PORTS AND HARBORS

Harbor
Harbors
A Place of Refuge
• As navigation developed, ships felt the
necessity to find shelter during their cruise and
thus arose the creation of ports, where ships
could take in and discharge, passengers and
cargo, under protected condition

• As methods of navigation improved, these

vessels gradually increased in size, number and
importance; then arose the imperative need for
providing suitable and commodious
accommodation
2
Harbors
Classification of Harbor
• Natural Harbors

These are natural formations affording safe

discharge facilities for ships on sea coasts in the
form of creeks and basins.

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Harbors
Classification of Harbor
• Artificial Harbors

Where such natural facilities are not available,

countries having a sea board had to create or
construct such shelters making use of
engineering skill and methods.

4
Harbors
Roadstead
• It is a body of water sheltered from rip
currents, spring tides or ocean swell where
ships can lie reasonably safely at anchor
without dragging or snatching

• It can be open or natural, usually estuary-

based, or may be created artificially.

• In maritime law it is described as a "known

general station for ships, notoriously used as
such, and distinguished by the name"
5
Harbors
Roadstead

Santa Elena bunkering (or possibly unloading) Kriti Jade at Birzebbuga roadstead, Malta 6
Harbors
Roadstead – Natural Roadsteads

• Example: a deep navigable channel with a

protective natural bank or shoal to seaward

• A shoal is a natural submerged ridge, bank, or bar

that consists of, or is covered by, sand or other
unconsolidated material, and rises from the bed of
a body of water to near the surface. Often it refers
to those submerged ridges, banks, or bars that rise
near enough to the surface of a body of water as to
constitute a danger to navigation.
7
Harbors
Shoal

A tidal sandbar connecting the islands of Waya and Wayasewa of the Yasawa Islands, Fiji.8
Harbors
Roadstead – Natural Roadsteads

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Harbors
Roadstead – Circumscribed Natural
Roadstead
• A confined area naturally enclosed by islands as
in a creek if available

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Harbors
Roadstead – Circumscribed Natural
Roadstead

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Harbors
Roadstead – Artificial Roadstead

• These may be created suitably by constructing

a break water or wall parallel to the coast or
curvilinear from the coast

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Harbors
Roadstead – Artificial Roadstead

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Harbors
Roadstead – Circumscribed Artificial
Roadstead
• Could be formed by enclosing a tract providing
good anchorage, by projecting solid walls called
jetties, from the shore

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Harbors
Roadstead – Circumscribed Artificial
Roadstead

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Harbors
Roadstead – Confined Basin
• Another method is to create a confined basin of
small area having a narrow entrance and exit
for ships

• Such roadsteads with smaller inner enclosures

and wharf and with loading and unloading
facilities are commonly provided for fishing
vessels

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Harbors
Roadstead – Confined Basin

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Harbors
Three Major Types
• Harbors of refuge including Naval Base

• Commercial Harbors, connected with ports

• Fishery harbors

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Harbors
Three Major Types – Harbor of Refuge
• Requirements of harbor of refuge:

1. Ready accessibility
2. Safe and commodious anchorage
3. Facility for obtaining supplies and repairs

On dangerous coast-lines, disabled or damaged

ships, under stress of weather conditions will
need quick shelter and immediate repairs.
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Harbors
Three Major Types – Commercial Harbor
• Requirements of commercial harbor:

1. Spacious accommodation for the commercial maritime

2. Ample quay space and facilities for transporting,
loading and unloading cargo
3. Storage sheds for cargo
4. Good and quick repair facilities to avoid delay
5. More sheltered conditions as loading and unloading
could be done with advantage in calmer waters

Commercial harbors could be situated on coasts. They do

not normally have any emergency demand and practically
the size and number of ships are know factors.
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Harbors
Three Major Types – Commercial Harbor
• Requirements of commercial harbor:

1. Spacious accommodation for the commercial maritime

2. Ample quay space and facilities for transporting,
loading and unloading cargo
3. Storage sheds for cargo
4. Good and quick repair facilities to avoid delay
5. More sheltered conditions as loading and unloading
could be done with advantage in calmer waters

Commercial harbors could be situated on coasts. They do

not normally have any emergency demand and practically
the size and number of ships are know factors.
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Harbors
Three Major Types – Fishery Harbors
• Requirements of fishing harbor:

1. Harbor should be constantly open for

departure and arrival of fishing ships
2. Loading and unloading facilities and quick
dispatch facilities for the perishable fish catch
like railway sidings and roads
3. Refrigerated stores with ample storing space
for preserving the catch

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Harbors
Accessibility and Size
• Accessibility depends on the location of the
harbor

