LAPPEENRANTA LAPPEENRANTA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
REPORT

20/1/0.4 kV THREE VOLTAGE LEVEL

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

LUT 2005

P.O. Box 20, FIN-53851 LAPPEENRANTA, Tel. +358 5 62111, Fax. +358 5 621 6799
http://www.ee.lut.fi/fi/lab/sahkomarkkina/index.html
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CONTENTS

1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 5

2 Description of the System ...................................................................................... 7

2.1 Technical Operation Principle .......................................................................... 7
2.1.1 Protection and Operation Principle of 20/1/0.4 kV Network ................... 9
2.1.2 Breakdown Voltage of Conductors ........................................................ 11
2.2 Reasons for Development of the System........................................................ 12

3 Network Components of the 20/1/0.4 kV System .............................................. 17

3.1 Conductors, Terminals, Joints, and Cable Distribution Cabinets................... 18
3.1.1 Aerial Line Network............................................................................... 18
3.1.2 Underground Cable Network.................................................................. 19
3.1.3 Targets for Research and Product Development .................................... 20
3.2 Transformers................................................................................................... 20
3.2.1 20/1 kV Distribution Transformers ........................................................ 21
3.2.2 20/1/0.4 kV Distribution Transformers .................................................. 22
3.2.3 1/0.4 kV Distribution Transformers ....................................................... 23
3.2.4 Targets for Research and Product Development .................................... 23
3.3 Distribution Substations and Protection Components .................................... 25
3.3.1 Substation Arrangements........................................................................ 25
3.3.2 Protection Devices.................................................................................. 26
3.3.3 Targets for Research and Product Development .................................... 28
3.4 Network Automation, Usage Support, and Usage Control Software ............. 33

4 Techno-Economic Applications........................................................................... 35
4.1 Basic Data for Techno-Economic Analysis.................................................... 35
4.2 Replacing 20 kV Lines by 1000 V Lines in New Construction Projects ....... 36
4.3 Using 1000 V lines in the Renewal of Medium Voltage Network................. 41
4.4 1000 V Line as a Replacement for 400 V Line .............................................. 43
4.5 Market Potential Analysis of the 1000 V System........................................... 44
4.6 Selection of Target Areas ............................................................................... 45
4.7 Technical Constraints of the 1000 V Distribution System ............................. 46

5 Definition of the Optimal Network Topology of the 20/1/0.4 kV System ........ 51

5.1 Optimisation of the Electricity Distribution Network .................................... 51
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5.2 Selection of the Cable..................................................................................... 53

5.3 Calculation of Outage Costs ........................................................................... 55
5.4 Selection of the Transformer .......................................................................... 56

6 Technical Calculation and Protection Setting of 20/1/0.4 kV System.............. 61

6.1 Determination of the Voltage Loss................................................................. 61
6.2 Investigation of the Fault Situations............................................................... 62
6.2.1 Three-Phase Short-Circuit ...................................................................... 63
6.2.2 Two-Phase Short-Circuit ........................................................................ 65
6.2.3 Single-Phase Short-Circuit ..................................................................... 66
6.2.4 Single-Phase Earth Fault of an Isolated Neutral 1000 V System ........... 67
6.2.5 Two-Phase Short-Circuit with Earth Contact......................................... 70
6.2.6 Breaking of a Phase Conductor .............................................................. 73

7 Dimensioning Examples....................................................................................... 75
7.1 New Construction Target ............................................................................... 75
7.2 Renovation Target .......................................................................................... 77

8 Business Opportunities of the 20/1/0.4 kV System ............................................ 81

9 Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 83

References ..................................................................................................................... 89

APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Technical data and estimated prices of common network components

Appendix 2 Technical data and estimated prices of 1/0.4 kV distribution transformers
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FOREWORD

This research report is a holistic description of a 20/1/0.4 kV three voltage level

distribution system. The system is presented in its current form that is in use and
available at the moment. The report is based both on practical experiences of the
distribution company Suur-Savon Shk Oy (SSS Oy) and the research work carried out
at Lappeenranta University of Technology (LUT) in 2004 and 2005. At LUT, the survey
has chiefly been carried out within the project 20/1/0.4 kV Distribution System, funded
by National Technology Agency of Finland. Other partners in the project have been
Tampere University of Technology (TUT) and, as company partners, Suur-Savon Shk
Oy, Shkvoimatekniikan kehityspooli (a co-operative pool for the development of
research activities in the field of electric power technology), Pirelli Cables and Systems
Oy, Onninen Oy, Norelco Oy, Ensto Sekko Oy, and EltelNetworks Oy. The core results
of the research project are the information obtained on the technical-economical
applications of the 20/1/0.4 kV distribution system, its economical use, design and
product development needs, as well as information on the breakdown voltage of low
voltage lines in a 1 kV system.

The research project was carried out as a joint project of Lappeenranta University of
Technology and Tampere University of Technology. LUT was responsible for the
project coordination and management; the research work was carried out at the
Department of Electrical Engineering in the Laboratory of Power Technology under
Professor Jarmo Partanen, Head of the research project. Other members of the research
group at LUT were D.Sc. (Tech.) Juha Lohjala, Suur-Savon Shk Oy; M.Sc. Tero
Kaipia, M.Sc. Jukka Lassila, and Technical Student Aki Rissanen. The members of the
research group at TUT were D.Sc. (Tech.) Kari Lahti and M.Sc. Aki Krn. The report
was translated into English at LUT by PhD Hanna Niemel.

Lappeenranta

31 December 2005

Jarmo Partanen Juha Lohjala Tero Kaipia Aki Rissanen

Jukka Lassila

Tampere

Kari Lahti Aki Krn

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1 Introduction

In Finland, electrification took place in rural areas mainly after World War II.
Distribution networks were built up with aerial lines, and initially, non-impregnated
poles were used. Impregnated poles were taken into use in the 1950s, which
considerably increased the average life of the network structures. The 1950s and 1960s
were a period of rapid growth in the construction of new distribution networks. In
Finnish distribution networks, there still exist plenty of poles dating back to these times.
As a result of the intense growth in electricity consumption in the 1960s and the 1970s,
the transmission capacity of the networks was improved by changing conductors and by
splitting up transforming districts (Lohjala 2005).

Reliable electricity distribution has become vital to the efficient functioning of modern
society. The service reliability of electricity distribution in rural areas is most
significantly influenced by the 20 kV medium voltage network, since more than 90 % of
the outages experienced by customers are due to faults in the medium voltage network.
A medium voltage network, which is mainly comprised of overhead lines, is exposed to
weather effects, such as windstorms and snow loads that cause faults and interruptions
in the electricity distribution; in the Finnish distribution networks, the number of
outages due to weather conditions has increased during the past few years. The
researchers forecast that the current climatic change will result in increased windiness,
and consequently, problems in electricity distribution may also increase. The problems
are the most acute in rural areas, where transmission distances are long, and the lines are
mainly located in forests. In population centres instead, the proportion of underground
cables is larger and the feeders are short, and thus the outages caused by windstorms are
easier to control.

Simultaneously with problems in reliability, also the operating environment of the

distribution companies has undergone notable changes that, for their part, call for the
development of distribution networks. As the electricity markets have been opened up
to competition, the authority controls more strictly that the return of monopolistic
distribution business remains within reasonable limits. Further, also the expectations of
the owners have changed in recent years, the owners expecting now return on invested
capital.

At several places, the existing distribution networks are already in need of renovations.
An advantage of the current state is that the existing network does not have to be
replaced prematurely in order to improve reliability. The replacement methods used so
far prove often insufficient or too costly to meet the future reliability demands of
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electricity distribution. However, the existing distribution networks will still be in use
for several decades to come, and therefore, alongside with evolving new technology,
also the existing distribution network and its maintenance has to be developed.

The changed regulations and raising the limit of low voltage up to 1000 V has increased
interest in utilising the entire low voltage range in electricity distribution. After
becoming a member of the EC in 1995, Finland started to apply the Low Voltage
Directive (LVD) 73/23/EEC. The directive applies to all electrical equipment designed
for use with a voltage rating between 50 and 1000 V AC and between 75 and 1500 V
DC.

In general, in the 1000 V distribution technology, both the investment and maintenance
costs are lower than in the traditional 20 kV aerial line technology. 1000 V lines are
friendly to the environment as they do not require as wide line path as the 20 kV
medium voltage lines. Therefore, 1000 V networks are well applicable to vulnerable
lake landscapes. Further, they enable increased cable ploughing, and thus, it is possible
to reduce the use of environmentally detrimental impregnated poles. However, utilising
the entire low voltage range fully in electricity distribution complicates the distribution
system. The customers cannot directly utilise the 1000 V voltage, and therefore, it has
to be transformed to normal 400/231 V low voltage. Therefore, the introduction of a
1000 V system increases the number of voltage levels in the distribution networks, and
consequently also the need of transformers. The resulting 20/1/0.4 kV three voltage
level distribution system has an impact both on the medium and low voltage network.

There are obvious techno-economic targets for the 20/1/0.4 kV electricity distribution
system. The 1000 V system is at most beneficial as a replacement of a part of medium
voltage lines. The calculations presented in this report aim at an introduction of the
general techno-economic usage potential of the 1000 V lines. In practical network
planning, it is advisable to consider the 1000 V as an alternative solution. All the
possible targets have yet to be considered as individual cases to ensure that all
company-specific cost parameters are taken into account.
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2 Description of the System

As a whole, the use of several voltage levels is not a new idea. Systems that operate at
different voltage levels and that correspond to the 20/1/0.4 kV system have been
investigated and used around the world since the early days of electrification. Later, the
voltage levels have been established at the present levels. In Finland, the electricity
distribution networks have traditionally been comprised of two voltage levels. The low
voltage level has for a long time been 380/400 V. The high voltage level instead, known
as medium voltage level in distribution networks, has developed from the initial few
kilovolts to the present 20 kV. The voltage has been raised basically as the transmission
powers have exceeded the techno-economic transmission capacity of the previous
voltage levels. Standardisation and regulations have followed the methods established
in practice. Before Finland became a member of the EU, the national standards defined
the voltage of 1000 V as a high voltage. The investment costs of high voltage
distribution are notably higher than the costs of low voltage distribution.

2.1 Technical Operation Principle

The 1 kV low voltage level is used between the present medium voltage network and
the low voltage network, thus constituting a third distribution voltage level in addition
to the currently used 20 kV and 0.4 kV levels. The entire 20/1/0.4 kV distribution
system is a three-phase system, and the 1000 V system acts as an intermediate system
between the medium voltage network and the 400 V low voltage network of the present
type. An economical operating range of the 1000 V line, when compared with the 20 kV
line, is usually formed for powers below 100 kW and line lengths ranging from a few
hundred meters up to 10 km. Figure 1 illustrates a simple model for a three voltage level
distribution network, in which a 20 kV medium voltage line supplies low voltage
customers by using a 1 kV low voltage level.
0 ,4
kV
Z
Z

0,4 kV
20
kV
20

1 kV
kV

0,4 k V kV
1

0,4 kV
Z
Z

0,4 kV

a) b)
Figure 1. Supply of a customer group by a) a traditional and b) a three voltage level network solution.
 8

In a three voltage level distribution network, the voltage is transformed from the voltage
of the medium voltage network, for instance 20 kV, to the low voltage of 1000 V
nominal voltage, and next, close to the consumption sites, to the 400 V voltage suitable
for the end-customers. The system can also be implemented by transforming the voltage
from the 400 V low voltage to 1 kV and then again close to the consumption back to
400 V. In this kind of solution, it has yet to be ensured that the system is economically
profitable and also meets the technical boundary conditions. The proportion of the 400
V network that remains between the medium voltage network and the 1000 V network
diminishes the power transmission capacity and the voltage elasticity of the entire
system. Furthermore, problems may also occur in feeding sufficient short-circuit
current.

When compared with a corresponding 400 V line, a better power transmission capacity
can be reached with a 1000 V system. The favourable cost level of low voltage
conductor structures also makes the underground cabling of 1000 V lines a cost-
efficient alternative when compared with medium voltage lines. Therefore, it is natural
to build also the required part of the 400 V low voltage distribution with underground
cables. Figure 2 illustrates the principal solutions for supplying small loads in rural
areas by using both a traditional and a three voltage level distribution network model.

Figure 2. Electricity distribution in rural areas: a) a traditional system for rural areas, b) 1000 V aerial
bundled cable (ABC or AMKA cable) that replaces a 20 kV branch line and c) a 1000 V
underground cable replaces a 20 kV branch line.

Insulation co-ordination between different voltage levels alters, when a 1000 V low
voltage level is added between the 20 kV medium voltage network and the 400 V low
voltage network. Standard IEC 60071-1 Insulation Co-ordination defines the nominal
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voltages and withstand voltages for instance for low voltage systems, the maximum
voltage of which is 1000 V (ABB 2000).

The present 1000 V network components, previously classified as 400 V components,

have to be tested according to standards defined for 1000 V. A low voltage aerial line
operated at 1000 V, for instance an aerial bundled cable (ABC cable; AMKA), can be
assumed not to be exposed to higher external overvoltages than in a line of 400 V
operating voltage. The most common internal overvoltages are earth fault voltages and
switching overvoltages. For instance during an earth fault in an isolated (unearthed)
neutral system, the voltage of the healthy phases is known to rise up to 1.05 times the
line voltage at maximum. Thus, for instance during an earth fault in an isolated neutral
1000 V system, between the phase and earth, there is in effect a voltage that is at the
most 5 % higher than the line voltage of a healthy network during operation. Therefore,
not even the 400 V or 690 V test voltages are exceeded in a 1000 V system. Standard
IEC 60664-1 Insulation co-ordination for equipment within low-voltage systems defines
the values for rated impulse withstand voltages for low voltage components ranging up
to 1000 V (ABB 2000).

2.1.1 Protection and Operation Principle of 20/1/0.4 kV Network

This report does not take a stand on the protection of medium voltage network, since the
three voltage level distribution system does not change the factors impacting the
protection of the medium voltage network. Instead, the report focuses on the protection
of low voltage network that has to be altered due to the implementation of the 20/1/0.4
kV system. The emphasis is on the customer safety and the factors related to the
network operation.

Experiences of protection have been gathered from the experimental installations of

1000 V low voltage lines. On the basis of the measurement results and theoretical fault
analyses, the 1000 V network is operated as unearthed (earth isolated). In common
Finnish earthing circumstances, a 1000 V network has been found to be a safety risk in
double fault situations, in which a break of the neutral occurs together with an earth
fault. In such a case, the touch voltages of the entire low voltage network exceed the
allowed values substantially. In the case of an unearthed network, this problem does not
occur (Lohjala 2005). Figure 3 illustrates the operating principle of a 20/1/0.4 kV
distribution system. It is advisable to earth also the PE conductor of the 1000 V line;
this way, the earthing of the 400 V network is improved.
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Figure 3. Structure of an isolated (unearthed) neutral 1000 V system (Lohjala 2005).

The protection of an unearthed system cannot be based on fuse protection only, since in
that case, a fault situation resembling a single-phase short-circuit has turned into an
earth fault. The fault currents are so low that fuse protection does not function in earth
fault situations. Therefore, the protection is arranged by using a circuit breaker, which,
in addition to a short-circuit protection, may include a release of earth fault protection.
At 20/1 kV distribution substations, a protection package originally developed by SSS
Oy is used; the package consists of a circuit breaker, an overcurrent relay, and an earth
fault protection based on the measurement of the potential between the neutral point and
earth of the system. The circuit breaker is developed from a 1000 V rated device
originally designed for industrial use. The charging currents flowing through the
feeding point depend on the location of the earth fault, and therefore, to avoid error
tripping, high precision requirements are set for earth fault protection. An advantage of
the 1000 V system is that when implementing the earth fault protection, the direction of
the earth fault current does not have to be taken into account, but it suffices that the
earth fault can be reliably detected. In certain exceptional cases, there may be more than
one 1000 V feeder; however, also in these cases it is advisable to arrange the feeders
within a common protection. If the protection has to be arranged individually for each
line, a directional earth fault protection has to be constructed. Figure 4 illustrates the
operation principle of an earth fault protection.

Figure 4. Earth fault protection of the 1000 V system, based on measuring the potential between the
neutral point and earth. M = voltage transformer (Sn = 140 VA, U1/U2 = 575/230 V), K1 = time-
delay overvoltage relay, K2 = trip relay (circuit-breaker operation) (Lohjala 2005).
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The principle of neutral voltage measurement is quite simple. In the case of an earth
fault, the asymmetry of the network increases and the neutral voltage rises. In the worst
case, the neutral voltage rises during an earth fault to the level of the phase voltage. The
secondary winding of the voltage transformer measuring the neutral voltage is
connected via a time-delay relay to a trip relay, which operates the circuit breakers (Fig.
5). The trip relay is set so that a normal asymmetry during operation does not cause
tripping. In practice, an appropriate pre-set value has proved to be >50 % of the nominal
phase current. For the time-delay overcurrent relay, the speed of operation is adjusted so
that for instance a momentary earth fault caused by overcurrent protections does not
cause tripping. For the overvoltage protection of the 1000 V network, for instance an
overvoltage protection with a 3 kV inception voltage can be employed.

In the case of the 20/1/0.4 kV network, the 400 V network is used as earthed, like
before. The protection principle of the network does not change either (Lohjala 2005).
A detailed description of the protection components of the 20/1/0.4 kV system is given
in Chapter 3.

2.1.2 Breakdown Voltage of Conductors

A 1000 V low voltage network can be constructed with the same low voltage line
structures (e.g. AMKA cables or AXMK covered overhead lines) as for 400 V, since
these conductor types are, according to the Low Voltage Directive, already classified for
a 1000 V low voltage.

On the basis of partial discharge measurements carried out at Tampere University of

Technology, in the case of AMKA cables, the most problematic situations arise when
water drops or ice crystals of small radii occur on the conductor surfaces (Krn 2005).
The tests show that neither the terminals nor the conducting water had a significant
impact on the occurrence of partial discharges. However, it is important to note that in
these measuring situations, no partial discharges occurred at the operating voltage of the
system. Table 1 presents the discharge inception voltages for AMKA cables.
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Table 1. Discharge inception voltages, based on partial discharge tests, given as phase voltages
under different circumstances.
Test Discharge inception voltage (UV)
Dry cable 2.55 kV
Wet cable (66.7 ohm/m) 1.70 kV
Wet cable (10 ohm/m) 1.40 kV
Ice coated cable 1.30 kV
Frosted cable 1.30 kV
Dry cable, with Insulink terminal 2.55 kV
Dry cable, with Insulink, SLIP 22-1, and
SLIW 15-1 terminals 2.40 kV
Wet cable, with Insulink, SLIP 22-1, and
SLIW 15-1 terminals 1.35 kV

According to the measurements, there is a safety margin of at least 500 V even in the
worst case. The 50 % breakdown voltage of an AMKA35 aerial bundled cable was
measured to be 32.1 kV for a new cable; the results are the same for a used 400 V cable.
The tests were carried out and are valid for short-term overvoltages; the long-term
breakdown voltage is notably lower than the short-term breakdown voltage. Generally
speaking, raising the operating voltage to 1000 V makes installation damages even more
critical; therefore, special attention has to be paid to the installation work and to the
professional skills of the assemblers. In this survey, no actual threat for the normal
durability was detected for AMKA cables at a 1000 V operating voltage (Krn 2005).

