CHAPTER 1: REVIEW OF VECTORS

INTRODUCTION

Electromagnetics (EM) may be regarded as the study of the interactions between electric charges at rest
and in motion. It entails the analysis, synthesis, physical interpretation, and application of electric
and magnetic fields.
Electromagnetics (EM) is a branch of physics or electrical engineering in which electric and magnetic
phenomena are studied.
EM principles find applications in various allied disciplines such as microwaves, antennas,
electric machines, satellite communications, bio electromagnetics, plasmas, nuclear
research, fiber optics, electromagnetic interference and compatibility, electromechanical
energy conversion, radar meteorology," and remote sensing.
In physical medicine, for example, EM power, either in the form of short waves or
microwaves, is used to heat deep tissues and to stimulate certain physiological responses in
order to relieve certain pathological conditions.
EM fields are used in induction heaters for melting, forging, annealing, surface hardening,
and soldering operations.
Dielectric heating equipment uses short waves to join or seal thin sheets of plastic materials.
EM energy offers many new and exciting possibilities in agriculture. It is used, for example,
to change vegetable taste by reducing acidity.

EM devices include transformers, electric relays, radio/TV, telephone, electric motors, transmission
lines, waveguides, antennas, optical fibers, radars, and lasers. The design of these devices requires thorough
knowledge of the laws and principles of EM.
The subject of electromagnetic phenomena in this course can be summarized in Maxwell's equations:

Where

= the vector differential operator
= the electric flux density

= the magnetic flux density
= the electric field intensity
= the magnetic field intensity
= the volume charge density and
= the current density.

A quick look at these equations shows that we shall be dealing with vector quantities. It is consequently
logical that we spend some time in the first chapter examining the mathematical tools required for this
course. The derivation of the above equations for time-invariant conditions and time-varying situations will
be our aim in the rest chapters.

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SCALARS AND VECTORS

A quantity can be either a scalar or a vector.

A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude. Quantities such as time, mass, distance, temperature,
Entropy, electric potential, population, etc
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Vector quantities include velocity, force,
Displacement and Electric field intensity.
To distinguish between a scalar and a vector it is customary to represent a vector by a letter with an
arrow on top of it, such as and , or by a letter in boldface type such as A and B. A scalar is represented
simply by a lettere.g., A, B, U, and V.
EM theory is essentially a study of some particular fields. A field is a function that specifies
particular quantity everywhere in a region. If the quantity is scalar (or vector), the field is said to be a scalar
(or vector) field. Examples of scalar fields are temperature distribution in a building, sound intensity in a
theater, electric potential in a region, and refractive index of a stratified medium. The gravitational force on
a body in space and the velocity of rain drops in the atmosphere are examples of vector fields.

VECTOR ALGEBRA

UNIT VECTOR
A vector A has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of is a scalar written as A or | |. A unit vector
along is defined as a vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1) andits direction is along A, that is,

| |

Note that| | = 1. Thus we may write A as

which completely specifies in terms of its magnitude A and its direction .
A vector in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates may be represented as
( )
z z

A Aa z z

az
ax ay
y
Aa
x x
y

Aa
y y

x
x (a) (b)

Fig. (a) unit vectors (b) components of along .

where Ax, Ay and Az are called the components of in the x, y, and z directions respectively;

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 , and are unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. For example, is a dimensionless
vector of magnitude one in the direction of the increase of the x-axis. The unit vectors , and
areillustrated in Figure (a), and the components of A alongthe coordinate axes are shown in Figure (b).
The magnitude of vector A is given by

and the unit vector along is given by

VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

Two vectors and can be added together to give another vector ; that is,

The vector addition is carried out component by component. Thus, if ( ) and ( )

Vector subtraction is similarly carried out as
( )

A C A
C

B (b)
(a)
Fig. Vector addition: (a) parallelogram rule, (b) head-to-tail rule.
B

D A
D
A

B B
(b)
(a)

Fig. Vector Subtraction: (a) parallelogram rule, (b) head-to-tail rule.

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The three basic laws of algebra obeyed by any given vectors, , are summarized
as follows:
Law Addition Multiplication
Commutative
Associative ( ) ( ) ( )
Distributive ( )
Where k and l are scalars.