• The harbor entrance should be designed and

located for quick easy negotiation by ships,
overtaken by storms

• The harbor entrance should be narrow enough

not to expose the harbor to the effects of the
stormy sea
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Harbors
Accessibility and Size
• The adopted maximum dimensions of entrance
is up to 600’

• Size of harbor depends upon the number and

size of ships

• Some of the biggest modern ships are 900’ to

1000’ long and about 100’ wide and there
should be sufficient area to maneuvering them,
without collision
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Harbors
Accessibility and Size
• The size is determined by:

1. Accommodation required
2. Convenience for maneuvering and navigation
3. Adaptability to natural features

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Harbors
Accessibility and Size – Entrance Width
• The narrower the entrance the better for the
protection of interior harbor, consistent with
easy and quick entry or exit of the biggest
vessel

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Harbors
Accessibility and Size – Entrance Width

Where:
H (in ft or m) – height of unrestricted wave at the
entrance mouth of width 1 feet
h – reduced height of the diminutive wave inside
the harbor at a distance D from the mouth
L – wide of harbor

This formula is applicable to a distance of 50 ft from the entrance

and where the harbor is well protected by a vertical se wall. 27
PORTS AND HARBORS
Natural Phenomena
Natural Phenomena
Tides, Wind and Wave
• There are certain natural and meteorological
phenomena which primarily affect the location
and design of the harbor:

1. Coastal currents and evidence of silting,

including Littoral drift or Coast erosion
2. Tides and tidal range
3. Wind, wave and their combined effect on
harbor structures

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Natural Phenomena
Littoral Drift
• Sand drifts occurring in the proximity of foreshores

• On exposed coasts – the shore line undergoes

gradual and continual change like erosion (washing
away) at certain sections while in other section is
the accretion or deposition (depositing materials)
• This is caused by current flow created by waves
invading on the shore line
• These waves are induced by prevailing winds and
tend to stir up and move the lighter particles of
sand in suspension
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Natural Phenomena
Wind Effect on Shore

• It tends to carry the drifting sand in zig zag line

31
Natural Phenomena
Tides
• Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused
by the combined effects of the gravitational
forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and
the rotation of the Earth

• The effect of tides is to artificially raise and

lower the mean sea level during certain stated
periods

• The apparent variation of mean sea level is

known as the tidal range
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Natural Phenomena
Tides

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Natural Phenomena
Tides
Tide changes proceed via the following stages:

• Sea level rises over several hours, covering the

intertidal zone; flood tide.
• The water rises to its highest level, reaching
high tide.
• Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the
intertidal zone; ebb tide.
• The water stops falling, reaching low tide.
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Natural Phenomena
Tides – Spring Tides and Neap Tides

• There are usually two rises (flood tides or high

tide) and two falls (ebbs or low tides)

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Natural Phenomena
Tides – Spring Tides and Neap Tides

• A spring tide—popularly known as a "King Tide"—

refers to the 'springing forth' of the tide during new
and full moon.
• A neap tide—seven days after a spring tide—refers to
a period of moderate tides when the sun and moon
are at right angles to each other.
36
Natural Phenomena
Waves

• The sea wave is the most powerful force acting

on harbor barriers and against which the
engineer has to deal with

• This is produced by the joint action of wind and

water and has tremendous damaging power.
The formation of storm waves takes place in
the open sea, due to the action of wind

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Natural Phenomena
Two Kinds of Water Waves
• Wave oscillation - stationary

• Wave of translations – possess forward motion

• All translator waves originally start as waves of

oscillation and become translator by further
wind action

• The harbor engineer’s main concern is the

translator wave
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Natural Phenomena
Heights and Lengths of Waves
• Waves being generated by wind, their
development depends upon the surface area of
sea exposed to wind action

• The great length and height attained by waves

are largely based on this effective surface area

• Waves cannot attain full height in shallow

waters. No wave can have a height greater than
the depth of water through which it passes
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Natural Phenomena
Heights and Lengths of Waves

Height of the Wave = 1.5 𝑭

Where F is the fetch in miles or km

The fetch, also called the fetch

length, is the length of water over
which a given wind has blown. 40
Natural Phenomena
Heights and Lengths of Waves

The length is the distance between crest of a wave

and it influences the force of the wave.

