue-free observation as visual staff reading by the observer is not required.

2. User friendly menus with easy to read, digital display of results.
3. Measurement of consistent precision and reliability due to automation.
4. Automatic data storage eliminates booking and its associated errors.
5. Automatic reduction of data to produce ground levels, eliminating arithmetical errors.
6. Fast, economic surveys resulting in saving in time.
7. Data on the storage medium of the level can be downloaded to a computer enabling quick
data reduction for various purposes.
8. Digital levels can also be used as conventional levels with the help of dual marked staff.

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Components of digital levels:

Main components of digital level consist of two parts: Hardware (Digital level and leveling
staff) and Software.

1. Both digital level and associated staff are manufactured so that they can be used for both
conventional and digital operations.
2. As mentioned earlier, digital leveling staves have dual marking. One side is binary bar-
coded for digital recording. For example, Sokkia SDL30 uses a RAB (RAndom Bi-
directional Code) staff. The other side is marked as the conventional staff for conventional
staff reading. The staff is made from a glass-fiber-strengthened synthetic material with low
coefficient of thermal expansion for high accuracy. For highest precision work, Invar bar
coded staves are also available.

Typically digital level has the same optical and mechanical components as a normal
automatic level. However, for the purpose of electronic staff reading a beam splitter is
incorporated which transfers the bar code image to a detector diode array. Figure 1.1 shows
components of a typical digital level (Schoffield, 2002). The light, reflected from the white
elements only of the bar code, is divided into infrared and visible light components by the beam
splitter. The visible light passes on to the observer, the infrared to diode array. The acquired bar
code image is converted into an analogous video signal, which is then compared with a stored
reference code within the instrument. The image correlation procedure then obtains the height
relationship by displacement of codes, while the distance from instrument to staff is dependent on
the scale of code.

The data processing is carried out on a microprocessor and the results are displayed on
matrix display. The measurement process is initiated by an interactive keypad and data can be
stored onboard.

Data from digital levels is stored onboard (e.g. REC module GRM10, GPC1 with
NA2002/2003 or on PCMCIA cards with Topcon DL 101C/102C and DL 103/103AF) and can be
transferred to computer for further processing. For example, NA 2002 and 2003 from Leica
Geosystems use DELTA/LEVNET software which can carry out adjustment, profiling, instrument
tests, etc.

Various capabilities of digital levels are as follows:

o measuring elevation
o measuring height difference
o measuring height difference with multiple instrument positions
o leveling
o slope setting
o setting out with horizontal distance
o leveling of ceilings

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Electronic Theodolite:

Theodolites or transits are used to measure horizontal angles. These have evolved as
follows:

1. Vernier theodolite (open face and Vernier equipped instruments)

2. Optical theodolite (enclosed with optical readouts with direct digital readouts or
micrometer equipped readouts)
3. Electronic theodolites (enclosed with electronic readouts)

Electronic theodolites operate like any optical theodolite with one major difference that
these instruments have only one motion (upper) and hence have only one horizontal clamp and
slow motion screws.

Characteristics of electronic theodolites:

1. Angle least count can be 1" with precision ranging from 0.5" to 20"
2. Digital readouts eliminate the personal error associated with reading and interpolation of
scale and micrometer settings.
3. Display window/unit for horizontal and vertical angles available at either one or both ends.
4. Some digital theodolites have modular arrangement where they can be upgraded to be a
total station or have an EDMI attached for distance measurements.
5. Vertical circles can be set to zero for horizon or zenith along with the status of battery
shown in the display window.

Typical specifications for digital theodolites:

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 1. Magnification: 26X to 30X
2. Field of view (FOV) 1.50.
3. Shortest viewing distance 1.0 m
4. Angle readouts, direct 5" to 20"
5. Level sensitivity: plate level vial 40"/2 mm, circular level vial 10"/2 mm

The following description provides specifications for Nikon electronic theodolite (NE-202/203):

Digital angle display is user-switch-able from 5"/10" to 1"/5"

Built-in vertical axis compensator automatically compensates for instrument inclination
within 3' (NE-203)
Accuracy is 5" in 5" display mode.
Large, dot-matrix dual-line LCD screen displays both vertical and horizontal angles
simultaneously.
LCD screen and keyboard are placed on both sides of the alidade for easier operation
Telescope magnification of 30X with a 45 mm objective aperture diameter.
Employs a unique linear focusing mechanism to simplify focusing at both short and long
distances. Minimum focusing distance of 0.7 m.
Repeat horizontal angle measurement possible up to 199959'55"

Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments (EDMIs)

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 EDMIs were first introduced in 1950's by Geodimeter Inc. Early instruments were large,
heavy, complicated and expensive. Improvements in electronics have given lighter, simpler, and
less expensive instruments. EDMIs can be manufactured for use with theodolites (both digital and
optical) or as an independent unit. These can be mounted on standard units or theodolites or can
also be tribrach mounted.