POSITION AND DISTANCE VECTORS

A point P in Cartesian coordinates may be represented by (x, y, z).
The Position vector (or radius vector) of point P is as the directed distance from the origin O to P; i.e.

The position vector of point P is useful in defining its position in space.
For example, point (2, 3, 7) and its position vector is .
The Distance vector is the displacement from one point to another. If two points P and Q are given by
(xP, yP, zP) and (xQ, yQ, zQ), the distance vector (or separation vector) is the displacement from P to Q; that
is ,
( ) ( ) ( )
Example 1: If , find
(a) The component of along
(b) The magnitude of .
(c) A unit vector along .

Exercise 1: Given vectors , determine

(a) | |
(b)
(c) The component of along
(d) A unit vector parallel to

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VECTOR MULTIPLICATION
When two vectors are multiplied, the result is either a scalar or a vector depending on how they are
multiplied. Thus there are two types of vector multiplication:
1. Scalar (or dot) product:
2. Vector (or cross) product:
1. Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors , written as is defined geometricallyas the product of the
magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle between them. Thus:

Where is the smaller angle between . The result of is called either the scalar product
because it is scalar, or the dot product due to the dot sign. If ( ) ( ), then

Which is obtained by multiplying component by component.

Note that two vectors are said to be orthogoal (or perpendicular) with each other if .
Dot product obeys the following properties:
(i)
(ii) ( )
| |
(iii) Also note that

2. Cross Product
The cross product of two vectors , written as , is a vector quantity whose magnitude is the
area of the parallelepiped formed by (see Figure below) and is in the direction of advance of a
right-handed screw as is turned into . Thus

Where is a unit vector normal to the plane containing . The direction of istaken as thedirection
of the right thumb when the fingers of the right hand rotate from as shown in figure. Alternatively,
the direction of is taken as that of the advance of a right-handed screw as is turned into as shown in
figure.

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The result of is called cross product due to the cross sign; it is also called vector product because the
result is a vector. If ( ) ( ), then

| |

( )
This is obtained by crossing terms in cyclic permutation, hence the name cross product.
The cross product has the following basic properties:
(i)

(ii)
(iii) ( )
(iv)
Also note that



Example 2: Three quantities are given by
Determine:-
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f) a unit vector perpendicular to both
(g) the component of along

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COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION
In general, the physical quantities we shall be dealing with in EM are functions of space and time. In
order to describe the spatial variations of the quantities, we must be able to define all points uniquely in
space in a suitable manner. This requires using an appropriate coordinate system.
A point or vector can be represented in any curvilinear coordinate system, which maybe orthogonal or
non-orthogonal. An orthogonal system is one in which the coordinates are mutually perpendicular.
Non-orthogonal systems are hard to work with and they are of little or no practical use. Examples of
orthogonal coordinate systems include the Cartesian (or rectangular), the circular cylindrical, the spherical,
the elliptic cylindrical, the conical, the ellipsoidal etc. A considerable amount of work and time may be
saved by choosing a coordinate system that best fits a given problem. A hard problem in one coordinate
system may turn out to be easy in another system.
In this course, we shall restrict ourselves to the three best-known coordinate systems: the Cartesian, the
circular cylindrical, and the spherical. Sometimes, it is necessary to transform points and vectors from one
coordinate system to another. The techniques for doing this will be presented and illustrated with examples.

CARTESIAN COORDINATES (X, Y, Z)

A point P can be represented as (x, y, z). The ranges of the coordinate variables x, y, and z are

A vector in Cartesian (otherwise known as rectangular) coordinates can be written as

( )
Where are unit vectors along the x-, y-, and z-directions.

CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES ( )

The circular cylindrical coordinate system is very convenient whenever we are dealing with problems
having cylindrical symmetry.
A point P in cylindrical coordinates is represented as and is as shown inFigure below.
Observe the figure closely and note how we define each space variable: is theradius of the cylinder
passingthrough P or the radial distance from the z-axis; is called the azimuthal angle, is measured from
the x-axis in the
xy plane; and is the same as in the Cartesian system.