Bertin’s Formula: Length of the Wave = 5.125 t2

Where: L is the length in feet or meters
t is the period in seconds for two successive waves
to pass the same section 41
Natural Phenomena
Heights and Lengths of Waves
• The length of the wave, with the water depth,
determines the velocity of the particles of
water in the wave

• Lengths have been know to reach a maximum

of 600’ to 1000’

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Natural Phenomena
Heights and Lengths of Waves
• The height of a storm waves on various
important water ways have been observed as
follows:

• North Sea = 12’ to 15’

• Mediterranean = 15’ to 20’
• Atlantic Ocean = 30’ to 40’
• Pacific Ocean = 50’ to 60’
• Tropical Oceans = 50’ to 60’
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Natural Phenomena
Wave Section
• A sea wave when breaking an obstacle or a sea
structure gives rise to various forces:
1. A direct horizontal force causing compression

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Natural Phenomena
Wave Section
• A sea wave when breaking an obstacle or a sea
structure gives rise to various forces:
2. A deflected vertical force tending to shear
away any projection on the face of the wall

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Natural Phenomena
Wave Section
• A sea wave when breaking an obstacle or a sea
structure gives rise to various forces:
3. A downward vertical force due to the collapse
of the wave, which tends the disturb mound
construction of the foundation and sea bed

46
Natural Phenomena
Wave Section
• A sea wave when breaking an obstacle or a sea
structure gives rise to various forces:
4. A suction due to the return of the water after
striking, which tends to disturb the mounds in
foundation

47
Natural Phenomena
Wave
• A powerful momentary impact combined with
a hydrostatic pressure for a short period

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Natural Phenomena
Wave
• A vibratory effect on the whole structure

49
Natural Phenomena
Wave
• Impulses imparted to the water contained in
the joints or pores producing internal pressures
in various directions

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Natural Phenomena
Wave
• Alternate contraction and expansion of the
confined air in the pores and cavities of the
structure

51
Natural Phenomena
Dynamic Effect of Wave Action
• The reaction of a surface subjected to
continued impacts could be measured by the
rate of destruction of the momentum

52
Natural Phenomena
Dynamic Effect of Wave Action
• The strike of the wave is sudden and
continuous, and causes a sharp blow of high
instantaneous intensity, followed by a static
pressure for a very short period

53
Natural Phenomena
Dynamic Effect of Wave Action
Mass of Water Intruding on Unit Surface
mw = w.v / g

Where: w is the wt. of unit volume of water

v is the velocity of the wave
g is the acceleration due to gravity

54
Natural Phenomena
Dynamic Effect of Wave Action
Rate of Dissipation of Momentum
= (w.v / g) (v)
= wv2 / g
Therefore, the reaction of the surface on which the wave
strikes is:
p = wv2 / g

Where:
p is the pressure on unit surface
w is the wt. of unit volume of water
v is the velocity of the wave
g is the acceleration due to gravity
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Natural Phenomena
Dynamic Effect of Wave Action
(a) In deep water
p = w.h / 2

(b) In shallow water

p = w.d
Where:
p is the pressure on unit surface
w is the wt. of unit volume of water
h is the height of wave
d is depth of water
56
Natural Phenomena
Air Compression
• The maximum internal pressure on an
imprisoned air column in the pores of
structures will be equal to as much as 3:5 times
the pressure of water on the face of the wall or
structure

57
Natural Phenomena
Water Hammer and Air Cushion
• The hydraulic phenomena produces maximum
pressures equivalent to fifteen times the face
pressure on enclosed columns, inside the joints
and pores of the masonry structure

• There should be a sufficient air cushion at the end of the

opening to reduce the effect of water hammer 58
PORTS AND HARBORS
Breakwater
Breakwater

• It is a structure constructed on coasts as part of

coastal defense or to protect an anchorage
from the effects of both weather and longshore
drift

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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater
• Heap or Mound Breakwater

• Mound with Superstructure

• Upright Wall Breakwater

61
Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Heap or
Mound
• It is a heterogeneous assemblage of natural
rubble, undressed stone blocks, rip rap,
supplemented in many cases by artificial blocks of
huge bulk and weight, the whole being deposited
without any regard to bond or bedding
• This is the simplest type and is constructed by
tipping or dumping of rubble stones into the sea
till the heap or mound emerges out of the water,
the mound being consolidated and its side slopes
regulated by the action of the waves
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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Heap or
Mound

• The quantity of rubble depends upon the

depth, rise of tides and waves and exposure
• The disturbing action of the waves is most
between the high and low water levels

63
Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Heap or
Mound
• Methods of protection:
(a) Dumping heavy blocks of concrete on top and
on front face

This provides minimum area and maximum mass

against impact or overturning.
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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Heap or
Mound
• Methods of protection:
(b) Paving the upper part up to the low water
level by deep granite blocks

Granite paving blocks set in cement mortar

reduces the erosive action of the waves.
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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Heap or
Mound
• Mound Formation
Rubble mounds are formed using rubble of
assorted weights, placed according to sizes; the
smallest and lightest materials constituting the
core.

66
Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Heap or
Mound
• Mound Formation
The sizes are increased gradually outwards. This
arrangement exposes the bigger sizes to the
action of the waves, while the smaller sizes
forming the core are protected.