1000 V rated underground cables have proved to be quite durable when operating at a
1000 V voltage. A typical problem in underground cable networks and particularly in
underwater installations is the water tree phenomenon. Occurrence of water trees in
moist conditions requires a sufficiently strong electric field. The required field strength
depends on several factors; however, 1 kV/mm can be considered a general limit. On
the grounds of the field strength calculations made in this study, when using new and
undamaged cables, there are no preconditions for the occurrence of water trees. In the
long term however, water trees may occur as the cable ages. According to studies, cable
joints and extensions have not shown to cause problems with respect to breakdown
voltage. In the measurements, the 50 % breakdown voltage for a new AXMK
underground cable was 19.2 kV. There have not been problems with the cables
previously used at 400 V either, if the cable has been proven by insulation resistance
measurement to be undamaged (Krn 2005; Lohjala 2005).

2.2 Reasons for Development of the System

In rural areas in particular, increased attention has to be paid on improving the

reliability of electricity distribution. Without inconveniences caused by outages, the
present aerial line networks would be an economical and technically easily adaptable
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solution to the electricity distribution in rural areas. Of the factors having an influence
on the power quality, outages affect all inhabitants in rural areas, whereas for instance
problems in voltage level concern only a minority of customers. Customer surveys have
shown that the second most important quality of an ideal electricity company is the
reliability of supply and disturbance-free electricity distribution. The most important
quality is the reasonable price level (Lohjala 2005).

The level of reliability of distribution networks can be evaluated by the number of

outages caused by faults. When planning the reliability of the system, it has to be
considered, for instance, what kind of failures may cause an interruption in a customers
electricity delivery, and how soon the electricity distribution can be returned to normal
state after the interruption. The level of operational reliability can be improved for
instance by the selection of lines (an aerial line vs. an underground cable), by
interconnections, by substations, and by the number and optimal location of remotely
and manually controlled switchgear. The impact and scope of interruptions caused by
faults depend on the location of the fault in the distribution network. A fault in a 20 kV
line causes an outage for all customers in the supply area. In the case of a failure in the
low voltage network, an outage is experienced only by a single transforming district or
by a part of the customers in the district. If the outage occurs in the low voltage
network, there are only a few customers under the influence of the outage, whereas in
the case of a fault in the 20 kV line, the outage often has an impact on hundreds of
customers. Figure 5 depicts different ranges of influence of low and medium voltage
network failures.
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Figure 5. Impacts of the use of a 1000 V system on the structure of a medium voltage feeder as well as
ranges of influence of low voltage and medium voltage failures.

When a third voltage level is added to the distribution network, the line length of the
medium voltage network is shortened, and particularly the number of short medium
voltage branch lines is reduced. In overhead line networks, this means that the number
of line paths located in forests is decreased, and the faults typical of overhead lines are
reduced. For instance, low voltage AMKA cables are not as easily damaged as an
overhead line structure. Aerial bundled cables can well resist scratching of twigs and
falling of smaller trees on the line. The most significant benefit of the 1000 V system is
the protection area formed by the system itself. As illustrated in Fig. 5, this area delimits
all the faults of the 1000 V system and of the 400 V network connected to it outside the
medium voltage feeder.

A 1 kV system is implemented with low voltage lines, and therefore no wide line path is
required for the lines unlike for a 20 kV overhead line. Thus, the natural state of the
forests and sensitive landscapes in holiday housing areas are preserved. The amount of
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compensations paid for the land use for line construction is reduced, and further, the
land-use contracts are probably easier to make as the line paths require less space.
Figure 6 illustrates a typical medium voltage overhead line and its line path in rural
area, and a low voltage line built up with an AMKA aerial bundled cable.

a) b)
Figure 6. A line construction implemented by a) medium voltage overhead line, and by b) a low voltage
aerial bundled cable.

Other solutions that are partly alternative and partly supplementary to a 1000 V system
are for instance

Underground cabling of medium voltage network

Transferring medium voltage lines to the roadsides
Using poles that are higher than usual poles in the medium voltage lines
Broadening the line paths of medium voltage lines
Increasing the number of light substations in rural areas
Increasing the number of medium voltage satellite model substations

Of the above listed options, the most viable solutions alongside with the 1000 V system
are increasing the number of light substations and the medium voltage satellite model
substations in rural areas, as well as underground cabling of medium voltage main
cables and transfer of the lines to roadsides. When considering the effects and costs of
different alternative solutions, the 1000 V system has proved to be the most viable
solution as a whole. By combining some of these solutions, it is possible to notably
improve the reliability of the electricity distribution network (Lohjala 2005).
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3 Network Components of the 20/1/0.4 kV System

So far, the selected installation technology and some of the network components for the
1000 V system have been implemented on the basis of empirical experiences gained
from the test installations of Suur-Savon Shk Oy (SSS). The product development has
based on the traditional network components. Majority of the existing network
components are applicable to the 1000 V system as such. 1000 V rated network
components are for instance AMKA cables, AXMK underground cables, terminals, and
other installation accessories.

The 1/0.4 kV transformers used in the system have so far been prototype series, of
which the most common transformers in the network at the moment are modifications
of 10/0.4 kV transformers. 20/1 kV transformers are constructed of traditional 20/0.4
kV distribution transformers. Also 20/1/0.4 kV three-winding transformers are being
used. All the transformers in the current use are oil insulated. When considering the
basic components, the 1000 V system is ready for use.

Irrespective of the conductor installation method, mainly pole-mounted distribution

substations have been used both for 20/1 kV and 1/0.4 kV transformers. In a 20/1 kV
distribution substation, there is a protection package originally developed by SSS Oy,
which comprises a circuit breaker and overcurrent relays, as well as earth fault
protection based on the measurement of the potential between the neutral point and
earth of the system. The circuit breaker is based on a 1000 V rated model originally
designed for industrial use. Fuse protection cannot be used in an isolated neutral
network, since with the fuse protection, it is not possible to detect a low-current earth
fault. Further, according to regulations for 1000 V network protection, regardless of the
fault type, all the phases have to be disconnected.

There are also identification labels for the 1000 V system that are used to indicate all
1000 V lines. With the labelling, it is possible to avoid confusion, when for instance 400
V conductors and accessories are mounted to the same pole. When compared with the
present situation, the 1000 V intermediate system will not bring any changes to the
technical structure of the 400 V network. According to SSS Oy, the most significant
productising needs are the development of 1/0.4 kV distribution substations applicable
to underground cable network and the development of 1000 V protection system.

The core technical data of the presented medium and low voltage components as well as
their estimated prices are given in Appendix 1. The cost estimates are based on the
national cost list KA 2:2003 of network components published by Finnish Electricity
Association Sener and the information provided by SSS Oy.
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3.1 Conductors, Terminals, Joints, and Cable Distribution Cabinets

The 1000 V low voltage network can be constructed with the same low voltage cables
(ABC/AMKA, AXMK) as in the case of 400 V, since the low voltage standard defines
voltages up to 1000 V as low voltages. Low voltage cables used in public electricity
distribution are rated for 1000 V as stated in the Low Voltage Directive. The 1000 V
system will not bring any changes to the cable installation method. Cable ploughing of
the 1000 V underground cables is an economical way to increase the cabling rate of
rural areas. Nowadays, there are already double-sheath, mechanically protected
underground cables available that are designed specifically for cable ploughing
purposes. Their prices are not notably higher than the prices of traditional AXMK
cables.

The terminals, suspension clamps, and other installation accessories designed for low
voltage lines are applicable as such to the 1000 V system. The cable distribution
cabinets used in the 400 V underground cable networks are also mostly applicable to
1000 V networks. So far, there has been no need for a cable-specific protection in
branching points, but the entire 1000 V network is protected with a single protection
package installed to the 20/1 kV distribution substation. Protection of the 1000 V
network is arranged so that the complete network is reliably protected both against
short-circuit faults and earth faults.

No critical obstacle for the use of low voltage cables in a 1000 V system was found in
the measurements carried out at Tampere University of Technology. However,
compared with the laboratory conditions, the stresses are more diverse and more
difficult to predict in an actual electricity distribution network (Krn 2005).

3.1.1 Aerial Line Network

About 90 % of the present medium voltage network is built up with overhead lines.
With respect to construction costs, a bare overhead line is the most economical medium
voltage line structure. A more advanced solution when compared with bare overhead
lines is a plastic-covered overhead line (also called PAS conductor). Using this kind of
XLPE-covered conductor reduces failures in the network, since the line can well
withstand short-term surface contacts and is not easily damaged. Therefore, power
failures caused by external factors, such as animals, are reduced. However, investment
costs of covered medium voltage aerial lines are substantially higher than in the case of
overhead lines.

The most common low voltage lines in Finland are aerial bundled cables. Most of the
existing 1000 V installations are constructed with AMKA cables. The installations are
 19

concentrated in rural areas, and the main targets have been electrifications of holiday
homes in the Finnish lake district. The most common cable types are AMKA 35,
AMKA 70, and their multiples. Unlike for medium voltage overhead lines, it is not
necessary to clear a wide line path for an aerial bundled cable. Being low voltage
cables, the investment costs of the most common AMKA cable types (defined by the
cross-sectional area of the cable) are notably lower than the costs of medium voltage
overhead lines. Aerial bundled cables also resist high external mechanical stresses
without being damaged. Thus, by using low voltage cables, notable savings in
investment costs can be reached in a 1000 V system when compared with medium
voltage cables.

3.1.2 Underground Cable Network

Material and installation costs and the cable trench excavation costs are the largest
single cost components of the construction of medium voltage underground cable.
Excavation costs for a cable trench in rural areas comprise approximately 2030 % of
the total investment costs of a medium voltage cable; as the cross-sectional area of the
cable increases, the proportion of the excavation cost diminishes. Other costs of
medium voltage underground cabling are due for instance to cable accessories, such as
cable terminations and joints. Cable terminations and joints constitute a significant
proportion of the total investment costs of a medium voltage underground cable.

The costs of a low voltage underground cable are almost completely comprised of the
procurement and installation costs and the costs of the cable trench. The costs of cable
terminations and joints are notably lower for low voltage cables than for medium
voltage cables, and therefore, these costs are usually involved in the cable installation
costs. At voltages up to 1000 V, the primary function of the cable terminations is to
protect and seal the branching point; in dry indoor conditions, the cable can be
terminated without a separate cable termination as the electric stress does not require the
use of terminations. A heat-shrink plastic cable termination is a common cable
termination both in outdoor and indoor applications. In the case of low voltage
underground cables, also the costs of the cable trench can be reduced by installing the
cable by ploughing.

The most widely used underground cable in the 1000 V system is the AXMK
underground cable that is installed by ploughing; this cable type is also applicable to
underwater installations in fresh-water areas. At the moment, of all the 1000 V targets
of SSS Oy (65 in total), 335 km have been constructed with aerial bundled cables, and
15 km with AXMK underground cables. The amount of underground cabling is
constantly increasing. The installation costs of AXMK underground cable installed by
 20

ploughing are 50 % smaller than the costs of a medium voltage underground cable
installed in a cable trench in rural area. The investment and installation costs of low
voltage underground cables are so favourable that a 1000 V underground cabling is an
economically competitive alternative also for medium voltage overhead lines.

3.1.3 Targets for Research and Product Development

The present low voltage lines are mainly dimensioned for long-term use at 400 V.
However, the long-term effects of 1000 V voltage on the conductor lifetime are not yet
known. At the moment, the lifetime of low voltage lines at 1000 V voltage is one of the
most interesting research topics; however, reliable information will be obtained only as
a result of long-term observation.

On account of cost-efficiency, the cable ploughing methods still have to be improved;

the labour costs in particular are a target of cost savings. From this point of view, the
actual cable ploughing is carried out by the operator of the excavator. The operator is
provided with information on the exact locations where the cable has to be unearthed
either for connecting or making joints. After the ploughing, electricians perform the
required electrical installations and install the cable distribution cabinets and
distribution substations. It is advisable to make the joints of low voltage cables on the
ground in joint casings or in the distribution cabinets. This way, for instance during
maintenance work, it is easy to pass a cable section under repair by using a temporary
aerial line structure between the joint casings. Therefore, the suppliers are expected to
provide small and simple solutions for 1000 V networks. The practical experiences have
shown that ploughing the 1000 V underground cables is an economical means to
increase cabling in rural areas.

3.2 Transformers

As individual investments, distribution transformers are relatively low-cost items.

However, due to the large number of transformers required, the costs of distribution
transformers constitute a significant proportion of the total costs of an electricity
distribution network. The costs of distribution transformers are chiefly comprised of
investment and operational costs (Pylvninen 2002).

Changing a distribution network into a three level system requires new kinds of
distribution transformers. Transformers play a central role in the economic profitability
of the network. Since a 20/1/0.4 kV system requires more transformers than the
traditional arrangement, also the costs caused by transformers have an increasingly
significant impact on the total costs of the distribution network. New components in the
 21

distribution network are the 1/0.4 kV transformers and the 20/1 kV transformers.
Suitable guidelines for the production of all transformer types can be found in Standard
IEC 60076.

A good resistance to unbalanced (unsymmetrical) loads is usually required of

distribution transformers. Therefore, the advisable vector groups of the transformers are
the Dyn and Yzn vector groups. Since there are two consequent distribution substations
(20/1 and 1/0.4 kV) in a 1 kV system, special attention has to be paid to the selection of
the vector groups of the distribution transformers and the method of use of the
distribution network.

Voltage control of the transformers is of particular importance in electricity

transmission and distribution networks. It is necessary to be able to control the voltage
according to the load of the network. Voltage control is carried out in transformers by
adjusting the voltage ratio of the transformer. To alter the voltage ratio of the
transformer, the number of turns of winding has to be changed; this is usually done for
the windings of the high voltage side, since the current is lower than in the low voltage
side. In distribution transformers, the regulation is carried out with an off-load tap
changer (Aura 1986).

3.2.1 20/1 kV Distribution Transformers

So far, it has been possible to construct the 20/1 kV transformers efficiently on the basis
of the existing 20/0.4 kV transformers. The general insulation level of a transformer is
determined by the voltage used in the high side of the transformer (i.e., 20 kV).
Therefore, no changes have to be made to the general insulation structures of the
transformer, when the voltage of the secondary winding is raised from 400 V to 1000 V.
The dimensions of the core are chiefly defined by the transferred power. Thus, if the
powers of the 20/1 kV transformers are the same as the powers of the 20/0.4 kV
transformers, no adjustments have to be made to the core structure. At the simplest, the
only adjustments to the present 20/0.4 kV distribution transformers have to be made to
the numbers of turns in the windings. Therefore, the used 20/1 kV transformers
resemble the present 20/0.4 kV transformers both with respect to their prices and
technical data. The 20/1 kV transformers do not differ by their overall dimensions from
the traditional 20/0.4 kV transformers either.

As the total number of transformers in the network increases, special attention has to be
paid to the losses. Therefore, the losses of the transformer may, at the maximum, be of
the level of 20/0.4 kV distribution transformers of the corresponding power range,
which have reduced idle state losses and zk < 4 %.
 22

The power series of commercially available 20/1 kV transformers corresponds to the

power series of 20/0.4 kV transformers. However, the main difference between these
two is that, according to theoretical calculations and practical experiences, there is
hardly any demand for transformers below 50 kVA 20/1 kV, the demand of these
transformers being limited only to special cases. In rural areas, the most powerful 20/1
kV transformers are about the size of 315 kVA, which requires a connection of several
1000 V feeders to the same distribution substation. All 20/1 kV transformers are also
equipped with off-load tap changers to control the voltage level. The transformers are
oil insulated; there are also ester-oil-insulated devices available that are more ecological
than the mineral-oil-insulated ones.

3.2.2 20/1/0.4 kV Distribution Transformers

A 20/1/0.4 kV three-winding transformer can be applied in several targets. When

applying the 1000 V system together with the existing 400 V low voltage network, for
instance in the case of renovation, using a three-winding transformer is often the most
advisable solution. With the three-winding transformer, it is possible to feed the
customers near the distribution substation with the traditional 400 V low voltage
network, while there can be a separate 1000 V feeder for the customers that are located
further off.

At the present, there are 20/1/0.4 kV three-winding transformers commercially available

for 50, 100, and 150 kVA powers. Three-winding transformers, like other distribution
transformers, have to be manufactured in accordance with Standard IEC 60076 Power
Transformers. Loss levels may not exceed the level of 20/0.4 kV distribution
transformers of the corresponding power range, which have reduced idle state losses
and zk < 4 %. Also in the three-winding transformers, there should be a possibility for
the voltage control. Three-winding transformers are larger than two-winding
transformers, which makes their installation somewhat problematic: a three-winding
transformer cannot be installed to an old pole-mounted substation, in which the
operating rod of the disconnector is located on the inner side of the pole. In new
installation targets, this problem does not exist, since when using the new substation
structures, the operating rod is mounted on the outer side of the pole. The three-winding
transformers are also notably heavier than two-winding transformers, and therefore they
require more robust structures for the pole-mounted distribution substations than the
20/1 kV transformers.
 23

3.2.3 1/0.4 kV Distribution Transformers

So far, in the public distribution networks, there has not been an actual comparable
solution for the 1/0.4 kV transformers of the 1 kV system. In industrial networks, there
are various special transformers that are constructed to operate in different voltage
ranges than the voltage range of an ordinary distribution network. However, these
transformers have not provided an applicable solution for the 1000 V networks.
Transformers designed for special voltage levels are more expensive than the
transformers manufactured for traditional distribution voltages.

Mainly due to requirements of industrial production, the 1/0.4 kV transformers in

current use are based on the previously used 10/0.4 kV and 20/0.4 kV distribution
transformers. Thus, by constructing tailored applications from the existing components,
it has been possible to quickly answer the emerging demand for 1/0.4 kV transformers.
However, such applications are not optimal for the 1000 V system in the long term. The
most acute problems are due to an insulation level too high for the 1000 V purposes;
this level leads to a high acquisition price and large physical dimensions. The insulation
level of the current 1/0.4 kV transformers corresponds to the level required for high
voltage; this level, however, has proved to be excessive in many cases. Later on,
modified applications of 1/0.4 kV transformers have entered the market, the
configuration of which corresponds to the previous models, but the terminal insulations
are in accordance with low voltage applications.

There are 1/0.4 kV transformers commercially available for the powers of 30, 50, and
100 kVA; in these transformers, depending on the manufacturer, there is a possibility to
control the voltage by off-load tap changers. All the transformers used in present
installations are either mineral oil or ester oil insulated.