The electronic methods depend on the value of velocity of Electromagnetic radiation

(EMR), which itself is dependent upon measurement of distance and time. Hence, there is no
inherent improvement in absolute accuracy by these methods. The advantage is mainly functional
- precise linear measurement can now be used for longer base lines, field operations can be
simplified and trilateration can replace or augment triangulation.

Principle of EDMI

The general principle involves sending a modulated Electro-magnetic (EM) beam from one
transmitter at the master station to a reflector at the remote station and receiving it back at the
master station. The instrument measures slope distance between transmitter and receiver by
modulating the continuous carrier wave at different frequencies, and then measuring the phase
difference at the master station between the outgoing and the incoming signals. This establishes
the following relationship for a double distance (2D):

Where m is unknown integer number of complete wavelengths contained within double

distance, ; is the measured phase difference and is modulation wavelength, and k is constant.
Multiple modulation frequencies are used to evaluate m , the ambiguity.

Various EDMIs in use are based on two methods:

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 Using timed pulse techniques such as those used in variety of radar instruments.
Using measurements of a phase difference which may be equated to one part of a cycle
expressed in units of time or length.

Pulse methods have advantages over the phase difference methods but their weight and
power requirement is such that they cannot be classed lightweight portable instruments.

(i) Pulse techniques

All such measurements incorporate a very precise measurement of time usually expressed
in units of nanoseconds (1x10 -9 s), which a EM wave takes to travel from one station to another.
In this method, a short, intensive pulse radiation is transmitted to a reflector target, which is
immediately transmitted back to the receiver. As shown in Figure 1.4, the distance (D) is
computed as the velocity of light (V) multiplied by half the time (t/2) the pulse took to travel back
to the receiver (D = V x t/2).

(ii) Phase difference techniques

The relationship between wavelength and associated phase difference can be illustrated
by the Figure 1.5 which shows that for a given complete cycle of EM wave, the phase difference
can be expressed both in terms of angular (degrees) and linear (fraction of wavelengths) units. In
phase difference method used by majority of EDMI, the instrument measures the amount by
which the reflected signal is out of phase with the emitted signal (Figure 1.6).

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Classification of EDMI

EDMI can be classified on the basis of three parameters :

(i) wavelength used

(ii) working range
(iii) achievable accuracy

Classification on the basis of wavelength

Present generation EDMIs use the following types of wavelengths:

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(a) infrared
(b) laser
(c) microwaves

The first two types of systems are also known as electro-optical whereas the third category
is also called the electronic system.

Electro-optical Systems

1. Infrared Systems employing these frequencies allow use of optical corner

reflectors (special type of reflectors to return the signal, explained later) but need optically
clear path between two stations. These systems use transmitter at one end of line and a
reflecting prism or target at the other end.
2. Laser: These systems also use transmitter at one end of line and may or may not use a
reflecting prism or target at the other end. However, the reflector-less laser instruments are
used for short distances (100 m to 350 m). These use light reflected off the feature to be
measured (say a wall).

Electronic System

Microwave

These systems have receiver/transmitter at both ends of measured line. Microwave

instruments are often used for hydrographic surveys normally up to 100 km. Hydrographic
EDMIs have generally been replaced by Global Positioning System (GPS) (GPS has been
explained in a separate module in these lectures).
These can be used in adverse weather conditions (such as fog and rain) unlike infrared
and laser systems. However, uncertainties caused by varying humidity over measurement
length may result in lower accuracy and prevent a more reliable estimate of probable
accuracy.

Existence of undesirable reflections and signal leakage from transmitter to the receiver
requires the use of another transmitter at the remote station (also called the slave station). The
slave station is operated at different carrier frequency in order to separate two signals. This
additional transmitter and receiver add to weight of equipment. Multi-path effects at microwave
frequency also add to slight distance error which can be reduced by taking series of
measurements using different frequency.

