Mathematics

Maritime Economics & Logistics

(MEL)

Functions and Equations

Class 2015-2016

Dr. H. de Swaan Arons

Functions and equations

1. Back to basics

1.1. Rules for exponents

Some important rules for calculations of exponents:
. = + Ex. 3 . 2 = 5
5

= Ex. 3
= 2

() = Ex. (3)4 = 34 . 4 = 81 4
7 49
( ) = Ex. ( )2 =
2

( ) = Ex. ( 4 )3 = 12
1 =
0 = 1
1 1
= Ex. 3 =
3
1
2
= Ex. = 1 = 2

Radicals, square, cubic, roots:

49 = 7 because 72 = 49
3
8 = 2 because 23 = 8

25 is not defined, because there is no real number which has a square equal to
25
3
125 = 5 because (5)3 = 125
5
32 = 2 because 25 = 32
4
238847 is not defined, because there is no real number which has an even power
equal to a negative number

1.2. Fractions
Numbers:

1 1 13 17 3 7 3 + 7 10
+ = + = + = =
7 3 7 3 3 7 21 21 21 21

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5 3 5 2 3 3 10 9 10 9 1
= = = =
6 4 6 2 4 3 12 12 12 12

So, make denominators equal, then fractions can be added or subtracted.

Letters:

1 1 x x1 (x) (x 1) 1
= = =
1 (x 1)x x(x 1) x(x 1) x1

1 1 1 1 (1) + ( 1)
+ = + = =
( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1)

1.3. Multiplying & factorization

Factorization: put common factors outside parentheses.

2 3 + 2 + 2 = ( 2 + + )

(Important for solving equations, see later)

The other way around:

( + ) = + c

( + )( + ) = + + +

Special products (important to know by heart):

( + )2 = 2 + 2 + 2

2
= 2 2 + 2

( + )( ) = 2 2

1.4. Roots
25 = 5 because 52 = 25. Note that the exponent 2 corresponds with the 2 that is not
2
written in de root. Actually one should write 25 instead of 25.

16 = , so it does not exist, i.e., there is no real number which has 16 as a square.

3
64 = 4 because 43 = 64.

Functions and equations (MEL 2015-2016) 3

5
32 = 2 because (2)5 = 32.

200 = 2 100 = 2 100 = 2 10 = 102.

Be careful, this operation is correct with a multiplication and is not with an addition. For
example:

102 = 100 + 2 100 + 2

2. Linear (or 1st order) functions / equations

2.1. Linear functions

General formula: = +

Graph: straight line

Meaning of parameters and :
is the slope of the line ( > 0 increasing, < 0 decreasing, = 0 horizontal line)
indicates point where line intersects Y-axis: (0, ).

2.2. Linear equations

Find point where line intersects X-axis (all points on X-axis have y-value equal to zero):

+ = 0, ( 0) , =

Example.
Solve the linear equation:

3(2 + 2) 4( + 1) + = 2(2 4) 4

Approach:
step 1: remove the parentheses;
step 2: left and right hand side: take variables together, in this case , as well as the
numbers;
step 3: variable (e.g., ) to the left, number to the right;
step 4: get result in the form = number.

step 1: 6 + 6 4 4 + = 4 8 4

Functions and equations (MEL 2015-2016) 4

step 2: 3 + 2 = 4 12

step 3: = 14

step 4: = 14

2.3. Linear inequalities

Note: the inequality sign changes when left and right hand side are multiplied or divided by a
negative number.

Example.

5 6 > 7 8 2 > 2 < 1

3(2 + 2) 4( + 1) + 2(2 4) 4

This inequality can be reformulated (as seen above) by:

14

Divide left and right hand side by the same negative number (1), but then the inequality
sign swaps from to , so:

14

3. Quadratic (or 2nd order) functions / equations

General formula: = 2 + + ( 0, because if = 0: no quadratic function)
Graph: parabola; > 0: (opens up); < 0: (opens down)
Meaning of : determines intersection Y-axis, = 0 and so intersection point is (0, )
Find intersection with -axis (i.e., = 0) solve equation 2 + + = 0
which does not always have solutions. An open down parabola with minimum below -axis
or an open up parabola with maximum above the -axis have no intersections with -axis.
Whether or not a parabola has intersections with the -axis depends on the discriminant =
2 4.

3.1. Quadratic equations

How to solve a quadratic equation?

Functions and equations (MEL 2015-2016) 5

 2 + + = 0

1. factorization (fast, not always possible);

2. -formula (more computations, always possible);
3. some special cases.
The -formula is a certain method, though factorization and other special methods are
sometimes faster.

3.2. Factorization
Try to reformulate the expression 2 + + in the form ( )( ). On the position of
find numbers that have + as their product and + as their sum (the so-called sum-product
method).