3.2.4 Targets for Research and Product Development

Next to the protection components of the 1000 V network, the 20/1/0.4 kV three-
winding transformers are the most important development target related to transformers
and substations at the boundary of medium and low voltage networks. The immediate
development need is focused on reducing the physical dimensions of the three-winding
transformers; however, this is not an easy task. Diversity of loads of three separate
windings, together with asymmetry, creates a flux in the transformer core, the closure of
which has to be ensured by providing a path for the flux. Therefore, three-winding
transformers are usually constructed as shell-type transformers. When compared with
the first 20/1/0.4 kV three-winding transformers, the sizes of the transformers have been
reduced by re-grouping the terminals on the cover of the transformer. Initially, the
 24

1000 V and 400 V terminals of the low voltage side were located in a single row on the
transformer cover. Now, the terminals are positioned in two parallel rows, thus being
able to reduce the width of the transformer to correspond to the width of the transformer
core.

The primary guideline of the design of 1/0.4 kV transformers should thus be that the
entire device is considered a low voltage appliance. An over-dimensioned insulation
structure unnecessarily increases the price of the transformers. The primary requirement
for the development of 1/0.4 kV transformers is the reasonable acquisition price.
However, a conflicting requirement to the previous one is that the loss level of the
transformers should be kept reasonable; therefore, special attention has to be paid to the
selection of loss level. In a low voltage network, the losses are quite high anyway, and
therefore, the losses caused by the transformer should be kept to minimum. On the other
hand, the power transfers are usually small, and thus the load losses do not become
excessive.

The following issues define the design of 1/0.4 kV transformers:

Production in accordance with Standard IEC 60076

Losses may be at maximum of the level of 20/0.4 kV distribution transformers of the
corresponding power range, which have reduced idle state losses and zk < 4 %
Power series (Sn) 10, 30, 50, 100, and 200 kVA
Vector group: e.g. Dyn or Yzn
Transformer series is applicable both to indoor and outdoor use
Long lifetime (40a)
Off-load tap changers
Minimum physical dimensions
1/0.4 kV transformer has to be designed starting from the premise that the transformer is
a low voltage device.

The insulation structure has to be defined according to the purpose of use by selecting
the most cost-efficient alternative. Distribution transformers can be divided into oil-
insulated, cast-resin-insulated, and air-insulated dry-core transformers. Oil-insulated
transformers are further divided into hermetic transformers and transformers equipped
with oil conservators. Oil-insulated transformers can also be divided into mineral-oil
and ester- oil-insulated transformers. The insulation of a 1/0.4 kV transformer can be
carried out by any of the above-mentioned ways. Again, the requirement of reasonable
price and applicability to different installation environments has to be taken into
account.
 25

The requirement of the possibility for the control of supply voltage concerns also the
1/0.4 kV transformers. With an on-load tap changer, it is possible to balance the voltage
drop occurring in long 1000 V lines. When planning long lines, also the voltage
elasticity of the system has to be taken into account. Further, it has to be ensured that
the short-circuit currents of the following 400 V network are sufficient. Adding off-load
tap changers to a transformer is a marginal cost when compared with the overall costs of
the transformer.

As the target is to make the 1/0.4 kV transformers as compact low voltage equipment as
possible, the transformer and substation design are becoming more closely linked. For
instance, some of the components that have traditionally belonged to the substation
accessories can now be integrated directly in the enclosure of the transformer. Appendix
2 presents the core technical data of the prototype dry-core 1/0.4 kV transformers
constructed in this research project, as well as the estimated prices given by a
transformer manufacturer. The appendix also includes a comparison of cast-resin and
oil-insulated 1/0.4 kV transformers.

3.3 Distribution Substations and Protection Components

The total number of distribution substations in the electricity distribution networks of

the Finnish distribution companies is ca. 126,600. These substations can be divided into
three most common substation types, which are pole-mounted distribution substations,
pad-mounted transformers substations, and building-mounted distribution substations. A
pole-mounted distribution substation is the most common substation type, accounting
for 83 % of all substations (Adato 2002). The acquisition price of a pole-mounted
distribution substation is remarkably lower than the price of a pad-mounted or a
building-mounted substation. The protection components of the low voltage network are
included in the substation arrangement.

3.3.1 Substation Arrangements

Irrespective of the conductor installation method, the present 1000 V installations are
carried out chiefly by using pole-mounted distribution substations both for 20/1 kV and
1/0.4 kV transformers. A 20/1 kV distribution substation is provided with a protection
package, which comprises a circuit breaker and an overcurrent relay as well as earth
fault protection based on the measurement of the neutral voltage. In principle, pole-
mounted distribution substations are an applicable solution as such, since a 20/1 kV and
a 20/0.4 kV distribution substation differ from each other only by the transformer itself
and by the selected protection of the low voltage side. 1/0.4 kV pole-mounted
distribution substations in turn differ from 20/0.4 kV distribution substations by the fact
 26

that there are no switch disconnectors that are typical of the medium voltage network.
Further, almost all the 1/0.4 kV pole-mounted distribution substations are of single pole
structure. In the case of pole-mounted distribution substations, the 400 V network is
protected with pole fuse switch disconnectors.

The 1000 V system enables an economical underground cabling also in rural areas. In
that case, it is logical to mount the 1/0.4 kV transformers and some of the 20/1 kV or
20/1/0.4 kV transformers into distribution substations that are suitable for underground
cables. Pad-mounted distribution substations in their present form, however, are an
expensive alternative in rural areas. On the market, there are already some pad-mounted
substations for all distribution transformer types, which are specially intended for the
20/1/0.4 kV system and for rural areas. There is an increasing demand for 1/0.4 kV pad-
mounted distribution substations that are lighter and more economical constructions
than the current ones, as the underground cabling of low voltage network increases.

In densely populated urban areas, building-mounted distribution substations that are

located in the basements of buildings are basically the only substation type in use.
Traditionally, the special arrangements required for the ventilation and fire safety of the
substation facility have been quite expensive. Nowadays, attention is also paid to the
protection against the magnetic field caused by the substation. Further, also the costs of
the substation facility itself are remarkably high. Since the 1000 V system is a low
voltage system, it allows the utilisation of simple low voltage building-mounted
distribution substations; and thus, notably less room is required for the substation when
compared with 20/0.4 kV building-mounted substations. A part of the internal
electricity distribution of large building complexes can be carried out with 1000 V
voltage. In that case, conductors that are of smaller cross-sectional area than the ones in
the 400 V system can be used, and thus, the need for internal medium voltage power
transmission is decreased. The 1/0.4 kV transformers can be located directly in the
electricity distribution cabinets (rooms) of buildings.

3.3.2 Protection Devices

The protection of the 1000 V network is nowadays implemented with overcurrent relays
and circuit breakers. The earth fault protection is based on the measurement of the
voltage between the 20/1 kV transformer and the earth of the system, that is, the
measurement of the neutral voltage. There are for instance the following alternative
methods for earth fault protection:

protection based on the measurement of insulation resistance

protection based on the measurement of earth fault current
 27

protection based on the measurement of open triangle voltage

protection based on the measurement of the potential between the neutral point and
earth of the system

The method presently used in 1000 V network is the last method listed above, that is,
the measurement of the potential between the neutral point of the 20/1 kV transformer
and earth of the system. It is the simplest method to construct and also the most cost-
efficient one; further, the least auxiliary equipment is required when compared with the
other alternatives. No phase-specific instrument transformers are required for the
arrangement, but a single voltage transformer between the neutral point and earth
suffices. There is neither a need for a separate auxiliary voltage, since the auxiliary
voltage required by the devices is provided by the fault-time neutral voltage. The
arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 4 (Ch. 2). Since in an isolated system the touch voltage
is low ( 50 V), in principle, the safety regulations allow the use of an alarm protection
only (SFS 6000 1999). Therefore, the time delay of the tripping of the earth fault can be
set long.

In a double earth fault, the protection based on the measurement of zero potential may
prove insecure, if the fault resistances of the faults are equal. However, in practice,
double earth faults can seldom occur simultaneously in short 1000 V networks, and
even if they do occur, the fault resistances may differ notably from each other. A double
earth fault often causes a two-phase short-circuit through the protective earthing, and
therefore also the short-circuit protection is in operation in a fault situation. High fault
resistances are possible, when a branch of a tree damages the insulation of phase
conductors and the earth fault is created via the tree. However, in a system isolated from
earth, no danger is caused to passers-by due to small touch voltages.

The most serious risk for the operation of an earth fault protection that is based on the
neutral voltage measurement is the possibility of erroneous connection, if during the
installation, the 20/1 kV neutral point is earthed by accident. Now the 1 kV system
becomes an effectively earthed system, which under the Finnish earthing circumstances
does not normally meet the limits set for the touch voltage. In earthing the neutral point,
there no longer occurs a voltage over the transformer, and therefore, the protection is
not started. For safety reasons, the proper training of electricians and designers is
emphasised. The selection of earth fault protection based on neutral voltage
measurement is justified by the favourable price and few components required for the
assembly. A well-designed and properly installed system has proven reliable.

The final form of the overvoltage protection for the 1000 V system remains partly
unsolved. Significant factors causing overvoltages in a low voltage network are a direct
 28

lightning strike to the low voltage line, induction, and the transfer of overvoltages from
high voltage network through a distribution transformer to the low voltage network. In
practice, however, the stresses are worst in the case of surge voltages due to induction
and particularly due to a lightning strike. As the suspension cable of the 1000 V is
earthed at distances of a few hundred metres, and it is linked to the earthing of the 400
V network, the atmospheric overvoltage stress of the 1000 V network remains at the
same level as that of the 400 V network. The biggest problem is the protection of the
relay protection cabinet close to the 20/1 kV transformer, at the receiving end of the
1000 V line. At the moment, overvoltage protections dimensioned for a 3 kV inception
voltage are being tested. Another advantageous solution has been to make a simple
cable loop to both cable ends by winding the phase conductors into a short coil. This
method that increases the surge impedance is widely used also in the 400 V low voltage
networks. The inception voltages of the overvoltage protections designed for the 400 V
network are too low, and cause a constant leakage current when operated at 1000 V. In
the future, overvoltage protection applications that can be integrated with other
protection arrangements of the system and that are specifically designed for the 1000 V
system will be required.

The protection of a 400 V network following a 1 kV network can still be implemented

by fuses. In pole-mounted distribution substations, the same pole fuse switches can be
used as before. Also in the case of underground cable networks, the 400 V network
connected after the 1000 V is still protected with same fuse-switch disconnectors as in
the case of 20/0.4 kV network.

3.3.3 Targets for Research and Product Development

As the 1000 V enables economical underground cabling, accompanying distribution

substations suitable for rural areas are required. Pad-mounted distribution substations in
their present form are often too expensive for rural areas. Furthermore, the size and
structure of the substations do not meet the special requirements and needs of the rural
areas. Factors that have to be considered when locating a pad-mounted distribution
substation are for instance the substations impact on the local scenery, as well as an
easy access to the location to facilitate repairs, installation, and maintenance works.
These requirements are further emphasised in rural areas where the surrounding nature
is a vital element in everyday life. A need especially for light and low-cost 1/0.4 kV
pad-mounted distribution substations will increase along with the increased
underground cabling of the low voltage network.

The 1/0.4 kV distribution substations are developed along with the design of 1/0.4 kV
transformers. A fresh and open-minded approach has to be taken to the design of 1/0.4
 29

kV pad-mounted substations by completely ignoring the previous 20/0.4 kV

applications. Low voltage switchgear and controlgear do not require as much room as
the medium voltage ones, and therefore a 1/0.4 kV substation should be constructed as
compact as possible. The substation should also blend into the scenery. Although the
design has to be started from the very beginning, by using the assembly lines and the
parts of the existing low voltage components, remarkable cost savings can be achieved
in production. These savings in turn are reflected in the prices of distribution
substations.

Figure 7. Aerial line and underground cable connected 1/0.4 kV distribution substation.

The later maintenance and inspections have to be considered in the design. The 1000 V
components have to be clearly separated from 400 V components to avoid confusions.
Also the replacement of the transformer has to be taken into account. On the other hand,
the substation and the transformer can be partly integrated; in which case, the complete
transformer and substation module is replaced by a new one.

In a 1/0.4 kV substation, three to five 400 V low voltage feeders are required in average,
however, it is advisable to spare some room for possible additional feeders. Also an
option to branch a 1000 V feeder is necessary in areas where the number of new
consumers is constantly increasing. In the 1000 V side of the substation, there should
also be a possibility to install a switch disconnector. Also equipment for the metering
and the control of power quality as well as repeaters for the network data transmission
can be located in the substation. Figure 8 illustrates two basic applications of 1/0.4 kV
substations.
 30

Ending 1000 V structure

Z
20 kV 20/1 kV 1 kV
400 V
Z
3..5 feeders

Continuing 1000 V structure

Z
20/1 kV 1 piece
1 kV 1 kV branching 1 kV
Z
20 kV

400 V
3..5 feeders
Figure 8. Basic applications of 1/0.4 kV distribution substations.

Next, a special case of a 1/0.4 kV building-mounted distribution substation is discussed.

The smallest application is a distribution substation located in or replacing the main
exchange of a detached house. An example of the other extreme are the building-
mounted substations required for instance in large shopping centres.

The 20/1 kV pole-mounted distribution substations do not require any adjustments.

Instead, as the underground cabling becomes more common in rural areas, pad-mounted
20/1 kV, 20/0.4 kV, and 20/1/0.4 kV transformers that are applicable to rural conditions
are required. The target of the development of substation arrangements should be an
arrangement that is applicable also to the 20/0.4 kV system. This increases the
production volume of the required components, which in turn reduces the component
prices. The external dimensions of 20/1 kV transformers do not differ considerably from
the traditional 20/0.4 kV transformers, and therefore, the physical dimensions do not
call for new substation arrangements. In three voltage level networks, also three-
winding transformers are used; therefore, the 20/1/0.4 kV three-winding transformers
and applicable substation structures are a separate target of product development. Figure
9 illustrates two applications for the three-winding distribution substations of the
20/1/0.4 kV system.
 31

Three-winding substation
with a 20 kV branch line

Z
20/1/0,4 kV
1..3 feeders 1 kV
20 kV
Z

400 V
3..5 feeders

Three-winding substation
with a 20 kV main line 20/1/0,4 kV

20 kV
Z Z

1k
V
1..3
f ee
der
s
400 V
3..5 feeders
Figure 9. Basic applications of the 20/1/0.4 kV substations.

Also the 1000 V circuit breakers should be developed further. A reliability problem has
been detected in the present circuit breaker type; a circuit breaker that has not been
operated for a long time will not trip at the right moment. Another approach to the
design of circuit breakers is the possibility for more than one tripping, as well as a
motor control of the circuit breaker. At the substation, the motor control requires a
supply of auxiliary voltage as well as data transmission connections.

When considering the earth fault protection, one of the most probable development
targets is the protection based on the measurement of open triangle voltage. The
measuring principle of open triangle voltage corresponds to the measurement of neutral
voltage. In both measurement types, neutral voltage resulting from an asymmetric
situation in the system is measured. The principle of the earth fault protection based on
the measurement of open triangle voltage is illustrated in Fig. 10.

Figure 10. The principle of the 1 kV earth fault protection based on the measurement of open triangle
voltage. M = open triangle voltage transformer (Sn = 10 VA, U1/U2 = 577/33.3 V), Rv = starting
resistance, K1 = time-delay relay, K2 = trip relay (circuit-breaker operation).
 32

In the case of measuring the open triangle voltage, there is no such risk for erroneous
connection as there is in the neutral voltage measurement, since the terminal of the
neutral point of the 20/1 kV transformer can now be left disconnected on the
transformer cover. However, if the neutral point is earthed for some reason, earthing
does not prevent the operation of the earth fault protection. It has yet to be borne in
mind that in an effectively earthed system, in a single-phase earth fault (short-circuit),
the asymmetry is lower than in an unearthed system. Now, if the pre-set value of the
protection is high, the asymmetry of the system may not be high enough to reach the
tripping level of the protection.

Earth fault protection based on the measurement of open triangle voltage requires two
voltage transformers more than the neutral voltage measurement. However, open
triangle voltage measurement is a simple method to produce auxiliary voltage for
instance for automation devices. The transformers used in open triangle measurement
can be constructed as three-winding solutions, in which case one of the two secondary
windings is used for the production of the auxiliary voltage, and the other for open
triangle measurement. For the transformers used in open triangle measurement,
parameters can be determined for two transformer series. The transformer type 1 is
designed for the measurement of open triangle voltage only, and the transformer type 2
is intended both for open triangle voltage measurement and the production of auxiliary
voltage.

Voltage transformers for the open triangle measurement of the 1000 V system:

Production in accordance with Standard IEC 60044-2

Type 1:
o single-phase voltage transformer Sn = 10 VA, transformation ratio
1000 : 3 / 100 : 3 (577/33.3 V)
o applicable to the measurement of neutral voltage and the construction of open
triangle voltage measurement
Type 2:
o in addition to measurement windings, there is a winding for the production of
auxiliary power (primary winding/auxiliary power/measurement)
o single-phase voltage transformer Sn 100 VA, transformation ratio
1000 : 3 / 400 : 3 / 100 : 3 (577/230/33.3 V)
The transformer has to operate without saturating also at the 1000 V primary voltage (in
a system isolated from earth during an earth fault)
The accuracy does not have to be very high, for instance of the class 3P or 6P.
The appliance should be as compact and low-cost as possible
 33

3.4 Network Automation, Usage Support, and Usage Control Software

The 1000 V system has to be linked to network databases so that the network
calculations can be performed for the entire distribution network. A reliable follow-up
calculation requires that the 1000 V line sections can be calculated simultaneously with
the 20 kV medium voltage network. Therefore, in the support and control software, the
20/1 kV transformers have to be modelled as intermediary transformers, and the
calculations have to be carried out at least for two voltage levels simultaneously.
Alternatively, there also has to be a possibility that a user can calculate the voltage
levels of 1000 V and 400 V simultaneously, in which case the 1/0.4 kV transformers
become intermediary transformers. In order to be able to efficiently utilise the 20/1/0.4
kV system, the network calculation software has to be developed further. The greatest
challenge in this work is to develop the simultaneous calculation of at least two voltage
levels. In the future, the network optimisation tools have to be developed accordingly.

In the future, alternative methods to perform the automation operations of the 1000 V
network have to be developed. Development of protection and automation components
can be divided into following sub-targets:

data transmission
control of switchgear
measurements and alarms
monitoring the state of the network

One of the targets is that there would be a direct connection from the distribution
substation and the 1 kV network to the control systems so that it would be possible to
follow the loads of transformers and the state of the 1 kV network from the control
room.
34
 35

4 Techno-Economic Applications

On grounds of the techno-economic calculations, it is possible to determine the most

suitable targets for the three-voltage level distribution network. At present, the
development of some of the 1000 V technology is yet in progress, although the basic
solutions are already available. The emerging new technical solutions may also bring
new applications for the 1000 V system. Therefore, it is important to constantly update
the techno-economic calculations; it is necessary to develop new calculation and
analysis methods to be able to analyse the applicability of the 1000 V network, both in
the everyday planning work in the distribution network companies and for instance in
planning the electrification of individual building complexes. In practice, this presumes
that the 1000 V is included in the calculation tools and optimisation algorithms of the
design software.