Classification on the basis of range

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 EDMIs are also available as:

1. long range radio wave equipment for ranges up to 100 km

2. medium range microwave equipment with frequency modulation for ranges up to 25 km
3. short range electro-optical equipment using amplitude modulated infra-red or visible light
for ranges up to 5 km

Classification on the basis of accuracy

Accuracy of EDMI is generally stated in terms of constant instruments error and measuring
error proportional to the distance being measured: (a mm + b ppm).

1. The first part in this expression indicates a constant instrument error that is
independent of the length of the line measured.
2. The second component is the distance related error.

Here, a is a result of errors in phase measurements () and zero error (z),

whereas b results from error in modulation frequency (f) and the group refractive index (ng). The
term group index pertains to the refractive index for a combination of waves- carrier wave and
multiple modulated waves in EDMI. and z are independent of distance but f and ng are
functions of distance and are expressed as

In above equations, indicates the standard error. Most EDMI have accuracy levels from
(3 mm + 1 ppm) to (10 mm + 10 ppm). For short distances, part a is more significant; for long
distances b will have large contribution.

Selected electronic distance measuring instruments

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 (Anderson and Mikhail, 1998)

Emission Range (m) Accuracy

Instrument Manufacturer
source (SIngle Prism) (mean square error)
Short Range
DI1001 Leica Infrared 1-800 (5 mm + 5 ppm)
RED M ini 2 sokkia Infrared 800 (5 mm + 3 ppm)
DM-HI Topcan Infrared 0.15-800 (1 mm + 2 ppm)
DM-A5 Topcan Infrared 0.15-800 (5 mm + 3 ppm)
ND 20/21 Nikon Infrared N/A-700/1000 (5 mm + 5 ppm)
MD-14/MD-20 Pentax Infrared 1-1,000/1,600 (5 mm + 5 ppm)
MA200 Navigation Electronics Infrared 1,600 (0.25 mm + 0.5 ppm)
ND-26 Nikon Infrared N/A-2,000 (5 mm + 5 ppm)
DI1600 Leica Infrared 1-3,000 (3 mm + 5 ppm)
Intermediate Range
Geodimeter 220 Geotronics Infrared 0.2-2,300 (5 mm + 3 ppm)
DM-S2/DM-S3L Topcon Infrared 0.15-2,400 (5 mm + 3 ppm)
DI2002 Leica Infrared 1-2,500 (1 mm + 1 ppm)
RED 2A / RED 2L Sokkia Infrared 2,00-3,800 (5 mm + 5 ppm)
Leica / Kern ME5000 Leica Laser 20-5,000 (0.2 mm + 0.2 ppm)
0-6,00
DIOR 3002S Leica Infrared (3.5 mm + 0.2 ppm)
No Prism, 300
RED 2LV Sokkia Infrared 6,000 (5 mm + 5 ppm)
Eldi 10 Zeiss Infrared 0.2-7,000 (5 mm + 3 ppm)
Pulsar 50 Geo-Fennel Infrared 2-8,000 (5 mm + 5 ppm)
DI 3000S Leica Infrared 1-9,000 (3 mm + 1 ppm)
1.5-8,000
Criterian 100 Laser Technology Laser (90 mm + 50 ppm)
No Prism, 457
Long Range
1-10,000 100 mm
Pro Survey 1000 Laser Atlanta Laser
No Prism, 850 100 mm
1-10,000 100 mm
Atlas 2000 Laser Atlanta Laser
No Prism, 1,500 100 mm
Geodimeter Geotroincs Infrared 0.2-14,000 (5 mm + 1 ppm)
MRA 7 Navigation Microwave 10-50,000 (15 mm + 3ppm)

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Total Station:

This is an electronic instrument. In this instrument, all the parameters required to be

observed during surveying can be obtained. The value of observation gets displayed in a viewing
panel. The precision of this type of instrument varies in the order of 0.1" to 10".

These instruments can record horizontal and vertical angles together with slope distance
and can be considered as combined EDM plus electronic theodolite. The microprocessor
in TS can perform various mathematical operations such as averaging, multiple angle and
distance measurements, horizontal and vertical distances, X, Y, Z coordinates, distance
between observed points and corrections for atmospheric and instrumental corrections.