Example.

2 + 5 + 6 = 0 ( + )( + ) = 0 because 3 2 = 6 and 3 + 2 = 5

2 2 8 = 0 ( )( + ) = 0 because -4 2 = 8 and 4 + 2 = 2

3.3. -formula
The solution of the quadratic equation 2 + + = 0 can be found by using the formula:

2 4
x1,2 =
2

This formula is widely known as the -formula.

is the discriminant with = 2 4.
There are three possibilities with respect to :
> 0: 2 different solutions 1 or 2
= 0: 1 solution (actually two equal solutions 1 = 2 )
< 0: no real solutions

Examples.

552 416 51
2 + 5 + 6 = 0 1,2 = =
21 2

So the solutions are = 3 or = 2.

This equation could also solved by factorization. Try!

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 1(1)2 42(1) 19
2x 2 + x 1 = 0 1,2 = 22
= 4

1
So the solutions are x = 1 or x =
2

3.4. Special cases

2 16 = 0 2 = 16 = 4 or = 4 (dont forget the minus solution!)

2 5 = 0 ( 5) = 0 = 0 or = 5.

References
Dowling:
Further reading
Sections 1.1 - 1.6; 2.1 - 2.8; 3.5; 3.6
Make as many Solved Problems as necessary
1.1 - 1.9; 2.1 - 2.20; 3.1; 3.18 - 3.23; 3.28

4. Exponential functions / equations

4.1. Exponential functions

General formula: = ( > 0)

Graphs of this type of function are always positive. The -axis is a so-called asymptote: the
line to which a graph approaches, but that is never reached.
Graphs 1 of the functions: = 2 ; = ; = 3 (which is which in the left graph?), and of
1 1
the function = (2) (right graph) are shown below. Note how 2 and 2 are related!

1 Graphs made with http://rechneronline.de

Functions and equations (MEL 2015-2016) 7

4.2. Exponential equations
The basic form of an exponential equation is =
One way to solve such an equation is to write if possible as a power of .

Example.

Solve 2 = 8.

We know that 8 can be written as 23 and thus we solve the equation 2 = 23 which leads to
= 3.

Example.
In a similar way we find the following solutions:

1
3 = = 33 = 3
27

1
2 = = 23 = 3
8

Example.
More complex, but in principle similar, is the equation:

1
2 . 4+1 = 16 2. 22(+1) = 24 22(+1) = 23 2( + 1) = 3 =
2

A practical application is the following. The interest rate of a saving account is 4%, start
capital 0 ; after how many years will the capital be doubled?

Functions and equations (MEL 2015-2016) 8

0 1.04 = 20 1.04 = 2

Since 2 cannot be easily expressed as a power of 1.04 we have to find another method to
solve this equation: by using logarithms (see later).
A special exponential function is = , where stands for Eulers number which is a
special number, similar to (3.1415 )
One definition for is the following:

1
= lim 1 +

The number is almost equal to 2.7182818284

5. Logarithms

5.1. Logarithm functions

General formula: = log

is called the base of the logarithm, ( > 0, 1, > 0).

By definition it holds: = log = (now we see why > 0). These two functions
are so-called inverse functions (see also later).

Example.
Calculate log10 100. Suppose log10 100 = , then according to the definition we find 10 =
100 and thus = 2. So log10 100 = 2.
There are two special types of logarithms:

= log

So, if no base is given, we mean = 10.

The other one is:

y = ln

The function stands for the natural logarithm, i.e., = ln = log , so a logarithm with
as base.

Functions and equations (MEL 2015-2016) 9

In the picture the graphs of two logarithmic functions are depicted: = log 3 and =
log 1 . Which is which?
3

5.2. Important logarithmic rules

There are 4 frequently used rules with respect to logarithms (you should know them by
heart):

1. log = log + log

2. log = log log

3. log = log

log
4. log = ( > 0, 1)
log

Example.
log 5.20 = log 5 + log 20 0.70 + 1.30 = 2 = log 100 as expected.

Example.
If we want to calculate:

log 3 7

then calculators cannot help us, since they do not have a key for a log with base 3. However,
with the help of rule 4 we find:

Functions and equations (MEL 2015-2016) 10

 log 7 0.845
log 3 7 = 1.771
log 3 0.477

In this example we have taken the new base = 10. However, = would have been an
appropriate choice as well, resulting in a division of ln functions, with the same result.

5.3. Logarithmic equations

Example 1.

log 3 2 = 6

This can be written as:

2 log 3 = 6

log 3 = 3

= 33 = 27

Example 2.
Solve:

log[( 1)( + 1)] = 0

The logarithm exists if:

( 1)( + 1) > 0

So if:

or

We call this the domain of the function .