4.1 Basic Data for Techno-Economic Analysis

The techno-economic analysis of the 20/1/0.4 kV distribution system is divided into two
sections: first, the focus is on replacing individual 20 kV and 400 V lines with a 1000 V
construction. Next, the design of an entire transforming district is investigated, and a
comparison is made between the transforming districts provided in new construction
projects with traditional 20/0.4 kV systems and 20/1/0.4 kV systems. The comparison of
individual lines is further divided into four cases:

Replacing 20 kV lines by 1000 V lines in new construction projects

Replacing a 20 kV branch line in renovation by a 1000 V line
Using 1000 V lines in the renewal of an existing medium voltage network
Taking the existing 20 kV medium voltage branch lines into 1000 V use

In the calculation, the values presented in the cost list KA 2:2003 in Appendices 1 and 2
are used as the investment costs of the network components. Some of the values have
been adjusted on the grounds of experiences gathered by SSS Oy. The valuation of the
outages is based on the estimation of the costs caused by the outage to the customer.
National CENS values (Cost of Energy Not Supplied) are used as unit costs of outages
(Jrventausta 2003). The actual outage costs are determined on the basis of the CENS
values and the outage statistics published by the Finnish Electricity Association Sener.
Determination of the outage costs is presented in detail in the report 1000 V
shknjakelujrjestelmn teknistaloudellinen tarkastelu [Techno-Economic Analysis of
a 1000 V Distribution System] (Partanen 2005). The other initial parameters required in
the analysis are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Calculation parameters.
 36

Parameter Value
Lifetime [a] 40
Time of load growth [a] 40
Peak operating time losses [h] 1000
Interest rate [%/a] 5
Power factor 0,95
Annual growth of consumption [%/a] 1
Price of power losses [/kW] 30
Price of energy losses [/kWh] 0,03
Fault repair costs [/fault] 1640
Maintenance costs in medium voltage network [/km,a] 95
Maintenance costs in low voltage network [/km,a] 48

4.2 Replacing 20 kV Lines by 1000 V Lines in New Construction Projects

When constructing a new electricity distribution network, the possible applications of

the 1000 V system that have the largest economic potential can be roughly divided into
three groups: the first target of application is to replace low-load medium voltage
branch lines partly or completely by a 1000 V construction. This solution brings savings
in the investment costs and reduces the outage costs of the medium voltage network.
Figure 11 illustrates two typical solutions.

Figure 11. 1000 V construction replaces a 20 kV branch line.

A second target in rural areas is reinforcing and expanding the existing low voltage
network by the 1000 V system. In that case, for instance by using 20/1/0.4 kV three-
winding transformers, the 400 V low voltage network near the substation can remain
unaltered, yet simultaneously, high-quality electricity can be supplied at 1000 V voltage
also to the more remote customers. Such targets of electrification are for instance
holiday homes in the lake district, where the 1000 V line is often partly constructed as
an underwater installation. Figure 12 illustrates the principle of this kind of installation.
 37

Figure 12. Extending a low voltage transforming district by the 1000 V system.

The third target of application are the large low voltage transforming districts in rural
areas, in which it is possible to avoid the traditional splitting up of the transforming
district by using a 1000 V network. However, the profitableness of using the 1000 V
system depends in these cases on the costs of splitting up the transforming district of the
traditional system. A possible solution is illustrated in Fig. 13. In principle, also in the
case of Fig. 12, the 1000 V system is used to replace the division of a traditional
transforming district. In these kinds of targets, when using the traditional system,
several holiday homes would remain without electricity due to the high investment costs
of the medium voltage lines.

The 1000 V system, when compared with the medium voltage network, is also friendlier
to the rural environment, since it does not require a separate line path cleared off trees.
In the 1000 V system, underground cables can be used at low cost, and the used aerial
lines blend into the scenery better than the medium voltage lines.
 38

Figure 13. Building of large low voltage transforming districts with a 1000 V system.

By careful planning and a right selection of targets, when using a 1000 V system, up to
15 % savings can be achieved in the investment costs when compared with 20 kV aerial
lines. If another alternative is a 20 kV underground cabling, savings in the investment
costs can amount to 50 %. The amount of savings depends on the transmission capacity
and distance. Increased losses are compensated by savings achieved in the investment,
outage, maintenance, and fault repair costs. Outage costs are a significant cost item in
the economic profitability of the 1000 V system. The economical range of use for the
1000 V AMKA 70 aerial bundled cables when compared with medium voltage
overhead lines can be divided into sections as shown in Fig. 14. The economic
profitability of the 1000 V line construction for different transmission powers and
distances is a sum of multiple factors. Figure 14 illustrates the average savings
percentages achieved by the 1000 V system in investment and total costs for different
transmission power and distance ranges, compared with the respective costs for a
medium voltage overhead line. The calculation is made for a rural feeder, the lifetime
outage costs of which are 10,500 /km. Although the investment costs of the low
voltage lines may be lower than the costs of the medium voltage lines that are mainly
used as branch lines, a 1000 V system is not always the most cost-efficient alternative
when considering investment costs. This is due to the investment costs of the 1/0.4
transformers and substations required for the 1000 V system. Therefore, the advantage
gained in investment costs by the 1000 V system increases along with the growing
transmission distance.
 39

10 >14 %
(>45 %)
9 Technical upper limit

Transmission distance [km]

8 Economical lower limit
7 13 %
(44 %)
6
13 % Investment cost difference
5
(42 %) Total cost difference
4
3 9%
10 % 10 %
(30 %)
2 (40 %) (36 %) -2 %
5%
1 (23 %) (8 %)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Transmission power [kW]
Figure 14. The average savings percentages achieved by AMKA 70 aerial bundled cables in investment
costs and in total costs (in brackets) for different transmission power and distance ranges in
new installation targets of a rural feeder, compared with the costs of Raven medium voltage
overhead line.

In addition to the transmission power of the system, savings achieved in investment

costs depend also on the length and cross-sectional area of the selected cables as well as
on the costs of the required transformers. The savings reached by the 1000 V
construction in investment costs can be negative, even though the 1000 V as a whole is
still a more profitable solution than a 20 kV medium voltage line. In that case, the
profitability of the 1000 V system is based on other cost items, the most important of
which are the outage costs. Figure 15 illustrates a case of a 1000 V AXMK 70
underground cable corresponding to Figure 14. When comparing the investment costs
of the 1000 V AXMK 70 line and the 20 kV Raven medium voltage line, it can be seen
that savings in investment costs are achieved by the 1000 V system only at transmission
distances above 10 km. Due to the technical constraints, the transmission power range is
in that case 15 kW at the maximum.
 40

10 >-0 %
(>37 %)
9

Transmission distance [km] 8 Technical upper limit

7 -1 %
(36 %)
6 Economical lower
-1 %
5 limit
(35 %)
4
-5 % -5 % -6 %
3
(31 %) (28 %) (23 %)
2 -17 %
-11 % (4 %)
1 (15 %)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Transmission power [kW]

Figure 15. The average savings percentages achieved by AMKA 70 underground cables in investment
and total costs for different transmission power and distance ranges in new installation targets
of a rural feeder, compared with the costs of Raven medium voltage overhead line.

The pursuit of improved reliability may lead in a regional policy decision to select
underground cabling for the majority of the medium voltage network also in rural areas.
When considering medium voltage main cables, this is an advantageous way to improve
reliability, particularly if the cable can be installed at low cost for instance along
roadsides or together with water and natural gas pipelines. However, with respect to
branch lines, underground cabling of the medium voltage lines is an expensive solution
when compared with aerial lines. The branch lines of rural areas are often quite low-
power targets for medium voltage cabling. An alternative worth considering is the use
of low-cost 1000 V low voltage lines as branch lines instead of medium voltage
underground cables. Figure 16 shows the results of an exemplary calculation comparing
a 1000 V AXMK 70 underground cable with a 20 kV AHXMK 70 medium voltage
underground cable for a rural feeder. The figure illustrates the savings achieved by 1000
V lines in investment costs in different sections of the economical range of use. Savings
in total costs are given in brackets.
 41

10
9 >55 %

Transmission distance [km]

8 Technical upper limit
7 55 %
6 (54 %) Economical lower
5 55 % limit
(53 %)
4
3 53 %
53 % 53 % (43 %)
2 (50 %) (50 %) 50 % 47 %
1 (36 %) (19 %)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Transmission power [kW]
Figure 16. The average savings percentages achieved by AMKA 70 underground cables in investment
costs for different transmission power and distance ranges in new installation targets of a rural
feeder, compared with the costs of AHXMK 70 medium voltage underground cable.

When comparing 1000 V underground cables with medium voltage underground cables,
it can be seen that in per cents, the difference of total costs between the two cable types
is smaller than the difference of the investment costs. In the case of underground cables,
the savings achieved in investment costs are higher than the savings in outage costs. For
aerial line networks, the situation is quite the opposite. In an underground medium
voltage network, the lifetime outage costs per added line kilometre are in average about
1,600 /km for a rural feeder, and about 4,030 /km for an urban feeder. However, the
ratio of loss costs of 1000 V and 20 kV solutions with underground cables remains
almost the same as for aerial lines.

4.3 Using 1000 V lines in the Renewal of Medium Voltage Network

In the renewal of medium voltage network, it is advisable to consider the 1000 V

system as a replacement for the medium voltage branch lines in need of renovation.
The renovation project of a branch line, in which the target is to renew the entire
medium voltage branch line with all its components, corresponds to a case of a new
construction project. In that case, the economical usage potential of the 1000 V system
as a replacement for a new 20 kV branch line is approximately the same as in new
construction projects. In other words, in such renovation projects, in which the entire
line structure is renewed, the economical usage range of the 1000 V system is large, and
there are a large number of possible application targets. Most of the 1000 V targets in
the present distribution networks are various renovation projects.

The most common operation carried out in the renovation of a medium voltage line is
the replacement of poles with new ones, as the mechanical lifetime of the line
 42

construction runs out. In that case, it should be considered whether it is preferable to

replace the medium voltage branch line with a 1000 V construction. If there are 15
poles/km in a medium voltage line, and the price of changing a single pole is 600 , in
the case of a rural feeder, it is advantageous to replace a branch line below 30 kW with
a 1000 V AMKA 35 line. The length of the branch line should in that case be at least
2.2 km. In the case of renewing a 30 kW branch line belonging to an urban feeder, it is
advantageous to replace a branch line longer than 650 m with a 1000 V AMKA 35 line
instead of changing the poles. However, in the case of pole renewal, the economical
usage range of the 1000 V system is notably narrower than in the case of a new
construction project. For a rural feeder, the use of an AMKA 70 cable instead of the
20 kV pole renewal is economical only for lines longer than 4 km, when the
transmission powers remain below 25 kW. Thus, it can be stated that in practice, there
is no sensible economical usage range for a 1000 V AMKA 70 cables and for cables
with cross-sectional areas above that.

Outage costs have a significant impact on the economical usage range of the 1000 V
system in the renovation of the medium voltage network. The fact that the outage costs
of the urban feeder are about double the costs of the rural feeder enlarges the
economical usage range of the 1000 V considerably. For an urban feeder, the
economical usage range of the 1000 V in the renewal of the medium voltage network
extends even with an AMKA 70 cable up to ca. 75 kW. In that case, the length of the
branch line has to be at least 1.8 km. In the calculations, the dismantling costs of 3,500
/km have been used for the 20 kV branch line. In the case of pole renewal, the
economical usage range of the 1000 V system is more limited than in the new
construction projects. The economic profitability of individual targets depends primarily
on the costs of the pole renewal and the dismantling costs of the medium voltage line;
therefore, the renewal targets have to be analysed case by case.

An interesting solution is to change a medium voltage branch line that is still in use and
in proper condition as such into 1000 V use. The investment costs of this kind of
solution are caused by the required 20/1 kV and 1/0.4 kV transformers alone. The
advantages of the solution are based on the savings achieved in the outage costs of the
medium voltage network. When the branch line is separated from the main line, the
faults of the branch line no longer cause disturbances in the main line. Separating a
medium voltage line into 1000 V use is an alternative to the use of medium voltage
pole-mounted switchgear, since the 1000 V line forms a protective area of its own.

The economical usage range depends highly on the valuation of outages. For a rural
feeder, the discounted lifetime outage costs of which are 10,500 /km, the realistic
 43

economical usage range of a Raven branch line changed into 1000 V use extends in
rural areas up to 50 kW, and with an urban feeder, up to 80 kW. The shortest
economical transmission distances are 1.5 and 1 km respectively. The technical
transmission capacity of a Raven medium voltage line changed into 1000 V use
corresponds to the transmission capacity of a 1000 V AMKA 70 cable. The line path for
a medium voltage line has to be maintained also in the 1000 V use.

4.4 1000 V Line as a Replacement for 400 V Line

Under certain conditions, a 1000 V system can be used as an extension of a 400 V low
voltage network so that the distribution voltage is transformed from 400 V to 1 kV and
close to the consumption back to 400 V. This solution is applicable only to very low
transmission powers in special cases, and it is not as profitable as replacing 20 kV
branch lines with 1000 V lines.

Using 1000 V voltage is a possible alternative instead of 400 V in the cases in which
conductors with smaller cross-sectional areas can be used at 1000 V voltage. Also in
these cases, the costs of the 1/0.4 kV distribution substations shall not exceed the
savings achieved in the investment and loss costs of the conductors. Considering the
technical aspects, by using the same lines at 1000 V, 6.25 times higher power compared
to 400 V can be transmitted.

Using the 1000 V system does not have a direct impact on the structure of the 400 V
low voltage network. Replacing over 500 m long low voltage lines with a 1000 V
system is often a profitable solution, if the lines should otherwise be reinforced
substantially, for instance by duplicating the lines. This is a borderline case, in which
another alternative is always to split up the transforming district and to use 20 kV
medium voltage lines. These cases have always to be considered individually. The basic
assumption in the present analysis is that the 400 V line is fed from an existing 20/0.4
kV substation.

For most of the applications of the 1000 V system, there are only few customers, and
they are grouped relatively close to each other. In that case, the 1000 V system does not
have a direct impact on the constructed 400 V transforming district. Now, as the
20/1/0.4 kV system has nevertheless been selected, depending on the specific
conditions, such 1/0.4 kV transforming districts can be found, in which, due to the
powers or distances of the customers, it is more profitable to arrange the distribution at
1000 V all the way to the end-customer. This presumes that the joint costs of the 1000
V lines and the 1/0.4 kV transformers installed for the customers are lower than the
costs of the 400 V lines of sufficient transmission capacity and the required 1/0.4 kV
 44

distribution substation. This condition is met with current cost parameters if the rated
power of the customers is 5 kW, and the distance is above 250 m. Thus, we may state
that this is a case of splitting up a 1/0.4 kV transforming district, and therefore, the
situation differs from the replacement of an individual 400 V line by a 1000 V line. The
costs of the transformers and substations strongly impact the structure of the 400 V
network, and therefore, a detailed analysis is required in each individual case.

4.5 Market Potential Analysis of the 1000 V System

The analysis of the domestic market potential of the 1000 V distribution system is
carried out by gathering information from six distribution companies operating in
Finland. The assessment of the market potential is theoretically carried out by searching
20 kV branch lines suitable for 1000 V use from the networks of the distribution
companies participating in the survey. So far, only in the distribution company SSS Oy,
strategic outlines have been drawn up for building 1000 V distribution networks.

In the distribution companies participating in the survey, depending on the company,

1030 % of the medium voltage network can be replaced by 1000 V networks. As the
networks of these companies can well be said to represent an average distribution
network in Finland, it can be roughly estimated on grounds of the survey that about 20
% of the Finnish medium voltage overhead lines could be replaced by 1000 V lines. The
total length of the medium voltage distribution network in Finland is 124,700 km, of
which 114,100 km is comprised of overhead lines. In Finland, there is in average one
20/0.4 kV transforming district per line kilometre (Sener 2002). Thus, the total potential
of 1000 V networks can be estimated to be 23,000 km at maximum, and the total
number of 20/1 kV and 1/0.4 kV substations is 20,00025,000. With the 1000 V system,
some of the current transforming districts can be joined together, when the need for the
division of transforming districts decreases. On the other hand, a 1000 V system always
requires one transformer type more than the traditional system, and therefore, it can be
predicted that the total number of distribution transformers in Finnish distribution
networks will grow.

The number of possible 1000 V construction projects and their scale can be estimated
on grounds of the information gathered from the companies participating in the survey.
A rough estimate of the total number of 1000 V targets in these companies is ca. 150
targets per annum. The need for transformers and substations in these targets is divided
as shown below:

20/1 kV: 1260 pc/a

20/1/0.4 kV: 6180 pc/a
 45

1/0.4 kV: 30240 pc/a

Nation-wide, when considering all distribution companies, the number of targets can be
estimated to be substantially higher, even up to 500600 targets annually. At least two
transformers and substations of the 1000 V system are required for each target, their
annual demand being thus about 1,0001,200 pc/a. Outside Finland, there seems to be
demand for the 20/1/0.4 kV system also in the other Nordic countries. In Sweden in
particular, the 1000 V system has received notable interest; several inquiries have been
made about the operation and construction of 1000 V networks. The feedback from the
Baltic countries has also been positive. The international usage potential of the 20/1/0.4
kV system can be evaluated by investigating the structure of electricity distribution
networks in different countries as well as the operational environments of the networks
in these countries. For instance, almost all over the Northern Europe and in Russia, the
rural electricity distribution networks are mainly located in forest areas. Also the loads
are very similar in these countries. Thus, it can be assumed that in these geographic
regions, there is a similar market potential for the 20/1/0.4 kV system as in Finland.

The more extensively the 1000 V system is aimed to be used, the larger the market
potential will be. On grounds of the presented calculations, also other targets outside the
public distribution network can be suggested for the 1000 V distribution system. The
development of 1/0.4 kV of building-mounted distribution substations supports the use
of 1000 V lines for instance in in-house installations in large buildings, in which it is
often necessary to use medium voltage lines. A 1000 V construction is in these cases
often a more economical and safer solution when considering the costs of the
conductors and the substation. Being internal parts of the low voltage system, the 1/0.4
kV substations can be built smaller than the 20/0.4 kV building-mounted distribution
substations, and thus, in addition to cost savings, also space savings are achieved.

4.6 Selection of Target Areas

When using 1000 V lines as a replacement for medium voltage branch lines built with
aerial lines, the largest savings are achieved with medium voltage feeders, the outage
costs of which are the highest. This of course presumes that along the feeder in
question, there are targets than can be replaced by 1000 V lines. The outage costs of a
medium voltage feeder depend on the selected line type, the customer distribution and
the power of the feeder. When considering medium voltage overhead line feeders in
rural areas, the consumption of which is evenly distributed between the feeders, the
replacement of medium voltage branch lines is the most profitable for the feeder, the
power of which is the highest. Figure 17 illustrates the lower limit of the economical
 46

range of use for an AMKA 70 aerial bundled cable and a Raven medium voltage
overhead line in the case of an average rural feeder and four total powers of the feeder.