Due to the versatility and the lower cost of electronic components, future field instruments
will be more like total stations that measure angle and distance simultaneously having:
o all capabilities of theodolites
o electronic recording of horizontal and vertical angles
o storage capabilities of all relevant measurements (spatial and non-spatial attribute
data) for manipulation with computer.
Nowadays surveying systems are available which can be use in an integrated manner with
Global Positioning System (GPS). Hence, future theodolites/total stations may have
integrated GPS receivers as part of the measurement unit.

Generally following types of total stations are available in the market:

Mechanical/manual TS: The conventional multipurpose manual TS are used for routine
works with powerful built-in applications program and are cheaper than the other types TS.
Motorized TS: The motorized TS are equipped with servo to allow for fast, smooth and
accurate aiming. This increases the productivity by about 30%. The servo technology
enables automated measurement. For example, during angle measurement one can
simply aim the instrument at each point. The instrument can then repeat the
measurements automatically as may times as required. Servo equipped TS act as base for
auto-lock and robotic surveying.
Auto-lock TS: Auto-lock TS allow for a semi-automatic measurement where measuring and
recoding takes place at the TS. In this case the instrument searches for an active remote
positioning target (RMT), locks to it and follows the target as it moves to different points.
Auto-lock technology eliminates the need for time-consuming error prone focusing and
allows you to work effectively even in poor and low visibility environment. It improves the
time efficiency by up to 50%.
Automatic/Robotic TS: This a true one person surveying TS and is ideal for surveying and
stakeout operations. In this TS, the control unit can be taken to the prism to record
measurements and collect other data. Generally a radio communication is used between
TS and the prism. The control unit, battery, antenna and radio modem are integrated to
allow full control over instrument and its operation. The prism used may be omni-
directional (usually for short distance up to 500 m) which is always aligned to the
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 instrument or directional for longer distances. During stakeout, the control unit is used to
move to point of interest. It improves the time efficiency by up to 80%.

Salient features of modern TS

TS is a fully integrated equipment that captures all the spatial data necessary for a three-
dimensional position fix. The angles and distances are displayed on a digital readout and can be
recorded at the press of a button. Various components of a typical TS are shown in Figure 3.3
and are described below:

A typical TS has the following characteristics:

Graphic display: All commands for survey operation as well as results are displayed on
graphic LCD using alphanumeric keyboard. Using built in software with menu and edit
facilities, they automatically reduce angular and linear observations to three dimensional
coordinates of the vector observed. Detachable control units are available on particular
instruments.
Dual axis compensation : The dual axis tilt sensor monitors any inclination of the standing
axis in both X- and Y-directions. These tilt sensors generally have range of
3'. Consequently horizontal and vertical angle readings are free from error due to any
deviation of the standing axis from the perpendicular (Figure 3.4). The horizontal and
vertical angles are automatically corrected, thus permitting single-face observations
without loss of accuracy.

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 Leveling and centering: A few TS have electronic display for leveling operation enabling
rapid and precise leveling. The electronic leveling also eliminates errors caused by direct sunlight
on plate bubbles. Laser plummet are replacing the optical plummet. A clearly visible laser dot is
projected on to the ground that helps in quick and convenient centering of the instrument.

Storage : Most TS have on-board storage of records using PCMCIA memory cards of different
capacity. The card memory unit can be connected to any external computer or to a special card
reader for data transfer (Figure 3.5). The observations can also be downloaded directly into
intelligent electronic data loggers. Both systems can be used in reverse to load information into
the instruments. Some instruments and/or data loggers can be interfaced directly with a computer
for immediate processing and plotting of the data.

Friction clutch and endless drive: This eliminates the need for horizontal and vertical circle clamps
plus the problem of running out of thread on slow motion screws.

Guide light or Lumi-guide tracking light : This arrangement is fitted above the telescope objective
lens and enables the target operator to maintain alignment when setting-out points. This system
emits two visible beams of coherent red light, one steady and one blinking, enabling the rod-man
to locate the correct line quickly and easily by finding the position where both are visible (Figure
3.6). This light changes colour when the operator moves off-line. With the instrument in the
tracking mode, taking measurements every 0.3 s, the guide light speeds up the setting-out

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process. It can also be used as a convenient signal to the rod-man, assists in one-man clearing of
lines and work as a prism illuminator in night surveying.