The equation becomes:

So:

Functions and equations (MEL 2015-2016) 11

( 1)( + 1 = 1

2 1 = 1

2 = 2

= 2

We have to check this solution with the domain of the original function. The solutions appear
to lie in the domain.

6. Inverse functions

= () = 4 + 3

Find the inverse, so express in terms of , so = , or even better (faster), replace by

and by and formulate the new function in the form = ().

3 1 3
The inverse of () is = 1 () = =
4 4 4

1 3
In order to draw this function in the same -system, we write = () = .
4 4

The replacement method is faster:

1 3
= 4 + 3 4 = 3 =
4 4

1 3
So the inverse function of = 4 + 3 is = (see figure).
4 4

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We already saw that exponential and logarithm functions are inverse functions and now
show this below.

= ln

Again we find the inverse function by replacement:

= ln = =

So ln and are inverse functions (see figure).

Functions and equations (MEL 2015-2016) 13

7. Rational equations / inequalities

7.1. Rational equations

1 1
The functions = and = are examples of so-called rational functions. Equations
+1
with this type of function are called rational equations.

Example.
Solve:

1 1
=
+ 1

1 1
In the graph the functions () = and () = and are depicted. We can easily see that
+1
there are two solutions.

Of course 0 and 1.
Note that = 0 and = 1 are vertical asymptotes (zeros of the denominators) and = 0
and = 1 are horizontal asymptotes (investigate the behavior of both functions for ).
One way to solve this equation is by making the denominators equal, e.g., equal to ( + 1).
That makes addition or subtraction of the fractions possible (try this method yourself).
The same result will more easily be obtained by cross multiplication.

1 ( + 1) = ( 1)

+ 1 = 2

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 2 2 1 = 0

(2) (2)2 4.1.1

1,2 = 2
= 1 2

Example.
Solve:

3 2 9
= 2
3 + 3 9

Of course 3. Making the denominators equal leads to:

3( + 3) 2( 3) 9
2
= 2
9 9

3 + 9 2 + 6 = 9

+ 6 = 0 = 6

7.2. Rational inequalities

N.B.: Never solve rational inequalities by cross multiplication.

Example.
For which values of does the following inequality hold?

2
>3
+ 2

2
3>0
+ 2

2 3( + 2)
>0
+ 2

2 3 6
>0
+ 2

6
>0
+ 2

+ 6
<0
+ 2

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For each of the factors ( + 6 and + 2) a horizontal line is drawn:

+ 6 -------------(-6)+++++++++++++++++
+ 2 --------------------------------(-2)++++++
result +++++++(-6)---------------(-2)++++++

We can explain this as follows. The factor + 6 is negative left from = 6 and positive
right from = 6.
The upper line corresponds to + 6, the middle line to + 2. The result in the lower line is
obtained by multiplying the signs of the first two lines. Remember: () () = +;
(+) () = and (+) (+) = +.
So, the inequality holds for 6 < < 2.
N.B. If you solve this inequality by cross multiplication then you will find 2 > 3( + 2) or
< 6 which is not the right solution.

References
Dowling:
Further reading
Sections 11.1 - 11.5; 4.9
Make as many Solved Problems as necessary
11.1 - 11.4; 11.7 11.13; 11.16 11.19; 11.24; 11.30;
3.19 a, b; 3.23 c, d;
4.29 4.30;
2.2 a, d.

8. Exercises

Exercise 1
Solve:
2(3 2) 4 + 2 = 5( 1) 4
2(3 2) 4 + 2 < 5( 1) 4
2 + 6 3 = 7
4 2 + 5 + 4 = 3 2 + 8 + 2

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Exercise 2
Given the function:
= 2 + 3 5
In which point does the graph of this function intersect the -axis?
How many intersections does the graph have with the -axis : 0, 1 or 2?

Exercise 3
For which value of does the parabola = 2 3 + 1 have no intersection with the -
axis?

Exercise 4
For which value of has the equation 2 4 + 3 = 2 + 1 only one solution?

Exercise 5
Determine the inverse of the following functions
= 3 + 1
= 2
= 3 . 4 + 2
= ln 3

Exercise 6
Solve:
50 . (1.04) = 75
4 + 2 = 10
9 (1.05) + 1 > 15

Exercise 7
Factorize:
3 2 + 2 2 +
4( + 1) + 3( + 1)
2 2 + +

2 + 6 + 5
2 + 7 + 12

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 2 12 + 20
2 2 48

Exercise 8
Solve:
4( 2) 2( + 3) < + 2
3(2 1) 3 + 5 4( + 2)

Exercise 9
Draw the graphs of the following functions:
() = 2(4) + 1
1
() = 1
3
() = 1 2

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