10
9
Transmission distance [km]

8
500 kW 1000 kW 1500 kW 2000 kW
7
6
5
Upper
4 limit
3
2
Lower
1
limit
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Transmission power [kW]
Figure 17. Lower limit of the economical range of use for a 1000 V AMKA 70 aerial bundled cable and a
Raven medium voltage overhead line in the case of four rural feeders of different total powers.
The power of the feeder has a significant impact on the outage costs of the medium voltage
network; as the power of the feeder increases, the benefit gained by the 1000 V system
increases when compared with the traditional system.

The power of the feeder primarily affects the economical transmission power of the
economical usage range of the 1000 V system. The higher is the power of the feeder, in
which a medium voltage branch line is to be replaced by a 1000 V line, the shorter and
higher-power branches can be profitably replaced by 1000 V lines (see Fig. 17). In
addition to the growing economical range, the economic benefit obtained by the 1000 V
system increases compared with the traditional system, as the power of the feeder in
question increases. If all the new medium voltage lines are planned to be built with
underground cables, the profitability of the 1000 V system is not as strongly dependent
on savings in outage costs as in the case of an aerial line network. The power, length,
and grouping of customers in an underground distribution network are less important
for the profitability of the 1000 V system than the investment and loss costs and
technical constraints.

4.7 Technical Constraints of the 1000 V Distribution System

Technical boundary conditions of the 1000 V line refer in this case to the transmission
capacity of the line. Transmission capacity is analysed by investigating losses occurring
in conductors of different cross-sectional areas at 1000 V voltage. The range of use is
also affected by the selected protection, the constraints of which are analysed by
comparing the transmission distance as a function of power when using traditional fuse
protection and overcurrent relay system. The aim of the analysis is to unambiguously
 47

determine the limits set by the technical boundary conditions for the electricity
transmission carried out with a 1000 V line.

With technically similar conductors, at 20 kV medium voltage, it is possible to transmit

a 50 times higher power to a 50 times longer distance than at 0.4 kV voltage level.
Correspondingly, at 1 kV voltage, it is possible to transmit a 2.5 times higher power to a
2.5 times longer distance than at 0.4 kV voltage level. At 20 kV, a 20 times higher
power can thus be transmitted to a 20 times longer distance than at 1 kV voltage level.
L P
400 V

2,5 x L 2,5 x P
1000 V
50 x L
50 x P
20 kV

Figure 18. Transmission capacities of different voltage levels in proportion to the 400 V voltage level.

Figure 19 shows the maximum transmission distance reached by the selected AMKA
aerial bundled cables at 1000 V as a function of power. Figure 20 presents the same
curves for AXMK underground cables.

600
Maximum transmission power [kW]

500
2 x AMKA 70
400
AMKA 120
300

AMKA 70
200

100
AMKA 35
0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0 4,5 5,0
Transmission distance [km]
Figure 19. Transmission distance as a function of peak power for 1000V AMKA aerial bundled cables,
when the maximum allowed voltage drop is 8 %. The protection is provided by overcurrent
relays or fuses (the vertical line showing the limits of acceptable line length are derived from
the need for adequate fault current compared with the feeder fuse rating; cf. Lakervi 1995).
 48

700

Maximum transmission power [kW]

600
AXMK 240
500
AXMK 185
400
AXMK 120
300
AXMK 70 AXMK 35
200

100
AXMK 25
0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0 4,5 5,0
Transmission distance[km]
Figure 20. Transmission distance as a function of peak power for 1000V AXMK underground cables,
when the maximum allowed voltage drop is 8 %. The protection is provided by overcurrent
relays.

The horizontal line indicates the thermal limit, and the curve is created as a function of
voltage drop. The vertical lines in Figure 19 showing the limits of acceptable line length
are derived from the need for adequate fault current compared with the feeder fuse
rating, provided with the fuses of the table below. The line is fed by a 100 kVA 20/1 kV
transformer.
Table 3. Load capacity of the AMKA cables and the nominal currents of the fuses operating as an
overload protection.
Cable Fuse [A] Load capacity [A]
AMKA 25 80 90
AMKA 35 100 115
AMKA 70 160 180
AMKA 120 200 250
2 x AMKA 70 250 360

The transmission capacity of the 1000 V has to be analysed as a whole. The combined
voltage drop of the transformers and the conductors defines the upper limit of the
economical range of usage of the 1000 V system. Figures 21 and 22 illustrate the
transmission capacity of the 1000 V with different conductors. The 1/0.4 kV
transformers have a particularly significant impact on the transmission capacity, since
the voltage loss occurring in the transformers amounts to 25 % of the voltage drop.
 49

30
2 x AMKA 70

Transmission distance [km]

25 AMKA 120

20 AMKA 70
AMKA 35
15

10

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Transmission power [kW]
Figure 21. Transmission capacity of the 1000 V system (cable + transformer) with different AMKA
aerial bundled cables, when the allowed voltage drop in the 400 V connection point is 8 %.

40
AXMK 240
35
Transmission distance [km]

AXMK 185
30
AXMK 120
25
AXMK 70
20
AXMK 35
15

10
5

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Transmission power [kW]
Figure 22. Transmission capacity of the 1000 V system (cable + transformer) with different AXMK
underground cables, when the allowed voltage drop in the 400 V connection point is 8 %.

As stated before, the protection method of the cable may limit the transmission distance.
When using fuse protection, the limits of acceptable line length become in practice a
decisive factor already at relatively short transmission distances. When using pre-set
relay protection, this kind of situation does not occur so easily. Empirical experiences
have shown that to ensure reliable operation of the relay protection, the systems two-
phase short-circuit current at the receiving end of the line should be at least 2.5 times
the load current. In that case, the protection does not yet react to the current peaks of
load switching, but the accuracy is sufficient for the implementation of overcurrent
protection. Figure 21 illustrates the constraints set by the voltage loss and overcurrent
protection of the 1000 V system to the transmission distance. The limit defined by the
voltage loss has been calculated with a load current corresponding to a 50 % excess
probability. Again, the limit of the overcurrent protection has been calculated with a
 50

short-circuit current that is 2.5 times the load current corresponding to a 5 % excess
probability. In that case, the limits are even narrower than in a normal operating
situation. As shown by Fig. 16, when allowing an 8 % voltage drop for the 1000 V
system, the voltage drop limits the systems transmission distance before the
overcurrent protection. Thus, in practice, it can be stated that the set overcurrent
protection does not limit the systems transmission distance, if the maximum allowed
voltage loss in the system is less than 15 %.

50
45
Transmission distance [km]

40
Limit set by the overcurrent protection
35
Limit set by the voltage loss
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Transmission power [kW]
Figure 23. Limits set for the 1000 V systems transmission distance by the overcurrent protection and
voltage loss as a function of transmission power .

A factor that has an impact on the transmission power, distance, and cross-sectional
areas of conductors of the 1000 V system is the limit set in the network design for the
allowed voltage loss. A too strict limit for the voltage drop leads easily to over-
dimensioning of the system.
 51

5 Definition of the Optimal Network Topology of the 20/1/0.4 kV

System

The purpose of the electric power network is to connect the power generation and
consumption. The primary targets of network planning are:

Transmission and distribution of electricity have to be economical.

Transmission and distribution of electricity have to be reliable.
Lifetime of the network components has to be long.
Transmission and distribution of electricity have to be safe and unobtrusive.

The number and details of the required parameters depend on the construction target
and the planning conditions (Elovaara 1988). This chapter discusses the calculation of a
three voltage level network and presents the basic calculation models required in the
calculation of the system. The theoretical presentation is complemented with clarifying
examples in Chapter 6.

5.1 Optimisation of the Electricity Distribution Network

The optimisation of an electricity distribution network is based on the techno-economic

selection of required network components, optimal line routing, and sizes and locations
of distribution substations. The final result is obtained when calculating the total cost
function by finding the minimum of the total cost function with respect to the desired
parameters within defined technical boundary conditions. By comparing the obtained
solutions, it is possible to economically rank the different network solutions, and to find
out the number of transformers and the preliminary network topology. The total costs
discounted to the present time for different alternative solutions are obtained by
summing up all the cost factors related to the respective solution. The total cost function
is the sum of the costs of all network components. In general, the outage, fault repair,
and maintenance costs can be allocated to the costs of the conductors, and the
transformer maintenance cost to the costs of the substations. The most profitable
solution yields the lowest total costs.

At simplest, the economic dimensioning of a network is based on finding the cost

optima of individual conductors. In principle, the costs are comprised of two elements,
namely the investment costs and the loss costs. These costs can be made comparable for
instance by dividing the investment (i.e., construction) costs into annual expense items,
or by discounting the loss costs to the time of construction; these operations are called
an annuity method and a present value method. The present value method is a widely
 52

used calculation method, and therefore, it is applied also in this study. A techno-
economic design task is to optimise Eq. (1)

F = Cinv + C ope + C maint + C out , (1)

where Cinv = investment costs

Cope = operating costs
Cmaint = maintenance costs
Cout = outage costs

within the following boundary conditions:

the thermal limit

the allowed maximum short-circuit current
the voltage quality, e.g. the voltage drop is within set limits
safety regulations in electrical engineering are met
the desired reliability is reached

Different network solutions are compared by examining their total cost functions
optimised within the boundary conditions. The solution with the lowest total costs is
selected as the network model. However, the technical boundary conditions have to be
considered carefully; too strict conditions lead to over-dimensioning of the network,
which in turn unnecessarily increases the investment costs (Partanen 2002).

Modelling of a three voltage level distribution network in the design calculation is a

more complicated task than in the case of a traditional system. The new voltage level
and the 1/0.4 kV transformers increase the number of parameters in the calculation.
Furthermore, there is a stronger interaction between the different voltage levels in the
20/1/0.4 kV than in the traditional system. While 20/0.4 kV networks can be designed
by dividing up the network with respect to the voltage levels, in the case of 20/1/0.4 kV
networks, it is necessary to calculate larger units at a time. The calculation method of
the traditional system, in which the local optima are found by voltage levels, is not
suitable for a 20/1/0.4 kV system, in which the changes of different voltage levels
strongly influence each other. The interaction is the strongest between the 1000 V and
400 V networks. To ensure reliable optimisation both with respect to costs and technical
boundary conditions, it is necessary to be able to calculate at least two voltage levels
(1000 V and 400 V) simultaneously. To find a suitable optimum, it is necessary to
simultaneously optimise the placing of 20/1 kV transformers, the 1000 V network, the
placing of 1/0.4 kV transformers, and the 400 V network. The 1000 V network has a
strong impact on the positioning of 1/0.4 kV transformers, as well as on the structure of
 53

the 400 V network, and on the numbers of customers connected to a single 1/0.4 kV
transforming district.

The network optimisation is usually started from the definition of possible routings of
the lines. Usually, the optimum is approached by initially selecting the line routings that
implement the shortest total line length. The core principle in the optimisation of the
20/1/0.4 kV network is to minimise the length of the required 20 kV network within the
technical boundary conditions and to find a balanced techno-economic solution between
the line lengths of the 1000 V and 400 V networks in each 1/0.4 kV transforming
district. Simultaneously, the impact of the number of 1/0.4 kV transforming districts
and the 400 V lines on the structure of the 1000 V has to be considered. Constructing
long 400 V networks reduces the transmission capacity of the system, and therefore, the
proportion of the 20 kV medium voltage lines that could be replaced by 1000 V lines
diminishes accordingly. The differences in costs between different alternative solutions
are usually marginal. When planning the 20/1/0.4 kV system, the forecasts of power
consumption and potential numbers of customers have to be considered more carefully
than in the case of the 20/0.4 kV system. When using 1000 V lines, the load level is
always higher than when using 20 kV lines, and there is hardly any reserve capacity
available when the power demand increases.

5.2 Selection of the Cable

In distribution networks, the conductors cause investment and loss costs. Investment
costs comprise the price of the conductor and the installation costs, these costs being
dated to the moment of construction. Loss costs in turn are created during the whole
useful life, and they are a function of the power transferred by the conductor. Both the
investment and loss costs depend on the cross-sectional area of the conductor. A
conductor with a larger cross-sectional area is more expensive, yet it provides lower
losses.

When seeking economic balance between the above mentioned factors, also most of the
technical boundary conditions are usually met. However, it is important that the
calculations are examined also from a technical point of view. A technical constraint
that has the major effect on the total costs is the voltage drop. According to the
Electricity Market Act, the electricity delivered to the users has to be of good quality,
the quality often being measured by the voltage level. However, too strict limits for the
voltage loss may lead into a too expensive conductor solution (Lakervi 1996).

When planning a new network, a focal task is to select the most suitable cross-sectional
area from the conductors available. The selection can be made for instance by
 54

comparing the total costs of two conductors; it is profitable to change the conductor to
the next alternative (2nd cable) in the series, if

Cinv1 + C h1 > Cinv 2 + C h 2 , (2)

where Cinv1 = the investment cost of the first cable

Cinv2 = the investment cost of the second cable
Ch1 = the loss cost of the first cable
Ch2 = the loss cost of the second cable

With the present value method, both sides of the equation are discounted to the moment
of observation, and the alternative that provides lower costs during the reference period
is selected. The cost optimum is reached by searching the lowest-cost alternative for
each conductor in the network on grounds of Eq. (2). When the conductor is selected on
economic basis, it has to be ensured that also the electrical limit values (boundary
conditions) are met. In practice, technical boundary conditions to be checked include
exceeding the defined level for voltage loss and exceeding the load capacity of the line.
In the economic dimensioning of the conductor, usually the average hourly power of the
peak season is used as the rated power.

The conductors can be ranked by their total costs, and the economical usage ranges can
be found for different cross-sections. In addition to the costs of Eq. (2), also the case-
specific costs of the line paths and cable trenches as well as outage, repair and
maintenance costs are added to the total costs of the cable. The installation costs of
required joints, terminations, etc. are usually included in the investment costs of the
lines.

The selection of the cross-section of the conductor can be carried out with limit curves,
at which two consequent conductor cross-sectional areas provide equally economical
results. The position of the limit curves is determined by the construction costs of the
lines, the pricing of losses, and the interest rate used in the calculation (Lakervi 1996).
In the literature, the limit curves are often presented for medium voltage lines, however,
the same principle can also be applied to low voltage lines. The curves are known as
curves of the optimum load (power) of the conductor replacement (Lakervi 1996).
Optimum load for the conductor replacement is defined as

(Cinv2 Cinv1 ) U 2 (cos )2

Initial power > (3)
(H P + t h H E ) (R j1 R j2 )

where Cinv1 = the investment cost of line 1

Cinv2 = the investment cost of line 2
 55

Rj1 = the resistance of line 1

Rj2 = the resistance of line 2
U = the voltage of the line
cos = power factor
= discount coefficient
HP = the price of the power loss
HE = the price of energy loss
th = the peak operating time loss

When the pricing of losses is kept constant, the influence of the voltage, the imputed
interest rate, and the load growth on the economical usage range of the conductor can be
assessed. Raising the voltage increases the economical transmission power of the
conductor by the decrease in loss costs; raising the imputed interest rate has the same
effect. Figure 24 illustrates the dimensioning guide for the selected 1000 V AMKA
aerial bundled cables.

450
400
2 x AMKA 70
350
Limit power [kW]

300
250
AMKA 120
200
150
AMKA 70
100
50
AMKA 35
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Annual growth of consumption [%]
Figure 24. Dimensioning guide for the conductor replacement for a cross-section series of an AMKA
aerial bundled cable at 1000 V.

5.3 Calculation of Outage Costs

The unit cost of a fault outage is calculated by summing up customer group-specific

energy-weighted CENS (cost of energy not supplied) values. The unit costs of
reclosings are calculated accordingly. Now, the outage costs of an individual fault are
calculated according to Eq. (4).

C fault = (CENS1 + CENS 2 t O ) Pl

C DR = CENS DR Pl (4)
C
HR = CENS HR Pl
 56

where CENS1 = CENS value of the fault outage [/kW]

CENS2 = CENS value of the fault outage [/kW]
CENSDR = CENS value of delayed automatic reclosing (DR) [/kW]
CENSHR = CENS value of high-speed automatic reclosing (HR) [/kW]
tO = the duration of outage
Pl = the mean power of the feeder [%]

By multiplying the outage costs given by the system of equations (4) by the outage
frequencies, the annual fault-specific outage costs per each line kilometre are obtained.
By summing up these costs and discounting them to the moment of observation, we
obtain costs that are comparable with the investment costs of the conductor. Automatic
reclosings are not used in the underground network, and thus, only the first equation of
the system (4) is used. When discounting the lifetime outage costs, it has to be borne in
mind that the load growth has a linear effect on outage costs, not a square effect, as on
loss costs (Partanen 2005).

Usually, when planning branch lines, it can be assumed that the outage costs in the
medium voltage section are constant per line kilometre. In a low voltage transforming
district, the outage cost is calculated for each case individually depending on the mean
power of the transforming district. Automatic reclosings are not used in the low voltage
network (Partanen 2005).

5.4 Selection of the Transformer

Power is a decisive parameter in the selection of a transformer. Usually, either a peak

power corresponding to a 10 % excess probability or a peak power corresponding to a
50 % excess probability is used. The distribution transformer is designed to be used for
the entire lifetime of the network. Therefore, the losses play a crucial role in the
selection process. The selection of the transformer is based on the same economic
considerations as the selection of the conductors.

There always occur no-load losses in the transformer, when it is connected to the
network. No-load losses are independent of the load on the transformer, and are
basically due to resistive losses caused by the no-load current in the primary winding,
and losses caused by the magnetic flux in the insulating and core structures. No-load
losses primarily depend on the voltage of the transformer. In order to reach an optimum
flux density, a distribution transformer has to be dimensioned so that the magnetic flux
density in the core is nearly equal to the saturation flux density of the core, and
therefore the load losses at the rated current of the transformer are even ten-fold when
 57

compared with no-load losses. Load losses can be divided into copper losses and losses
caused by the leakage flux. Copper losses, as the name indicates, are created basically in
the resistances of the windings and in the conductors of the transformers by the action
of eddy currents. Load losses depend on the load on the transformer.

The costs of losses created in the transformer can be defined, if the prices of power and
energy losses as well as the nameplate ratings of the transformer are known. When
determining the costs of energy losses, it has to be borne in mind that the peak operating
time of no-load losses is the whole year, that is, 8,760 hours. In discounting the
transformer losses, two different coefficients have to be used. The load losses depend on
the load growth, and therefore, the same coefficient as for the conductors cannot be
used. However, the no-load losses remain constant with respect to load growth, and
therefore, a discounting coefficient of periodic payment is used for them in discounting
(Lakervi 1996).

The total costs Ct of a transformer are obtained by adding the investment costs of the
transformer to the loss costs:

C t = Cinv + C h (5)

Also costs resulting for instance from the selected distribution substation type have to
be added to the transformers total costs. These costs are usually non-recurrent (initial)
costs, and they can be added directly to the investment costs of the transformer.