Measurement modes : Variety of measurement modes are available with TS such

as precise, accurate, and fast tracking, etc. These modes are result of a combination of
accuracy and speed. Depending up on accuracy levels required and measurement times, the
surveyor can choose an appropriate measurement mode.

Automatic target recognition (ATR): This facility ensures that the instrument will lock on to the
active target (by using RMT: remote measurement target). The instrument receives coded
signal by IR diode on the RMT. In this mode, the instrument automatically follows the reflector
after the first measurement. The telescope is pointed in the general direction of the target, and
the ATR module completes the fine pointing with excellent precision and minimum measuring
time as there is no need to focus. It can also be used on a moving reflector. A single key touch
records all data without interrupting the tracking process. Omni-direction (360 o) prisms
reflector are used for short distances which are always aligned automatically ensuring high
accuracy (Figure 3.7). For longer distances directional active targets are available. The ATR
mode also allows operation in darkness.
Reflectorless or direct reflex measurement: Distance measurement without prism is also
available on many instruments, typically using two different coaxial red laser systems. One
laser is invisible and is used to measure long distances (6 km to a single reflector), the other is
visible, does not require a reflector, and has a limited range of about 200 m. A single key
stroke allows one to alternate between the visible or invisible laser. With Trimble 5600 DR
200+, distances of up to 500 m have been recorded (Figure 3.7). The reflector-less
measurements are useful for surveying the facades of buildings, tunnel profiling , cooling
tower profiling, bridge components, and dam faces - indeed any situation which is difficult or
impossible to access directly. The extremely narrow laser used clearly defines the target
points.
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 Remote control systems : This arrangement allows truly one-person surveying capability. It is
particularly useful for mass point surveys, cadastral surveys, staking out and machine
guidance. Control of operation is transferred to the surveyor at the survey point where all
functions can be called up. The unit generally employs a radio communication between TS
and the prism. The control unit, battery, antenna and radio modem are integrated to allow full
control over instrument and its operation. Figure 3.7 shows a Trimble system with one radio
antenna for communication with RMT.

Field techniques with TS:

Various field operations in TS are in the form of wide variety of programs integrated with
microprocessor and implemented with the help of data collector. All these programs need that the
instrument station and at least one reference station be identified so that all subsequent stations
can be identified in terms of (X, Y, Z). Typical programs include the following functions:
Point location

Slope reduction
Missing line measurement (MLM)
Resection
Azimuth calculation
Remote distance and elevation measurement
Offset measurements
Layout or setting out operation
Area computation
Tracking
Stakeout

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GPS Principles:

At least four (4) satellites are required to solve four (4) unknown parameters: Latitude,
Longitude, Height and Receiver time offset (difference between the receiver clock's indicated time
and a well-defined time scale reference such as UTC (Coordinated Universal Time), TAI
(International Atomic Time) or GPST (GPS Time)) The following 5 basic steps are required to
obtain these coordinates:

1. All GPS satellites have synchronized atomic clocks as time keepers.

2. The coordinates of all satellites, acting as moving control stations, are known precisely
with the help of system control.
3. Satellite coordinates and time signals are transmitted to ground receiver.
4. These signals reach the ground delayed by distance traveled.
5. Making use of simple resection principle and the range information to each satellites, the
receiver computes its coordinates

During GPS based positioning, the steps are followed are:

1. Basic navigation point position can be calculated like a resection in which satellites are the
orbiting control stations.
2. Range vectors are measured to each of the satellites using a time dependent code based
on the times of transmission and receipt of the signals.
3. Since these times are biased by a common amount due to offset between the satellite and
receiver clocks ; they are called pseudo-ranges .
4. Pseudo-range measurements from four satellites are needed to estimate the user position
and the corresponding receiver clock bias.

The unknown coordinates of GPS receiver u=(Ux, Uy, Uz) are calculated by solving 4 range
(or pseudo-range P) equations. A minimum of four equations are needed to solve for four
unknowns- three unknown position coordinates (Ux, Uy, Uz) and to account for the fact that
atomic clocks onboard GPS satellites and quartz clocks in GPS receivers are not synchronized.
This unknown time variable is called receiver time offset or bias (dTu).