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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Mound with
Superstructure Founded at Low Water

• A solid superstructure consisting of a quay

protected by a parapet on the sea face is
constructed on top of the rubble mound

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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Mound with
Superstructure Founded at Low Water

• Unlike ordinary or plain mound breakwater, it

makes possible for ships to come closer to the
breakwater wall on the inner side for loading
and unloading cargo

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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Mound with
Superstructure Founded at Low Water
• Advantages
(a)It provides a platform for handling cargo
(b)It protects the top of the mound
(c)It reduces the mass of rubble required for the
mound in proportion to the depth at which it
is founded

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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Mound with
Superstructure Founded Below L.W. Level

• This type of construction affords the advantage

of founding the superstructure well below the
level of disturbance

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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Stability of
Mounds
• Mounds lack quality of durability in shape and
section specially the upper portions. They stand
in equilibrium, below levels of wave effect at
slopes of 45 to 50 degrees.

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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Stability of
Mounds
• The maximum wave effect and disturbance of
the mound is felt between H.W.L. and L.W.L

• The concrete blocks are made in large

rectangular blocks and laid as headers, offering
minimum face area and maximum resistance to
overturning

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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Mound
Construction
• Methods of Construction

1. Barge Method
2. Staging Method
3. Low Level Method

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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Barge
Method
• The hoppers are loaded with rubble, and the
barge is adjusted and aligned in position along
the line of construction and the load is
discharged by opening the hopper doors

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Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Staging
Method
• A series of piles are driven at regular intervals
of 15’ to 20’ and connected by longitudinal
runners, struts and braces forming a number of
parallel tracks for tipping wagons to move on
rails

76
Breakwater
Classification of Breakwater : Low Level
Method
• This consists in forming a length of mound from
the shore, well above the high sea level and
using this for laying tracks and running tipping
wagons on this solid break water structure

77
PORTS AND HARBORS
Wall Breakwater
Wall Breakwater
Structures subjected to forces in the ff.
ways:
• By the shearing of bed joints or by sliding of
one block against the other
• By overturning as a solid mass
• By the uplifting of horizontal layers
• By fracture

79
Wall Breakwater
Shearing of bed joints due to horizontal
pressure of the wave

This is prevented by:

a. The resistance offered by the adhesive force of

the mortar joint. Usually 1:3 cement mortar is
used, giving a high adhesive strength of 6 to 7
tons per sq. ft.

80
Wall Breakwater
Shearing of bed joints due to horizontal
pressure of the wave

This is prevented by:

b. Frictional resistance to siding: In the case of

concrete or stone blocks the coefficient of
friction is 7. The resistance will be 7W. The
effective weight should be calculated after
making allowance for loss of weight due to
immersion, equal to the weight of equal volume
of water.
81
Wall Breakwater
Overturning

• It is another aspect of horizontal pressure and

the design should provide for this, like ordinary
walls, to keep the resultant of the weight and
the horizontal pressure within the middle third
of the base, to avoid tensional stress in the
foundation courses

82
Wall Breakwater
Uplifting

• It is due to wave action or wave force

underneath a mass

• The only opposing force to eliminate this is the

weight of masonry, which thus is a simple case
of equal and opposite forces

83
Wall Breakwater
Fracture

• This does not result directly from wave action. It

may be caused by the dislocated blocks, knocking
against each other, and breaking loose the joints.

• We can avoid it by proper bonding in the masonry

by joggles 84
Wall Breakwater
Upright Wall Breakwater
• Advantages:
1. Reduces the amount of material
2. Avoids dangers of unequal settlement, as in the
case of mound

85
Wall Breakwater
Methods of Construction: Staging System

• It involves of erecting on either side a regular

staging on piles, bridged over at intervals by
braced cross girders

86
PORTS AND HARBORS
Docks
Docks

• These are enclosed areas for berthing ships, to

keep them afloat at a uniform level, to facilitate
loading and unloading of cargo

88
Docks
Docks or Wet Docks

• Where tidal ranges are large, docks are formed

by enclosures
• The water level in these enclosures should be
maintained at constant level by providing locks
and gates
• These are enclosed and are shut off by
entrances or locks to maintain a fairly uniform
level of water

89
Docks
River Ports

• These are formed with quays alongside the

river banks, where the tidal effect is small. The
river in this case serves as the basin.

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Docks
Shape of Docks and Basins: Rectangular
Shape
• The length and span could be adjusted

91
Docks
Shape of Docks and Basins: Diamond
Shape
• For the same perpendicular distance between
the long sides, the long sides could be
conveniently extend

92
Docks
Shape of Docks and Basins: Inclined Quay
Type
• It consists of a number of projecting quays into
the basin or dock

93
Docks
Design and Construction: Design Loads

• This walls are designed as gravity retaining wall

sections

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PORTS AND HARBORS