The ranges of the variables are:

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A vector in cylindrical coordinates can be written as ( )
Where are unit vectors in the as illustrated in the figure.
Note that is not in degrees; it assumes the unit vector of .
Notice that the unit vectors are mutually perpendicular because our coordinate system is
orthogonal; points in the direction of increasing , in the directionof increasing , and in the
positive z-direction. Thus,





The relationships between the variables ( ) of the Cartesian coordinate system and those of the
Cylindrical system ( ) are easily obtained from the figure as

Or

SPHERICAL COORDINATES ( )
The spherical coordinate system is most appropriate when dealing with problems having a degree of
spherical symmetry. A point P can be represented as ( ) and is illustrated in the following
figure.

From the figure, we notice that is defined as

the distance from the origin to point P or the
radius of a sphere centered at the origin and
passing through P;
(called the colatitude) is the angle between
the z-axis and the position vector of P; and
is measured from the x-axis (the same
azimuthal angle in cylindrical

Fig. Point P and unit vectors in spherical coordinates.

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 A point P can be represented as ( ). The ranges of the coordinate variables x, y, and z are

A vector in spherical coordinates may be written as

Where are unit vectors along the -, -, and -directions.

| |

The unit vectors are mutually orthogonal; being directed along the radius or in
the direction of increasing r, in the direction of increasing , and in the direction of
increasing . Thus

The space variables (x, y, z) in Cartesian coordinates can be related to variables ( ) of a

spherical coordinate system. From the figure below, it is easy to notice that:

Or

In matrix form, the ( ) vector transformation is performed according to

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 The inverse transformation ( ) is obtained as:-

The distance between two points is usually necessary in EM theory. The distance d between two points with
the position vectors and is generally given by

| |
Or

Example 3: Given point express P and in cylindrical and

Spherical coordinates. Evaluate at point P in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical systems.

Example 4: Express vector in Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates.

Evaluate .
Exercise 2:
(a) Convert points from Cartesian to Cylindrical and
Spherical coordinates.

(b) Transform vector to Cylindrical and Spherical coordinates.

(c) Evaluate at T in the three coordinate systems.

Exercise 3: Express the following vectors in Cartesian coordinates.

(a)

(b)

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VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Elements of Length, Area & Volume
Differential elements in length, area, and volume are useful in vector calculus. They are defined in
the Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems.
A. Cartesian Coordinates: From the figure below, we notice that
(1) Differential displacement is given by

(2) Differential normal area is given by

(3) Differential volume is given by

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B. Cylindrical Coordinates: Notice from the figure below that in cylindrical coordinates, differential
elements can be found as follows:

(1) Differential displacement is given by

(2) Differential normal area is given by

(3) Differential volume is given by

C. Spherical Coordinates: Notice from the figure below that in cylindrical coordinates, differential
elements can be found as follows:

(1) Differential displacement is given by

(2) Differential normal area is given by

r
r

(3) Differential volume is given by

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Example 5: Consider the object shown in the figure below. Calculate:-
(a) The distance BC
(b) The distance CD
(c) The surface area ABCD
(d) The surface area ABO
(e) surface area A OFD
(f) The volume ABDCFO

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Exercise 4: Refer to the figure below; disregard the differential lengths and imagine that the object is part
of a spherical shell. It may be described as where
surface r = 3 is the same as AEHD, surface = 60 is AEFB, and surface is ABCD.
Calculate:

(a) The distance DH

(b) The distance FG
(c) The surface area AEHD
(d) The surface area ABDC
(e) The volume of the object

Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals

The familiar concept of integration will now be extended to cases when the integrand involves a
vector. By a line we mean the path along a curve in space. We shall use terms such as line, curve,
and contour interchangeably.
The line integral is the integral of the tangential component of along curve L.
Given a vector field and a curve L, we define the integral

| |

As the line integral of around L (see in the figure below). If the path of integration is a closed curve such
as abca becomes a closed contour integral.

which is called the circulation of around L.

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 Given a vector field , continuous in a region containing
the smooth surface S, we define the surface integral or the flux
of through S as

| |

Or simply

where, at any point on S, is the unit normal to S.