A transformers normal lifetime is the time a transformer will last operated at rated load,
the temperature of the cooling air being +20 C. Under these circumstances, the
transformer is said to age at a normal ageing rate. However, in practice, the load of the
transformer varies in the course of time, and when the load is smaller, the transformer
ages at a slower rate. The transformer can therefore be temporarily overloaded.
However, during an overload, the temperature of the hottest spot in the winding may not
exceed 140 C; neither may the load exceed the rated load more than 50 %. Table 4
presents some of the highest overloads for distribution transformers for different
consumer groups and substation types. It is assumed that the peak load occurs in winter,
when the load capacity is at highest due to the cold cooling air (SA 2:92).
 58

Table 4. Load capacity of a distribution transformer ( Sn) (SA 2:92).

Substation type
Transforming district Building-
Pole-mounted Pad-mounted mounted
Small-house area, electrical heating 1.5 1.4 1.2
Area with blocks of flats 1.5 1.4 1.2
City centre 1.4 1.3 1.0
Industrial area 1.4 1.3 1.0
Rural area 1.5 1.4 1.2

If the conductor is selected on economic grounds, its load capacity has to be checked.
Based on the above table, it can be generalised that the load capacity for pole-mounted
distribution substations is 1.5 Sn, and for pad-mounted substations 1.4 Sn. In that
case, the maximum load P for instance for a pole-mounted distribution substation has to
satisfy an inequality
t'
r
1 + P < 1,5 S n cos (6)
100

where r = the annual percentage of growth of consumption

P = the load of the transformer during the first year of operation
Sn = the rated power of the transformer

If the inequality is not satisfied, a transformer next in size has to be selected. A

transformer selected on economic grounds usually meets also the technical boundary
conditions. Figure 25 illustrates the curves of lifetime costs for a 1/0.4 kV transformer
series as a function of power.

10 000
9 000
8 000
7 000
100 kVA
6 000
Costs []

5 000
4 000
50 kVA
3 000
25 kVA
2 000
16 kVA
1 000
10 kVA
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Rated power [kW]
Figure 25. Cost curves of 1/0.4 kV transformers and their technical load capacity.

On grounds of cost curves, a transformer is selected that yields the lowest costs without
exceeding the load capacity. The vertical line in the figure indicates the technical limit
 59

of the load capacity in a pole-mounted substation with the calculation parameters

introduced in Chapter 4. Particularly in the case of small 1/0.4 kV distribution
transformers, over-dimensioning is advantageous when considering voltage drop, and
thus allows the selection of conductors with smaller cross-sectional areas; therefore,
over-dimensioning may prove a more economical solution than the alternative of
selecting a smaller transformer and a conductor with a larger cross-sectional area.
60
 61

6 Technical Calculation and Protection Setting of 20/1/0.4 kV System

The first technical constraint for the economic dimensioning of the network is usually
the allowed total loss in the network. When the economic dimensioning of the
transforming district to be designed has been carried out within the limits set by voltage
losses and the thermal loads of load situations, the fault situations in the network are
next taken under consideration. Figure 26 depicts a simple model for a branch line as
well as its single-phase equivalent circuit with the impedances of the positive-sequence
network. The function of this simple model is to illustrate the technical calculation.
Z

20/1 kV 1/0,4 kV
20 kV 1000 V 400 V
Z
Z

B C D
400 V

Rj20 Xj20 Rm1 Xm1 Rj1 Xj1 Rm2 Xm2 Rj Xj consumer

Figure 26. A model for a simple branch line as well as its single-phase equivalent circuit with the
impedances of the positive-sequence network.

The analysis of fault situations is usually started with the calculation of the short-circuit
currents of the network. This way, the resistance of the network components to the
thermal stresses caused by the short-circuit currents is investigated, and it is now
possible to set the short-circuit protection of the system. In a low voltage network, the
short-circuit currents have to be high enough in order for the fuse protection of the 400
V system to function properly. Also at the connection point of the customer, a sufficient
short-circuit current has to be reached to ensure that the customer-specific protection
devices operate faultlessly. According to the recommendations, the short-circuit current
at the connection point of the customer should be approximately 200 A (Lohjala 2005).

For the setting of the protection, also the fault currents of the earth fault situations in the
1000 V network have to be calculated, as well as their effect on the zero potential of the
system. Simultaneously, it has to be checked that the touch voltages do not rise to a
level dangerous to the customers in any fault situations. The equations presented in the
following discussion base on Kaipia (2004), Lakervi (1996), and Lohjala (2005).

6.1 Determination of the Voltage Loss

The voltage drop at the last customer in the network may not exceed the limit agreed
upon at the initial stage of planning. The voltage drop of a conductor is defined
according to equation
 62

P P
U h = Rc + tan X c , (9)
U U

where P = rated effective power

U = voltage at the customer
Rc = phase resistance
Xc = phase reactance

A peak power corresponding to an excess probability of 5 % is employed as the rated

power in the calculation of voltage drop (Lakervi 1996). If the allowed voltage drop is
defined as a percentage of the line voltage, the respective percentage is obtained from
the voltage drop of Eq. (7) by dividing the voltage drop by the line voltage. The voltage
losses occurring in different components are calculated by Eq. (7) by substituting the
resistance and the reactance terms of each component in the equation. The voltage drop
of the entire system can be defined by summing up the impedances of the network
between the feeding point and the reference point, and by substituting these values in
Eq. (7). The impedances have to be referred to the same voltage level. The parameters
of all components are usually referred to the voltage at the connection point of the
customer. If the total voltage drop of the transforming district is exceeded, the
conductor selection is corrected on technical grounds so that the voltage drop will be
within allowed limits. As a conductor to be replaced, a conductor with the highest
relative voltage drop (V/km or %/km) is selected.

When calculating the voltage drop, it is easy to calculate also the voltage elasticity of
the system. Voltage elasticity is a more informative quantity for a designer than the
mere voltage drop, since it can be used for instance before the actual calculation of fault
currents to predict whether the fault currents of the system are sufficient for the reliable
operation of the protection. From voltage elasticity, it is also possible to infer the effects
of load growth on the voltage level.

6.2 Investigation of the Fault Situations

The lowest short-circuit current of a 1000 V network, according to which the protection
has to be set to start, is a two-phase short-circuit current. The highest three-phase short-
circuit current in turn defines the longest breaking time of the fastest short-circuit
protection level, at which the network components withstand the feeding of short-circuit
current without being damaged. If the lowest short-circuit current in the system is too
low for the reliable operation of the protection, the restricting conductor section has to
be changed into a conductor with a larger cross-sectional area.
 63

In the overcurrent protection device of the 1000 V network, there are three pre-set
starting levels. These levels are set so that the first starting level is a fast tripping for
high short-circuit currents. The second level operates at a longer time delay than the
first one, and it is set to start at the smallest two-phase short-circuits of the 1000 V
network. The third level operates as an overload protection and as a protection of the
following 1/0.4 kV transformer, and finally, as a back-up protection of the 400 V
network. The protection is set so that it starts when the load current exceeds the highest
allowed thermal load current of the network, or the fault current of the 400 V network,
by taking into account, however, that the setting of the protection is at minimum 2.5
higher than the normal load current. The time-delay of this protection level is set so
long that in the case of 400 V network faults the fuses manage to break the supply well
before the 1000 V protection. The protection and technical design of the 400 V network
is carried out as in the traditional system.

A 400 V low voltage network is provided with system earthing. Therefore, the earth
faults correspond without exception to short-circuit faults. Also in the case of 20/1/0.4
kV system, the 400 V network is protected with fuses or fuse switches comparable to
fuses. The reliable operation of the protection requires sufficiently high fault currents.
The 1000 V network has a significant impact on the fault currents of the 400 V network.

6.2.1 Three-Phase Short-Circuit

A three-phase short-circuit is a symmetrical fault; considering this fault type, the

network has to be dimensioned in such a way that the system can withstand the stresses
caused by the short-circuit currents, and that the protection is able to disconnect even
the highest short-circuit currents. Due to the symmetry of the fault, no danger is caused
to the customer. If the system is dimensioned correctly, neither is damage caused to the
devices connected to the network, since the voltage is quickly disconnected as the
protection starts to operate.

When calculating the short-circuit currents, the reference node of the calculation has to
be the connection point of the transforming district to the feeding medium voltage main
line. When calculating the short-circuit currents of the 1000 V system, all the
impedances having an influence on the magnitude of the short-circuit current are
referred to the point of failure at the 1000 V voltage level. A three-phase fault current is
calculated by Eq. (8)

U
Ik = , (8)
3 Z ' SV +

(R' j20 + R ' m1 + R j1 ) + ( X ' j20 + X ' m1 + X j1 )
2 2

 64

where ZSV = the impedance of the feeding network referred to the 1000 V voltage level
Rj20 = the phase resistance of the 20 kV line referred to the 1000 V voltage level
Rm1 = the phase resistance of the 20/1 kV transformer referred to the 1000 V voltage
level
Rj1 = the phase resistance of the 1000 V line
Xj20 = the phase reactance of the 20 kV line referred to the 1000 V voltage level
Xm1 = the phase reactance of the 20/1 kV transformer referred to the 1000 V voltage
level
Xj1 = the phase reactance of the 1000 V line

The short-circuit impedance of the feeding network at the connection point can be
defined for instance from the known short-circuit current at the connection point in
question by Eq. (9)

U SV
Z SV = , (9)
3 I kSV

where UQ = The voltage of the feeding network at the connection point

IkQ = The short-circuit current of the feeding network at the connection point

The resistances, reactances, and impedances of the 20 kV voltage level are referred to
the 1000 V voltage level by using the following equation for the impedance of the
feeding network
2
U
Z ' Q = Z Q 2n (10)
U 1n

It is advisable to define the short-circuit resistances and reactances of the 20/1 kV

transformers directly at the 1000 V voltage level.

The calculation of the three-phase short-circuit current of the 400 V network

corresponds to the calculation of the short-circuit current of the 1000 V network. Since
the three-phase short-circuit is a symmetrical fault, the operation of the 400 V network
as earthed does not have an impact on the fault current. When calculating the three-
phase short-circuit current of the 400 V network, the network impedances, observed
from the fault position, have to be referred to the 400 V voltage level. The three-phase
fault current is calculated by Eq. (11)

U
Ik = , (11)
3 Z "SV + RK + X K
2 2

 65

RK = R" j20 + R' m1 + R' j1 + Rm2 + R j

(12)
X K = X " j20 + X ' m1 + X ' j1 + X m2 + X j

where ZSV = the impedance of the feeding network referred to the 400 V voltage level
Rj20 = the phase resistance of the 20 kV line referred to the 400 V voltage level
Rm1 = the phase resistance of the 20/1 kV transformer referred to the 400 V voltage
level
Rj1 = the phase resistance of the 1000 V line referred to the 400 V voltage level
Rm2 = the phase resistance of the 1/0.4 kV transformer
Rj = the phase resistance of the 400 V line
Xj20 = the phase reactance of the 20 kV line referred to the 400 V voltage level
Xm1 = the phase reactance of the 20/1 kV transformer referred to the 400 V voltage
level
Xj1 = the phase reactance of the 1000 V line referred to the 400 V voltage level
Xm2 = the phase reactance of the 1/0.4 kV transformer
Xj = the phase reactance of the 400 V line

The quantities with the prime are referred to the 400 V voltage level. The number of
primes shows the number of transformers over which the quantities have to be referred.
For instance, ZSV has to be referred both over the 20/1 kV transformer and the 1/0.4 kV
transformer.

6.2.2 Two-Phase Short-Circuit

A two-phase short-circuit is an asymmetric situation, and therefore, in addition of the

information of the positive-sequence network, also the data of the negative-sequence
network are required in the calculation. In a two-phase short-circuit, the phases are in
contact with each other, but they are not in connection to earth. In a two-phase short-
circuit, in addition to the impedances of the positive-sequence network required in the
case of a three-phase fault, also the impedances of the negative-sequence network have
to be taken into account. The impedances of the negative-sequence network are
assumed to be equal to the impedances of the positive-sequence network. Thus, a
sufficiently accurate value for a two-phase short-circuit current is obtained from the
three-phase short-circuit current as follows

3
I k2 = Ik (13)
2

The calculation can be carried out simultaneously both for the 1000 V and the 400 V
network with the three-phase short-circuit current calculated at a desired position. In a
two-phase short-circuit, the voltage of the faulty phases depends on the voltage loss
 66

caused by the fault current in the network components. The voltage of the healthy phase
remains unchanged. Like the three-phase fault, a two-phase short-circuit in the 400 V
network appears in the 1000 V network as a load rise. However, in the two-phase short-
circuit of the 400 V network, the load of the 1000 V network rises asymmetrically so
that the current of the two phases rises an amount of half the short-circuit current,
whereas the current of the third phase rises an amount of the short-circuit current.

6.2.3 Single-Phase Short-Circuit

A single-phase short-circuit may occur only in an effectively earthed network. In an

unearthed network, a corresponding fault is a single-phase earth fault. In an earthed 400
V network, a single-phase short-circuit occurs, when a live part comes into touch with
the zero conductor or an earthed part. The short-circuit current flows from the phase
conductor to the zero conductor and from there to the neutral point of the transformer.
In a single-phase short-circuit, the voltages of the healthy phases rise. The magnitude of
the voltage rise depends on the earth-fault-factor. A network is defined to be effectively
earthed when its earth-fault-factor remains below 1.4. The earth-fault-factor indicates
how many times higher the voltages of the healthy phases rise during a single-phase
short-circuit when compared with the phase voltage of the healthy network (Elovaara
1988). In a fault situation, the angles between the voltage phasors become distorted and
the network falls into asymmetrical state. The fault current can be calculated according
to Eq. (14)

3U V
If = (14)
Z SVT + ( R K 1 )2 + ( X K 1 )2
RK1 = 3Rf + 3R jN + 2 Rm2 + 3R j + Rm2N
(15)
X K1 = 3 X jN + 2 X m2 + 2 X j + X j0 + X m2N

where ZSVT = the impedance of the feeding network including the 20 kV and
1000 V networks
Rjf = fault resistance
RjN = the resistance of the zero conductor
Rm2 = the phase resistance of the 1/0.4 kV transformer
Rj = the phase resistance of the 400 V line
Rm2N = the zero resistance of the 1/0.4 kV transformer
XjN = the reactance of the zero conductor
Xm2 = the phase reactance of the 1/0.4 kV transformer
Xj = the phase reactance of the 400 V line
Xj0 = the zero reactance of the phase conductor of the 400 V line
 67

Xm2N = the zero reactance of the 1/0.4 kV transformer

The single-phase short-circuit causes a touch voltage in the zero conductor, the
magnitude of which depends on the fault current, the impedance of the zero conductor
and the earthing impedance. The single-phase 400 V short-circuit appears in the 1000 V
network in the same way as the asymmetric load. Depending on the Yzn or Dyn vector
groups used in the 1/0.4 kV transformers, the single-phase fault current of the 400 V
system is divided in the 1000 V system among two phases.

6.2.4 Single-Phase Earth Fault of an Isolated Neutral 1000 V System

A single-phase earth fault occurs, when a live part of one phase comes into contact with
an earthed part of the network. A single-phase earth fault is possible only in an isolated
(unearthed) system. In an earthed system, the corresponding fault is a single-phase
short-circuit. In a 1000 V system, the earth fault may occur for instance in a situation, in
which the phase conductor is in touch with the suspension cable of an AMKA aerial
bundled cable. The earth fault of a 1000 V line is illustrated in Figure 27.

Figure 27. A single-phase earth fault of an isolated neutral 1000 V system (Lohjala 2005).

Due to asymmetry, the sum of the charging currents deviates from zero, thus creating an
earth fault current flowing through the earthed parts. The circuit of the earth fault
currents in a 1000 V network is illustrated in Fig. 28.

Figure 28. Routes of the earth fault currents in a 1000 V distribution network (Lohjala 2005).

The magnitude of the absolute value of the earth fault can be calculated from Eq. (16)
 68

3 C0 U
Ie = , (16)
1 + (3 C 0 Rf )
2

where U = the line voltage of the network

C0 = the earth capacitance of a single phase of the network
= 2f

This equation is used to calculate the current that flows from the faulted phase to earth.
The 1000 V distribution networks are comprised of galvanically separate branch lines;
there is seldom more than one 1000 V branch line starting from the feeding point of the
branch. Usually, there are no earth fault currents of the background network, created by
other branch lines, flowing through the feed point. The earth fault current passing
through the earth capacitances of the healthy phases reaches the fault point via two
different paths, either through the windings of the 20/1 kV transformer, or through the
windings of the 1/0.4 kV transformers. The magnitude of the earth fault current passing
through the feed point depends on the location of the earth fault on the network.

The magnitude of the earth fault current depends on the scope of the whole galvanically
connected 1000 V network. The earth fault current also depends on the selected cable
type and the installation method; for instance, the structural differences of an AMKA
aerial bundled cable when compared with an underground cable result in different
capacitances, and thus in earth fault currents of different magnitudes. When calculating
the earth faults of the 1000 V, no serious error is made if the impedances of the feeding
network are neglected, since the actual current circuit of the earth fault breaks at the
20/1 kV distribution substation.

Typically, the earth fault current in 1000 V networks is below 1 A, and for AMKA
aerial bundled cables below 0.2 A. Due to the small size of the earth fault currents, the
impact of the fault resistance on the magnitude of the neutral voltage remains small in
the 1000 V networks built up with AMKA aerial bundled cables. Figure 29 illustrates
the earth fault currents of the typical 1000 V AMKA aerial bundled cable networks and
AXMK underground cable networks as a function of line length.
 69

1,0

0,9

0,8
Earth fault current [A]
0,7
0,6 AXMK
0,5 AMKA

0,4

0,3

0,2
0,1

0,0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0
Line length [km]

Figure 29. Earth fault currents of the typical AMKA aerial bundled cable networks and AXMK
underground cable networks operated at 1000 V as a function of line length. There is no fault
resistance (Lohjala 2005).

The overvoltages caused by a single-phase earth fault increase the dielectric stress of the
insulations of healthy phases. In a continuous state, the voltage of the healthy phases
may, as a result of a single-phase earth fault, rise up to 5 % above the line voltage.
However, during the initial transient of the earth fault, the peak voltage may be several
times higher than the peak voltage of a normal state (Elovaara 1988). As a result of the
voltage asymmetry caused by the earth fault current, also the potential of the neutral
point of the network differs from earth potential, in other words, a neutral voltage is
created. This voltage is the same as the voltage created by the earth fault current flowing
through earth capacitances (ABB 2000). Figure 30 illustrates the behaviour of the
voltages during an earth fault in an isolated neutral network. The neutral voltage of the
system is a function of the earth fault current and the fault resistance, and it changes
notably in asymmetric fault situations.
 70

Figure 30. Behaviour of the voltages during an earth fault in an isolated neutral network (Lakervi 1996).