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GPS signal structure:

Satellites have highly precise oscillators with a fundamental frequency of 10.23 MHz. Satellite
signals basically consists of 3 components (Figure 6.2):
1. Two micro wave L-band (also called Carrier) waves
o L1 carrier: 1575.42 MHz
o L2 carrier: 1227.60 MHz
2. Ranging codes modulated on the carrier waves
o C/A code, the clear/access or coarse/acquisition code modulated at 1.023 MHz,
degraded code for civilian users, modulated on L1 only
o P (Y) code, the private, protected, or precise code modulated at 10.23 MHz. It is
modulated on both L1 and L2 carrier waves, for authorized military users
3. Navigation message

Modulated on both L1 and L2 and contains satellite positions and constants

Two different frequencies are used to eliminate errors introduced by iono-spheric refraction:

Figure 6.2 GPS signal structure

All frequencies derived from the fundamental frequency ( f = 10.23 MHz) with the following
frequencies and wavelengths

L1 = 154 f = 1575.42 MHz, wavelength of 19.0 cm,

L2 = 120 f = 1227.60 MHz, wavelength of 24.4 cm
C/A code = (1/10 f ) = 1.023 MHz (Mega bits per second Mbps), wavelength of
293.1 m, period of 1 millisecond
P code = 10.23 MHz, wavelength of 29.31 m, period of 266 days; 7 days/satellite

Navigation code = 50 bits per second (bps), data signal cycle length of 30 seconds

The structure of GPS carrier signals, codes and their combinations is quite complex. Since
the carriers are pure sinusoids, they cannot be used easily for instantaneous positioning
purposes and therefore two codes are modulated onto them: the C/A (coarse acquisition) code
and P (precise) code. The codes (P and C/A) are nothing but binary sequence of information
generated by a complicated algorithm.

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 For purposes of imposing these binary data onto the carriers, all of the codes are
transferred from the 0 and 1 states to the -1 and 1 status respectively. Figure 6.3 shows how both
code and carrier are combined in L1 signal (Sickle, 2001). The technique is called binary bi-phase
modulation (alternatively binary phase shift keying BPSK). For more details on signal structure
one can refer to Seeber (2003), Sickle (2001) and Parkinson et al. (1996).

GPS Carrier waves

The two carrier waves L1 and L2 are pure right handed circularly polarized sinusoidal
waves. Two frequencies are useful to eliminate ionospheric effects (discussed later in Lecture
10). Figure 6.3 provides a schematic diagram for carriers and codes for GPS signal.

GPS Codes

(a) C/A Code

It is a binary sequence of information. It is also called pseudo random noise (PRN) code
(states of 0 and 1) consisting of 1,023 elements, or chipsor bits, that repeats itself every
millisecond giving rise to a chipping rate (the rate at which each chip is modulated onto the
carrier) of 1.023 Mbps (mega bits per second). The term pseudo random indicates that the
code is apparently random although it has been generated by means of a known process,
providing the repeatability.
PRN codes allow range measurements, accesses to underlying carrier signals, satellite
message, and time markers.
The chip length (distance corresponding to one chip or bit) corresponds to 293 m in length.

Due to the code length, the ambiguity in measurement with C/A code is approximately 293 km
- i.e the complete C/A code pattern repeats itself every 293 km between the receiver and the
satellite.

(b) P code
Very long sequence (about 1014) of pseudo random binary biphase modulations on the
GPS carrier at a chip rate of 10.23 MHz which repeats itself every 266 days. Each one-
week segment of the P-code is unique to one GPS satellite and is reset each week.
The chip length (distance corresponding to one chip or bit) corresponds to 29.3 m in
length.

C/A and P codes are rotated by 900 (called phase quadrature) to each other.

Satellite or navigational message:

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 Navigational message includes information on
o Satellite time of transmission
o Precise satellite position (ephemeris)
o Satellite health
o Satellite clock correction
o Propagation delay effects (due to signal propagation in ionosphere and
troposphere)
o Time transfer to UTC (Coordinated Universal Time)
o GPS satellite Constellation status
Length of navigation message is 1500 bits which is modulated onto both L1 and L2
carriers. Message takes about 30 seconds, each second contains 50 bits.
Data is modulated at a much slower rate of 50 bps and thus it takes 12.5 minutes to
transmit all of the information. In order to reduce the time it takes to obtain an initial
position, the ephemeris and clock data is repeated every 30 seconds.
Each satellite sends (Parkinson and Spilker, 1996):
o a full and precise description of its own orbit and clock data (within the ephemeris
information) and an approximate guide to the orbits of other satellites (almanac
information).
o parameters representing the delay caused by signal propagation through the
ionosphere (called the ionospheric propagation delay parameters).