For a closed surface (defining a volume), the above equation
Becomes:

which is referred to as the net outward flux of from S. Notice that a closed path defines an open surface
whereas a closed surface defines a volume.
We define the integral

As the volume integral of the scalar over the volume v. The physical meaning of a line, surface, or
volume integral depends on the nature of the physical quantity represented by .

Example 6: Given that , calculate the circulation of around the (closed)

Path shown in the figure below.

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Exercise 5: Calculate the circulation of , around the edge L of the wedge
defined by , , z = 0 and shown in the figure below.

Del Operator
The operator, written is the vector differential operator. In Cartesian coordinates,

This vector differential operator, otherwise known as the gradient operator, is not a vector in itself, but
when it operates on a scalar function, for example, a vector ensues.
The operator is useful in defining
1. The gradient of a scalar V, written, as
2. The divergence of a vector A, written as
3. The curl of a vector A, written as
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as
Each of these will be denned in detail in the subsequent sections. Before we do that, it is appropriate to
obtain expressions for the Del operator in cylindrical and spherical coordinates.

Gradient of a Scalar
The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction of the
maximum space rate of increase of V.
From calculus,

( ) ( )
For convenience, let

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Then

where is the differential displacement from P1, to P2 and is the angle between G and .
We notice that is a maximum when , that is, when is in the direction of . Hence,

where is the normal derivative. Thus has its magnitude and direction as those of the maximum rate
of change of V. By definition, is the gradient of V. Therefore:

Take note of the following fundamental properties of the gradient of a scalar field V:
1. The magnitude of equals the maximum rates of change in V per unit distance.
2. Points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V.
3. at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface that passes through that point

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 4. The projection (or component) of in the direction of a unit vector a is and is called
the directional derivative of V along a. This is the rate of change of V in the direction of a. For
example, is the directional derivative of V along P1P2 in the above figure. Thus the gradient
of a scalar function V provides us with both the direction in which V changes most rapidly and
the magnitude of the maximum directional derivative of V.
5. If , V is said to be the scalar potential of .

Example 7: Find the gradient of the following scalar fields:

(a)
(b)
(c)

Exercise 6: Determine the gradient of the following fields:

(a)
(b)
(c)

Divergence of a Vector and Divergence Theorem

The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P.
Hence,

where is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in which P is located. Physically, we may regard
the divergence of the vector field at a given point as a measure of how much the field diverges or
emanates from that point.

Figure Illustration of the divergence of a vector field at P; (a) positive divergence,

(c) Negative divergence, (c) zero divergence.

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Figure: Evaluation of at point
The divergence of A at point in a Cartesian system is given by:

Similarly in Cylindrical coordinates

And in Spherical coordinates

Divergence Theorem
The divergence theorem states that the total mil ward flux of a vector field A through the
closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of .

Example 8: Determine the divergence of the following vector fields:

(a)
(b)
(c)

Example 9: If , determine the flux of out of the entire surface of the

Cylinder Confirm the result using the divergence theorem.

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Curl of a Vector and Stokes' Theorem
The curl of is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude is the maximum circulation of per unit
area as the area lends to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area when the area is
oriented so as to make the circulation maximum. That is,

( )

where the area is bounded by the curve L and is the unit vector normal to the surface and is
determined using the right-hand rule. The curl of a vector field at a point P a measure of the circulation or
how much the field curls around P.

In Cartesian coordinates the curl of is easily found using

|| || [ ] [ ] [ ]

By transforming the above equation using point and vector transformation techniques, we obtain the curl of
in cylindrical coordinates as

|| || [ ] [ ] [ ]

and in spherical coordinates as

| |

[ ] [ ] [ ]

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Note the following properties of the curl:
1. The curl of a vector field is another vector field.
2. The curl of a scalar field V, , makes no sense.
3. ( )
4. ( ) ( ) ( )
5. ( )
6. The divergence of the curl of a vector field vanishes, that is, ( )
7. The curl of the gradient of a scalar field vanishes, that is .

Figure: Illustration of a curl: (a) curl at P points out of the page; (b) curl at P is zero.

Stokes' Theorem
Stokes's theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A around a (closed) path L is
equal to the surface integral of the curl of over the open surface S bounded by provided that
and are continuous on S.

Example 10: If , evaluate around the path shown in the figure

Below. Confirm this using Stokes's theorem.

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