Neutral voltage U0 is obtained from equation

1
U0 = Ie (17)
3C 0

The neutral voltage can also be written in the form

U0 1
= (18)
Uv 1 + (3C 0 Rf )
2

U0 1
= (1)
Uv 3I e Rf
2

1 +

U

where Ie = earth fault current of the galvanically connected network

in the case of a direct earth fault
Rf = fault resistance
Uv = the phase voltage of the network
U = the line voltage of the network

In a direct earth fault without resistance, the neutral voltage equals to the phase voltage.

6.2.5 Two-Phase Short-Circuit with Earth Contact

A double earth fault of a 1000 V distribution network is created in a simultaneous earth

contact of two phases. In an AMKA aerial cable, the simultaneous earth fault of two
 71

phases through a suspension cable creates a double earth fault. The double earth fault is
illustrated in Figure 31.

Figure 31. Double earth fault of an isolated neutral 1000 V system (Lohjala 2005).

In a double earth fault, the neutral voltage is at lowest, when both the fault resistances
are equal. In that case, the neutral voltage is obtained from equation:

U0 1
= , (20)
Uv 4 + (3C 0 Rf )
2

or from equation

U0 1
= , (21)
Uv 3 I e Rf
2

4 +

U

where Rf = the fault resistance of the faulted phases

C0 = the earth capacitance of a single phase
Ie = the total earth fault current of the network in a direct
single-phase earth fault
U = line voltage of the network

A two-phase earth fault is an asymmetric case; in the analysis of this fault type, in
addition to the positive-sequence and negative-sequence systems, also a zero-sequence
system is required. The points of fault often occur at different positions of the network.
The phase currents depend on the impedance of the fault point, and on the possible fault
impedance. The currents are at highest of the scale of the currents in a two-phase short-
circuit. The currents of a phase-to-phase-to-earth fault can be obtained by the following
equations
 72

I L1 = 0 (22)

j 3 (aZ 2 (Z 0 + 3Z f ))U v
I L2 = (23)
Z 1 Z 2 + Z 1 (Z 0 + 3Z f ) + Z 2 (Z 0 + 3Z f )

j 3 ( a 2 Z 2 + (Z 0 + 3Z f ))U v
I L3 = (24)
Z 1 Z 2 + Z 1 (Z 0 + 3Z f ) + Z 2 (Z 0 + 3Z f )

3 Z 2U v
IN = (25)
Z 1 Z 2 + Z 1 ( Z 0 + 3Z f ) + Z 2 ( Z 0 + 3Z f )

The voltages during the fault are obtained from equations

3Z 2 (Z 0 + 3Z f )U v
U L1 = (26)
Z 1 Z 2 + Z 1 (Z 0 + 3Z f ) + Z 2 (Z 0 + 3Z f )

U L2 = 0 (27)

U L3 = 0 (28)

1
UN = Uv, (29)
3

where

a=
( 1 + j 3 ) = 1120 , (30)
2

and Z1 = the impedance of the positive-sequence network

Z2 = the impedance of the negative-sequence network
Z0 = the impedance of the zero-sequence network
Zf = fault impedance

In an effectively earthed 400 V system, the impedance terms of the above equations are
presented by Eqs. (31) and (32). The impedance of the feeding network is neglected. In
practice, the impedance of the feeding network is added to the impedances of the
positive-sequence network.

Z 1 = Z 2 = (Rm2 + R j + j (X m2 + X j )) (31)

(Z 0 + 3Z f ) = (Rm2N + R j + 3R jN + 3Rf + j (X m2N + X j0 + 3 X jN )) (32)

where Rf = fault resistance

Rm2 = the phase resistance of the 1/0.4 kV transformer
 73

Rj = the phase resistance of the 400 V line

Rm2N = the zero resistance of the 1/0.4 kV transformer
RjN = the resistance of the zero conductor
Xm2 = the phase reactance of the 1/0.4 kV transformer
Xj = the phase reactance of the 400 V line
Xm2N = the zero reactance of the 1/0.4 kV transformer
Xj0 = the zero reactance of the phase conductor of the 400 V line
XjN = the reactance of the zero conductor

In an isolated neutral 1000 V system, the equations of the impedances are Eqs. (33) and
(34), if the fault current flowing through the primary winding of the 1/0.4 kV
transformer is neglected. This does not usually cause a significant error in calculations.

Z 1 = Z 2 = (Rm1 + R j1 + j (X m1 + X j1 )) (34)

(Z 0 + 3Z f ) = (R j1 + 3R j1N + 3Rf + j (X j10 + 3 X j1N )) (35)

where Rf = fault resistance

Rm1 = the phase resistance of the 20/1 kV transformer
Rj1 = the phase resistance of the 1000 V line
Rj1N = the resistance of the zero conductor
Xm1 = the phase reactance of the 20/1 kV transformer
Xj1 = the phase reactance of the 1000 V line
Xj10 = the zero reactance of the phase conductor of the 1000 V line
XjN = the reactance of the zero conductor

If there is fault resistance involved in the fault, the voltage of the faulty phases rises
according to the magnitude of the fault resistance. Considering the protection of the
system, the most crucial values are the fault currents of the faulty phases and the neutral
voltage. When a two-phase-to-earth short-circuit is created through the zero conductor
or through a conductive part galvanically connected to it, the two-phase short-circuit
current usually exceeds also the operation limit of the short-circuit protection. In
practice, the two-phase-to-earth short-circuit usually occurs as a result of a two-phase
short-circuit.

6.2.6 Breaking of a Phase Conductor

At the moment, the protection devices used in low voltage networks do not detect a
situation in which a phase conductor breaks or a terminal falls away without causing a
short-circuit or an earth fault. In that case, the distribution network carries on feeding
with two phases. The practical measurements have shown that when one of the phases
 74

of the 1000 V system is broken, in a customers supply voltage, the voltage of a single
phase remains normal, and the voltages in two other phases vary according to
consumption being at highest half the phase voltage of the healthy network.

For a customer, undervoltages and asymmetry do not cause a direct danger to life;
however, due to the poor voltage level, sensitive electronic devices may be damaged.
Also the motors may be damaged, if they are not protected with a motor protection
relay, or the protection does not work. The most serious risk is that breaking down of
the devices may cause a fire. In practice, customers are exposed to these kinds of fault
situations when the conductors of the medium voltage network break. Fortunately,
serious damages are extremely rare, the damages being usually limited to breaking
down of single devices (Lohjala 2005).
 75

7 Dimensioning Examples

A 1000 V distribution system can be utilised both in new construction projects and in
renovation targets. The most significant benefits brought by the 1000 V system are for
instance improved reliability, savings in investment costs, and the reduced visual impact
of the network on the landscape. The network losses usually increase when compared
with the traditional 20/1/0.4 kV system; however, the loss growth depends on the
differences in the 400 V networks of the compared solutions. In network planning, the
techno-economic profitability of the 1000 V system has to be considered case by case.
The following examples discuss both the dimensioning of a new construction project
and a renovation target. The targets are dimensioned within the set techno-economic
boundary conditions. Also the protection setting of the 1000 V system is discussed. In
the example calculations the unit costs published by the Finnish Energy Market
Authority are used as the costs of the network components (EMV 2005).

7.1 New Construction Target

In this example, the 1000 V technology is employed in a new construction project in an

island area with seven new customers. The rated power of each customer is 7
kW/customer. The core calculation parameters follow basically the parameters
introduced in Chapter 4. Figure 32 shows the existing 20 kV distribution network and
the new customers. Also the routings of the lines for 20/0.4 kV and 20/1/0.4 kV
solutions are included in the illustration. On grounds of the network plans, the costs,
transmission capacity and the fault currents of the alternative solutions are compared.
Simultaneously, also the setting values of the system protection are defined for the
1000 V system. It is assumed that the consumption will not grow any further in the
transforming district in the future.
 76

kV
20
20/1/0.4 kV

kV 1
20 kV

1 kV
1/0.4 kV
20/0.4 kV
20/0.4 kV 1/0.4 kV
20 kV
20/0.4 kV
20 kV

500 m

Figure 32. New customers and the line routings in the 20/0.4 kV and 20/1/0.4 kV topologies.

Due to long distances, the new 20 kV line in the 20/0.4 kV solution has to be brought to
the vicinity of the consumers located on the remotest island. When applying 1000 V
technology, a single 20/1/0.4 three-winding transformer and two 1/0.4 kV transformers
are required. There is no need for a new 20 kV line. Table 5 lists the costs of different
alternatives. The costs of the 400 V networks are not taken into account, since they are
similar both in 20/0.4 kV and 20/1/0.4 kV solutions.
Table 5. Costs of the 20/0.4 kV and 20/1/0.4 kV solutions in a new construction target.
Cost
Cost factor 20/0.4 kV 20/1/0.4 kV difference
Investments [k] 121 91 30
Losses [k] 2 4 -2
Outages [k] 25 0,01 25
Total [k] 148 95 53

Most of the costs of the 20/0.4 kV are caused by the 20 kV AHXMK-WM underwater
cable. Correspondingly, in the 1000 V solution, the AXMK-W low voltage underwater
cable has been used.

In a three voltage level solution, the largest voltage drop at a customers connection
point is 4.5%. Respectively, the lowest short-circuit current in the 400 V network is
445 A. Figure 33 illustrates the electro-technical calculation for the longer 1000 V
branch line. The length of the 1000 V line is 1500 m, and as the conductor, an AXMK
70 cable has been selected. The new customers are located at a distance of 150 m from
the 1/0.4 kV distribution substation.
 77

Figure 33. Electrification plan with 1000 V technology.

The fast tripping of the protection relay is set to start so that the short-circuit current
capacity of any of the components connected to the 1000 V network will not be
exceeded. No time-delay is set for the fast tripping. In the designed transforming
district, the 1000 V two-phase short-circuit current is about 2.9 kA at the end of the
longer line. The short-circuit protection of the protection relay is set to start at 80 % of
this current value; thus, the setting value will be 2.34 kA. The time-delay is set so that
the duration of the fault is 5 s at maximum. The overload protection is set to break all
faults, the fault current of which is higher than 2.5 times the highest load current of the
network. In that case, the setting value of this protection level in this transforming
district will be 43 A. The time-delay is set at 15 s.

7.2 Renovation Target

1000 V technology can be utilised in the renovation of medium voltage feeders. In this
example, an old 20 kV medium voltage overhead line located in a forest area is
dismantled and built up along the nearby roadside as shown in Fig. 34.

New Old
20 kV 20 kV

1 km

Figure 34. A map of the medium voltage line to be renovated.

 78

The purpose of transferring the medium voltage line to the roadside is to improve the
reliability of electricity distribution and to ease the operation and maintenance of the
line. Further, in this project, also the old low voltage networks built up with overhead
lines are renewed. The new medium voltage network is intended to be implemented
with covered overhead lines. The cabling of the low voltage networks is carried out
ploughing. The peak power of the feeder is 600 kW, and the customer distribution
corresponds to Table 6. With the CENS values employed previously in this study, the
outage costs of the feeder amount to 3,645 /km for the feeder lifetime. For the
network, a lifetime of 40 years and an interest rate of 5 % have been used in the
calculations.
Table 6. Distribution of consumption for the feeder under observation.
Share of
Consumer groups consumption
Domestic 49 %
Agriculture 19 %
Industry 7%
Public 10 %
Service 15 %
Total 100 %

Figure 35 presents a section of the feeder under closer scrutiny. The figure illustrates
both the old and new medium voltage line and the old, existing 20/0.4 kV transforming
districts.

OLD
20 kV

New
20 kV

20/0.4 kV

1 km

Figure 35. The old and new medium voltage line and the existing 20/0.4 kV transforming districts in the
area under observation.
 79

Figure 36 a) illustrates the renovation plan carried out with the traditional 20/0.4 kV
technology. In Figure 36 b), the network for the same area has been planned by
applying the 1000 V technology. As can be seen in Fig. 36 b), in this target, the old low
voltage transforming districts further away from the new main line can be fed with the
1000 V distribution voltage.

20/0.4 kV 20/1/0.4 kV

20/1 kV
20 kV 20 kV
20 1k
kV V

1/0.4 kV

1/0.4 kV

1 km 1 km

a) b)
Figure 36. Alternative plans for a) the traditional 20/0.4 kV technology b) the utilisation of the 1000 V
technology.

Of the targets in Fig. 36, the longest branch line is examined more closely. The length
of the branch line is 2.7 km, and the total power is 49 kW. Were the target implemented
with the traditional 20/0.4 kV technology, the total costs would amount to 101 k, as
shown in Table 7. The table presents also the costs of the targets implemented with the
1000 V technology. In both cases, the line routing follows the road route. The costs of
the 400 V lines have been neglected, since the transforming districts are similar in both
cases. The total costs in the 1000 V alternative are ca. 67 k, that is, 34 % lower than for
the 20/0.4 kV alternative.
Table 7. Costs of the 20/0.4 kV and 20/1/0.4 kV solutions in a renovation target.
Cost
Cost factor 20/0.4 kV 20/1/0.4 kV difference
Investments [k] 88 60 28
Losses [k] 3 7 -4
Outages [k] 10 0,01 10
Total [k] 101 67 34

In the remotest 1/0.4 kV transforming district of the example target, the largest voltage
drop of the 400 V customers is approximately 5 % (ca. 380 V). The lowest short-circuit
current in the 400 V network is about 200 A.

The fast tripping of the protection relay is set to start so that the short-circuit current
capacity of any of the components connected to the 1000 V network will not be
exceeded. No time-delay is set for the fast tripping. In the designed transforming
 80

district, the 1000 V two-phase short-circuit current is about 2.5 kA at the end of the
longer line. The short-circuit protection of the protection relay is set to start at 80 % of
this current value; thus, the setting value will be 2 kA. The time-delay is set so that the
duration of the fault is 5 s at maximum. The overload protection is set to break all faults,
the fault current of which is higher than 74 A, and the time-delay is set at 15 s.
 81

8 Business Opportunities of the 20/1/0.4 kV System

An effective utilisation of the opportunities provided by the 1000 V system calls for
active product development in co-operation with the component manufacturers and the
distribution companies. In particular, the pressure is heaviest on the development of the
1/0.4 kV transformers and distribution substations. The structure and price of the 1/0.4
kV transformers and distribution substations have a direct impact on the structure of the
low voltage network. The other product development targets focus basically on
trimming the technical properties of the network. Therefore, considering the network
components, the largest economic potential lies in the transformers, distribution
substations and the lines. Both the underground cables and the aerial lines require
solutions of their own. The product development may also bring new applications for
the 1000 V system for instance in building installations.

In addition to the business activities related to network components, the 20/1/0.4 kV

system creates new opportunities and challenges also in the businesses of network
construction and planning. In network construction, the 1000 V system creates a new
product range, from which the customer may select products of 1000 V technology for
suitable construction targets. These products may for instance base on the structure of
the network, in which case the possible alternative solutions are an aerial line, an
underground cabling, or an underwater cabling solution. The 1000 V system also brings
new demands to the network planning; as the network planning gets more complicated,
the demand for design software capable of 20/1/0.4 kV calculation will increase. At the
moment, there are no commercial software applications available; however, the
planning can be carried out also by employing the existing software. However, this
increases the work load on the design considerably, since the network optimisation has
to be carried out by computing a large number of different alternatives. Furthermore, in
addition to the software, the design companies need staff familiar with the 20/1/0.4 kV
system.

For software houses, the 20/1/0.4 kV system provides an opportunity to develop new
products for network planning. These software applications have to be compatible to the
present network databases, and further, they have to be capable of the design calculation
and optimisation of the 20/1/0.4 kV network. The reliability calculation of an electricity
distribution network is a fundamental part of this kind of design software. A knowledge
of the structure of the 20/1/0.4 kV system and the problems of network planning are
prerequisites of successful software planning, too.
 82

The use of the 20/1/0.4 kV system has already created a need for staff training services.
Primarily, at the moment, there is training available for the electricians working in the
repair and maintenance of the network. However, the need for training covers a wider
range of personnel; training on the 20/1/0.4 kV system should be provided also for the
designers and personnel in charge of network operation. The distribution companies
also need consultation on mapping out possible targets for the application of the 1000 V
system. Both the new construction targets and the renovation targets have to be taken
into account. Similarly, also the opportunities for underground cabling have to be
considered, as well as the applicability of the 1000 V networks to the underground
networks in suburban areas. Also the general knowledge on the 1000 V systems has to
be increased in the entire field of electrical engineering, including the electrical
installations in industry and in construction sector. The production of training and
consultation services on the 20/1/0.4 system will be a significant subject of business.

It can be assumed that new business activities related to the distribution networks will
arise at least in the fields of component manufacture, design, network construction, and
training and consultation services. Additionally, supportive research and IT expertise
are required. In network construction, as the use of 1000 V networks leads to increased
underground cabling, new opportunities will arise also for entrepreneurs in the
excavation business. Some of the companies may for instance specialise in cable
ploughing, and thus, also the constructors, who are customers of these companies,
benefit from the reasonable cost level and skilled operation.

At the moment, the market area of the business developing around the 1000 V system
covers almost the entire Northern Europe. In Eastern Europe, in the area of the former
Soviet Union, there probably are potential targets for business related to the 20/1/0.4 kV
system. Renewing the electricity distribution networks also accelerates the development
of the traditional 20/0.4 kV system, as many of the new solutions are applicable to both
systems. 20/1/0.4 kV and 20/0.4 kV are supplementary to each other.

The effects of the 20/1/0.4 kV system on the actual electricity distribution business are
many-sided; at present, it is not possible to predict them all. At the moment, the most
obvious benefits brought by the 1000 V networks are the reduction in investments
required for a single construction target, and in parallel, the improvement in the end-
customers power quality. Also environmental impacts are significant, thanks to the
reduced need for line paths. On the other hand, network losses will increase somewhat
from the present level as the low voltage network expands. The increase in operative
costs of distribution companies due to losses is compensated by reduced maintenance
and repair needs of the network.
 83

9 Conclusions

In the development of electricity distribution networks, novel solutions have to be found

to improve the reliability and economy of the systems to benefit both the customers and
network operators. The Low Voltage Directive LVD 73/23/EEC enables the operation
of low voltage networks at higher distribution voltages. Raising the distribution voltage
in the low voltage network improves the power transmission capacity and enables the
construction of larger low voltage networks. Now, adding a 1000 V voltage level
between the 20 kV medium voltage network and the 0.4 kV low voltage network can be
considered a possible network alternative.

In its present form, the 20/1/0.4 kV distribution system is ready for large-scale use.
However, full utilisation of the techno-economic potential of the system calls for
innovative development of the network components. The majority of the low voltage
network components are at present rated for 1000 V. Thus, some of the present low
voltage network components, such as conductors, are applicable as such to the 1000 V
distribution system. However, adding a new voltage level always requires development
of the new network components. Considering the 1000 V network components, the
largest part of the development work concerns new distribution transformers (1/0.4 kV
and 20/1 kV) as well as network protection components. At the moment, some
component manufacturers already produce small series of the required new components.