Accuracy of some aspects included in navigation message deteriorate with time which are
updated by certain renewal mechanisms from the ground monitoring stations.

Contents of sub-frames

Navigational message contains 5 sub-frames, each of 10 words with each word of 30 bits
(Figure 6.4).

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 Figure 6.4 Frame and subframes in Navigational message (Pajares et al., 2004)

Each sub-frame contains a telemetry (TLM) and handover (HOW) word which is spaced 6
seconds uniformly and contains system time. HOW is part of GPS message containing time
synchronization information for transfer from C/A code to P code. The following description briefly
provides contents of different sub-frames (Figure 6.5):

Subframe 1
o Clock correction parameters, giving the satellite clock offset from GPS time.
o Coefficient of the ionospheric propagation delay model for single frequency users
(only L1 detection).
Subframe 2 and 3
o Satellite ephemeris from which satellite coordinates in instantaneous coordinate
system can be determined.
Subframe 4
o Reserved for alphanumeric message for future applications and almanac data for
satellites 25 through 32
Subframe 5

Almanac data for one satellite, successive subframes (5) will contain almanac data for up to
24 satellites.

First 3 subframes are refreshed every hour with ephemeris data that are applicable to new
time period (and are valid for 1.5 hours). Subframes 4 and 5 are refreshed at the upload time
(nominally each day).

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Generation of GPS signals

The structure of GPS carrier signals and codes is quite complex in order to satisfy the several
requirements as given below:

Multi-user system:
o GPS is used for one-way measurements (a listen-only system)
Real-time positioning:
o Since there is simultaneous measurements to many satellites, there is a need to
identify different signals
o Unambiguous range measurements - need to determine signal delay
o Satellite positions needed hence one needs broadcast ephemerides
High accuracy positioning:
o Microwave carrier frequency - 1.2 to 1.6 GHz; use of dual-frequency to minimize
ionospheric delay
o High frequency modulation
o Anti-jamming requirement: GPS uses a special technique called the Spread
spectrum technique for this purpose
Military and civilian users:

GPS needs two different codes and restriction on dual-frequency use in order to provide
differential access to civilian and military/authorized users.

Since the carriers are pure sinusoids, they cannot be used easily for instantaneous positioning
purposes and therefore two binary codes are modulated onto them: the C/A (coarse acquisition)
code and P (precise) code . The codes (P and C/A) are nothing but binary sequence of
information which are generated by a complicated algorithm.

For purposes of imposing these binary data onto the carriers, all of the codes are transferred
from the 0 and 1 states to the -1 and 1 status respectively. Figure 6.6 shows how both code and
carrier are combined in L1 signal (Sickle, 2001). The technique is called binary biphase

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modulation (alternatively binary phase shift keying BPSK). For more details on signal structure
one can refer to Seeber (2003), Sickle (2001) and Parkinson and Spilker (1996).

Figure 6.6 Code modulation of the L1 carrier (Sickle, 2001)

The structure of L1 and L2 signals is given below where epochs (times) of both codes and
carriers are synchronized (Seeber, 2003):

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 Since the codes (PRN or pseudo random noise codes) and message are binary data
streams, only two states of phase modulations are possible. The state +1 or -1 leaves the
carrier unchanged; a code transition from +1 to -1 or from -1 to +1 involves a phase shift of
180 degrees.
The L1 channel has to carry both P and C/A code. This arrangement is accomplished by a
technique called phase quadrature . In this, the un-modulated L1 carrier is split off and
shifted in phase by 90 degrees before it is mixed with the C/A code signal, and is then
added to the modulated P code signal (Figure 6.7).

Satellite coordinates and additional information is sent within the broadcast data message which
is also modulated onto the carriers. It is modulo-2 added to both the C/A code and the P code
resulting in inversion of code and the autocorrelation function.

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 Figure 6.7 Generation of GPS signal (Pajares et al., 2004; Seeber, 2003)

GPS Services:

Two types of services are available:

SPS (Standard Positioning Service)

Positioning accuracy that is provided by GPS measurements based on the single L1
frequency C/A code .
PPS (Precise Positioning Service)
Highest level of dynamic positioning accuracy that is provided by GPS measurements
based on the dual frequency P-code .

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