On grounds of the techno-economic calculations, it is possible to find the best

applications for the three voltage level distribution network. When constructing a new
electricity distribution network, the 1000 V applications with the best economic
potential can be divided into three categories:

1. Replacement of low-load medium voltage branch lines completely or partly by

a 1000 V line arrangement.
2. Reinforcing and enlarging the existing low voltage network with the 1000 V
system.
3. Construction of larger low voltage transforming districts than the present ones.

When renewing the medium voltage network, it is advisable to consider the 1000 V
system as a replacement for the existing medium voltage branch lines. A renovation
project of a branch line, in which the target is to renew the entire medium voltage
branch and all its components, corresponds in practice to a case of new construction
project. In such a case, the economic usage potential of the 1000 V system as a
replacement for 20 kV branch line is approximately equal to the usage potential of a
new construction target.
 84

In the case of replacing the poles of the medium voltage branch line, the usage potential
of the 1000 V system is somewhat more restricted than in the case of new construction
targets. Nevertheless, when analysing individual targets of pole replacement, the 1000
V system is an alternative worth considering. When compared with the pole renewal of
the medium voltage line, there is an economical usage range for the 1000 V line
arrangement that is dependent on the costs of pole replacement as well as on the
dismantling and outage costs. However, this range is quite narrow, and the alternatives
have to be considered individually for each case anyway.

A third, interesting solution is to turn an existing medium voltage branch line that is in
proper condition as such into 1000 V use. The investment costs of this kind of solution
are caused only by the required 20/1 kV and 1/0.4 kV transformers. The profitability of
the solution is based on the savings achieved in the outage costs of the medium voltage
network, when a branch line is separated from the main line as a protection area of its
own. The solution can be considered an alternative for a medium voltage pole switches.
When taking the old medium voltage network into 1000 V use, the transmission
capacity of the branch line is reduced considerably. For instance, the transmission
capacity of a Raven overhead line at 1000 V is approximately the same as with a 1000
V AMKA 70 cable. Further, the existing line path still has to be maintained.

In suitable conditions, the 1000 V system can be used as an extension to the 400 V low
voltage network so that the distribution voltage is transformed from 400 V to 1000 V,
and then near the consumption back to 400 V. This solution is applicable only to very
low transmission powers in special cases, and it does not bring such economic benefit as
the replacement of 20 kV branch lines with 1000 V lines. The replacement of over 500
m long low voltage lines with a 1000 V system is often an economical solution, if the
low voltage line would otherwise have to be reinforced considerably, for instance by
duplicating the lines. This is a borderline case, in which another alternative is always to
divide the existing transforming district and to use 20 kV medium voltage lines. These
cases have always to be considered case by case. The basic assumption is that the 400 V
line is fed from the existing 20/0.4 kV substation.

In most of the 1000 V system applications, there are only few customers, grouped
relatively close to each other, and therefore, the 1000 V system has no direct impact on
the 400 V transforming district to be constructed. Due to high powers or long distances
of the customers, a situation may arise, in which it is more economical to organise the
distribution at 1000 V all the way to the customer. This solution presumes that the total
costs of the 1000 V lines and of the 1/0.4 kV transformers installed for each customer
remain below the costs of the 400 V lines of sufficient transmission capacity and of the
 85

required 1/0.4 kV distribution transformer. With the present cost parameters, this
condition is met when the rated power is 5 kW and the distance is above 250 m. Thus,
we may state that this is a case of splitting up a 1/0.4 kV transforming district, and
therefore, the situation differs from the replacement of individual 400 V line by a
1000 V line.

By careful planning and right selection of targets, when using a 1000 V system, up to
15 % savings can be achieved in the investment costs when compared with 20 kV aerial
lines. The amount of savings depends on the transmission capacity and distance.
Increased losses are compensated by savings achieved in the investment, outage,
maintenance, and fault repair costs. Outage costs are a significant cost item in the
economic profitability of the 1000 V system. Although the investment costs of low
voltage lines are mainly lower than the investment costs of medium voltage lines used
for branch lines, the 1000 V system is not always the most economical solution when
considering investment costs. This is due to the investment costs of the 1/0.4 kV
transformers and substations required in the 1000 V system. Therefore, the advantage
gained in investment costs by the 1000 V system increases along with the growing
transmission distance. Although the investment costs are higher than for the medium
voltage line, as a whole, a 1000 V line may still be a more economical solution than the
medium voltage line. This is explained by other cost factors, the most significant of
which are the outage costs.

The pursuit of improved reliability may lead in a regional policy decision to select
underground cabling for the majority of the medium voltage network also in rural areas.
The branch lines of rural areas are often quite low power targets for medium voltage
underground cabling, which is an expensive solution when compared with aerial lines.
An alternative worth considering is the use of low-cost 1000 V low voltage lines for
branch lines instead of using medium voltage underground cables. The profitability of
the 1000 V underground cables is chiefly based on the investment costs that are lower
than for the 20 kV medium voltage underground cables. For instance, the investment
costs of an AXMK 70 low voltage underground cable and the cable ploughing are less
than half of the costs of an AHXMK 70 medium voltage underground cable in rural
areas. The impact of outage costs on the economical range of use is less significant than
in the case of aerial line network, although the cost savings achieved by the 1000 V
system are considerable also in the underground cable network.

When replacing medium voltage branch lines with 1000 V lines, the largest savings are
achieved by medium voltage feeders, the outage costs of which are the largest. This of
course presumes that there are targets along the feeder in question that can be replaced
 86

by 1000 V lines. The outage costs of the medium voltage feeder depend on the selected
cable type, distribution of customers, and on the power of the feeder. When considering
the rural medium voltage overhead line feeders, in which the consumption is almost
identically distributed, the replacement of the medium voltage branch lines is the most
profitable for the feeder, the power of which is the highest. The higher is the power of
the feeder, in which a medium voltage branch line is planned to be replaced by a 1000 V
line, the shorter and higher-power branches can be profitably replaced by 1000 V lines.

The arrangement of the low voltage network is defined by the load density of the area to
be electrified. The 1000 V system has proven to be profitable in rural areas, where the
loads are small and the distances between customers may be long. In these cases, the
benefits are gained either by using a 1 kV conductor structure as a replacement for a
part of the medium voltage branch line, which would otherwise be needed, or by
preventing the division of the transforming district that would be required in a
traditional system. The 1000 V solution does not directly replace the present 400 V low
voltage network, but it can be used to expand the low voltage network. In network
planning, the 1000 V system is thus an alternative worth considering along with the
traditional system.

The feedback provided by Suur-Savon Shk Oy on the 1 kV distribution systems that

have been constructed so far has been positive; the system has proven to be economical,
and it has functioned faultlessly. The 1 kV system improves the reliability of the entire
distribution network as well as the power transmission capacity of the low voltage
network. However, more components are required than in the traditional two voltage
level electricity distribution. This complicates the three voltage level distribution
network and makes it sensitive to the component price level. The complexity also
increases the amount of work in the planning phase.

At present, the development of some of the 1000 V technology has basically just begun.
The 1/0.4 kV transformers and substations are the largest individual targets of product
development. Considering transformers, the most serious problems have been the high
prices of 1/0.4 transformers compared with other components, and chiefly in the case of
20/1/0.4 kV three-winding transformers, the large physical dimensions of the
transformers. Further development is required also for the protection of the 1000 V
network and for the 20/1 and 20/0.4 kV substations of the underground cable network.
Along with new technical solutions, it may also be possible to find new applications for
the 1000 V system. Therefore, it is important to constantly update the techno-economic
calculations; it is necessary to develop new calculation and analysis methods to be able
to analyse the applicability of the 1000 V network, both in the everyday planning work
 87

in the distribution network companies and for instance in planning the electrification of
individual building complexes. In practice, this presumes that the 1000 V is included in
the calculation tools and optimisation algorithms of the design software.
88
 89

References

Works on the 1000 V System

(Kaipia 2004) Kaipia, T. 1000 V shknjakelujrjestelmn teknistaloudellisen

kannattavuuden tarkastelu. [Economic Efficiency Of 1000 V Electricity
Distribution System. In Finnish.] Masters thesis. LUT. Lappeenranta
2004. Available at: www.ee.lut.fi/lab/sahkomarkkina

(Krn 2005) Krn, A., PJ-kaapeleiden soveltuvuus 1 kV kyttjnnitteelle.

[Applicability Of Low Voltage Cables To 1 Kv Operating Voltage. In
Finnish.] Masters thesis. TUT. Tampere 2005.

(Lohjala 2004) Lohjala, J., Suur-Savon Shk Oy. Kaipia, T., Lassila, J.,
Partanen, J., Lappeenranta University of Technology, Overview
To Economical Efficiency Of 1000 V Low Voltage Distribution
Systems. Conference Paper NORDAC 2004. Espoo 2004.
Available at: www.ee.lut.fi/lab/sahkomarkkina

(Lohjala 2005) Lohjala, J., Haja-asutusalueiden shknjakelujrjestelmien

kehittminen erityisesti 1000 V jakelujnnitteen
kyttmahdollisuudet. [Development Of Rural Area Electricity
Distribution System Potentiality Of Using 1000 V Supply Voltage. In
Finnish.] Dissertation. LUT. Lappeenranta 2005. ISBN 952-214-
020-1. Available at: www.ee.lut.fi/lab/sahkomarkkina

(Lohjala 2005b) Lohjala, J., Suur-Savon Shk Oy. Kaipia, T., Lassila, J.,
Partanen, J., Lappeenranta University of Technology. The Three
Voltage Level Distribution Using The 1000 V Low Voltage
System. Conference Paper CIRED 2005. Turin, Italy 2005.
Available at: www.ee.lut.fi/lab/sahkomarkkina

(Lohjala 2005c) Lohjala, J., Suur-Savon Shk Oy. Kaipia, T., Lassila, J.,
Partanen, J., Jrventausta P., Verho P., Potentiality And Effects
Of The 1 Kv Low Voltage Distribution System. Conference
Publication IEEE FPS 2005, Amsterdam, the Neatherlands 2005.
Available at: www.ee.lut.fi/lab/sahkomarkkina

(Partanen 2005) Partanen, J., Lohjala, J., Kaipia, T., Lassila, J., Rissanen, A.,
1000 V shknjakelujrjestelmn teknistaloudellinen tarkastelu.
[Techno-Economic Analysis Of 1000 V Electricity Distribution System. In
 90

Finnish.] Research Report. LUT. Lappeenranta 2005. Available at:

www.ee.lut.fi/lab/sahkomarkkina

(Verho 2005) Verho P., Jrventausta P., Kivikko K., Pylvninen J., Partanen
J., Lassila J., Honkapuro S., Kaipia T., Applying Reliability
Analysis in Evaluation of Life-Cycle Costs of Alternative
Network Solutions. Conference Paper IEEE FPS 2005,
Amsterdam, the Neatherlands 2005. Available at:
www.ee.lut.fi/lab/sahkomarkkina

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A., Viljainen, S., Kivikko, K., Honkapuro, S., Shknlaatu
jakeluverkkotoiminnan arvioinnissa. [Power Quality In The Electricity
Distribution Business. In Finnish.] Research report. LUT, TUT 2003.

(Kaarlela 2002) Kaarlela, M. Kaapeloinnin kannattavuus Fortum shknjakelun

keskijnniteverkossa. [Profitability Of Cabling In Fortum Shknjakelus
 91

Medium Voltage Distribution Network. In Finnish.] Masters thesis.

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markkinaperusteisen hvikustannuksen mallinnus. [Modelling Of
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(KTMp 517/1996) Kauppa ja teollisuusministerin pts shklaitteistojen

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(Lakervi 1995) Lakervi, E. and Holmes, E.J. Electricity Distribution Network

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(Lakervi 1996) Lakervi, E. Shknjakeluverkkojen suunnittelu. Otatieto Oy.

Hakapaino Oy. Helsinki 1996. ISBN 951-672-220-2.

(LVD 1973) Low Voltage Directive (LVD) 73/23/EEC. Council Directive of

19 February 1973. Available in Finnish at:
http://www.tukes.fi/sahko_ja_hissit/saadokset/73-23-
ety_LVD.htm

in English:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/electr_equipment/lv/direct/7
3-23.htm

(Nord Pool 2005) Nord Pool. Elspot monthly prices. Available at:
http://194.19.110.70/elspot/EUR.htm
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(Partanen 1991) Partanen, J. A PC Based Information And Design System For

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(Pylvninen 2002) Pylvninen, J. Jakelumuuntajien seurantamenetelmien

kehittminen. [Development Of Condition Monitoring Of Distribution
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(SA1:87) SA 1:87. Verkostosuositus Shkenergialiitto ry.

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(SA2:92) SA 2:92. Verkostosuositus Shkenergialiitto ry.

Pienjnniteverkon ja jakelumuuntajan shkinen mitoittaminen.
[Network recommendations. Finnish Electricity Association Sener. Electrical
dimensioning of a low voltage network and a distribution transformer. In
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(SA5:94) SA 5:94. Verkostosuositus Shkenergialiitto ry.

Keskijnniteverkon shkinen mitoittaminen. [Network
recommendations. Finnish Electricity Association Sener. Electrical
dimensioning of a medium voltage network. In Finnish.] Adato Energia Oy
Helsinki 1994.

(Sener 2002) Keskeytystilasto 2002. Sener ry. Finergy ry. Tilastosarja 1.

[Outage statistics 2002. Finnish Electricity Association Sener. Finergy.
Statistics Series 1. In Finnish.] Adato Energia Oy. Helsinki 2003.
Available at: http://www.energia.fi/

(SFS 6000 2002) SFS 6000, Pienjnniteshkasennukset ja shktyturvallisuus,

Low voltage electrical installations and safety at electrical work,
SFS Standard 144, 2. revised edition. May 2002, Finnish
Standards Association SFS, ISBN 952-5420-00-0.

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installations, 2001, Finnish Standards Association Finnish
Standards Association SFS.
 93

(TK 3 1975) Tekniikan ksikirja 3. [Manual of Technology 3. In Finnish.]

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ISBN 951-20-1076-3.
 APPENDIX 1.1

Table 1. 20 kV Aerial Cables

Unit price Technical parameters
20 kV aerial cables
[/km] r [/km] x [/km]
Sparrow (AF 40) 16 774 0.847 0.383
Raven (AF 62) 18 236 0.535 0.368
Pigeon (AF 99) 20 240 0.337 0.354
Al 132 22 405 0.218 0.344

Table 2. 20 kV Underground Cables

Unit price Technical parameters
Installation of 20 kV underground cable
[/km] r [/km] x [/km]
AHXAMK-W 3x70 30 000 0.446 0.138
AHXAMK-W 3x120 33 236 0.169 0.119
AHXAMK-W 3x185 39 675 0.734 0.141
AHXAMK-W 3x240 41 888 0.734 0.141

Table 3. Low Voltage Aerial Cables

Unit price Technical parameters
Low voltage aerial cables
[/km] r [/km] x [/km]
AMKA 35 11 520 0.938 0.104
AMKA 70 15 620 0.479 0.097
AMKA 120 17 920 0.273 0.092
2 AMKA 70 23 500 0.240 0.049

Table 4. Low Voltage Underground Cables

Unit price Technical parameters
Installation of 0.4 kV underground cable
[/km] r [/km] x [/km]
AXMK 4x25 6 094 1.3 0.088
AXMK 4x35 8 465 0.939 0.088
AXMK 4x70 9 990 0.48 0.085
AXMK 4x120 11 534 0.277 0.082
AXMK 4x185 18 847 0.182 0.082
AXMK 4x240 21 792 0.135 0.079

Table 5. 20/0.4 (20/1) kV Distribution Transformers

Unit price Technical parameters
Distribution transformers 20/0.4 (20/1)
[/kpl] rk [ %] xk [ %] P0 [W] Pk [W]
Transformer 30 kVA 2 358 2.6 3.04 100 585
Transformer 50 kVA 2 703 2.28 3.29 140 885
Transformer 100160kVA 3 419 1.65 3.64 220 1485
Transformer 200 kVA 4 156 1.35 4.81 420 2295
Transformer 300315 kVA 5 491 1.22 4.85 980 4130
Transformer 500630 kVA 7 421 1 4.9 730 5500
Transformer 800 kVA 8 827 0.81 4.93 1030 6800
Transformer 1000 kVA 11 021 0.84 5.94 1300 10200
 APPENDIX 1.2

Table 6. Distribution Substation Configurations

Unit price
Pole-mounted substations
[/kpl]
Single pole arrangement 3 436
Twin pole arrangement 5 948
Single pole arrangement 1/0.4 kV 700
Unit price
Cable-connected substation 20/0.4 kV
[/kpl]
Pad-mounted substation, type 1 27 766
Pad-mounted substation, type 2 34 337
Building-mounted substation 35 623
Satellite model substation (max. 315 kVA) 16 057
Satellite model substation (min. 400 kVA) 15 953
Pad-mounted substation 1/0.4 kV 1 250

Table 7. Installation of Underground Cables

Unit price
CABLE INSTALLATION
[/km]
Ploughing of low voltage cable
max. 25 5 237
3550 5 786
70 or above 8 046
Excavation of cable trench in rural area
Depth of the trench min. 70 cm, width <50 cm 10 550
Excavation of cable trench in built-up area
Population centres 30 166
Urban areas 56 484

Table 8. High Voltage Disconnectors, Distribution Cabinets, Fuse-Switch Disconnectors,

Terminations, and Joints
Unit Price
20 kV disconnectors
[/kpl]
Line disconnector, light 2718
Line disconnector, with a breaking chamber 5679
Distribution cabinets and fuse-switch
disconnectors
Branch off cabinet
Cable distribution cabinet max. 400 A 852
Cable distribution cabinet min. 630 A 1 250
Fuse-switch disconnector max. 160 A 186
Fuse-switch disconnector 250400 A 286
Fuse-switch disconnector 630 A 345
Terminations and Joints
termination; indoor 1 020
termination; outdoor 2 279
joint 1 723
 APPENDIX 2.1

Table 9. Costs and core parameters of typical 1/0.4 kV oil-insulated transformers and dry-core
1/0.4 kV transformers of the new design
m [kg] P0 [W] Pk [W] Price []
Sn [kVA] Dry Oil Dry Oil Dry Oil Dry Oil
10 90 - 40 - 340 - 1023 -
30 250 380 120 105 810 840 1907 2100
50 300 445 180 125 950 1000 2512 2300
100 540 540 240 210 2000 1750 3633 -
200 880 - 420 - 2450 - 5554 -

Table 10. Specifications of the 1/0.4 kV distribution transformers used in calculation

Unit price Technical parameters
Distribution transformers 1/0.4
[/kpl] rk [ %] xk [ %] P0 [W] Pk [W]
Transformer 10 kVA 705 3.5 2.8 60 350
Transformer 16 kVA 778 3.0 2.9 88 480
Transformer 25 kVA 918 2.5 2.7 125 625
Transformer 50 kVA 1 715 2.2 3.3 200 1100
Transformer 100 kVA 2 978 2.1 3.0 342 2063
Transformer 200 kVA 5 586 2.1 2.7 575 4190