PHYS 4722 JONES LectureB Reduced

Linear Accelerators
Stanford Linear Accelerator, shown in an aerial digital image. The two roads seen near the accelerator are California Interstate 280 (to the East) and Sand
Hill Road (along the Northwest). Image data acquired 2004-02-27 by the United States Geological Survey
R. M. Jones
The University of Manchester, UK
PHYS4722, Physics of Particle Accelerators
R.M. Jones, Physics of Particle Accelerators, PHYS 4722, Linacs Lecture, 2011. 1
Linac -References
Linear Accelerators, North Holland Publishing Co. John Wiley Interscience Div. (1970)
eds. Pierre Lapostolle and Albert Septier.
The Stanford Two-Mile Accelerator, W.A. Benjamin (1968) ed. Richard Neal.
RF Superconductivity for Accelerators, Wiley Publishers (1998), by Hasan Padamsee,

Jens Knobloch and Tom Hays.
Principles of Particle Accelerators, W.A. Benjamin (1968) by Enrico Persico at al.
Particle Accelerators McGraw Hill Book Co. (1962) by Stanley Livingston and John
Blewett
Principles of Charged Particle Acceleration John Wiley (1986) by Stanley Humphries
RF Linear Accelerators, Wiley & Sons Publishers (1998), by Thomas Wangler.
"Physics of Collective Beam Instabilities in High Energy Accelerators" , Wiley & Sons
Publishers (1993) by Alexander Chao.
"The Physics of Particle Accelerators: An Introduction", Oxford University Press (2000) by
Klaus Wille.
"Fundamentals of Beam Physics" Oxford University Press (2003) by James Rosenzweig
Particle Accelerator Physics I & II, (study edition) Springer-Verlag (2003) by Helmut
Wiedemann.
Impedances and Wakes in High Energy Particle Accelerators, World Scientific Publishers
(1998), by Bruno W Zotter and Semyon Kheifets.
RF Linear Accelerators
ILC 9-cell Nb Cavity

Operating at 1.3 GHz.
SLAC 2.856 GHz

Cu Accelerator Cells
RFQ Operating
at 425 MHz
DTL tank #2 in the
Fermilab Linac operating
at 425 MHz R.M. Jones, Physics of Particle Accelerators, PHYS 4722, Linacs Lecture, 2011. 3
Chronological Development
Time Varying Field Based

Cathode Ray Tubes
Late 1800s
Multipole Gaps Time Varying Fields

Cockcroft Walton (1920) Ising (1924) and Wideroe
Cyclotron
Van Der Graff (1930) Lawrence (1930)
Synchrotron
Oliphant (1943)
Synchrocyclotron and Betatron
Electrostatic Field Based
McMillan and Veksler (1944)
Alvarez Linac
McMillan (1946)
Strong Focusing
Courant and Snyder (1952)
Livingston Curve
Computer scientists
see the imminent end
of Moores law
around 2020, the
exponential growth
in accelerator
technology, described
by the so-called
Livingston curve, is
perhaps also
reaching its technical
limit?
An adaptation of the "Livingston Curve," displaying the center of mass

energies of the particle (parton) constituents of existing and planned
accelerators (electron-positron and hadron colliders) as a function of the
timeline. In the case of the hadron machines, energies have been adjusted to
account for quark and gluon constituents. The original NLC (New Linear
Collider) point has been updated to the ILC and its expected upgrade.
Potential-Drop Accelerators
Potential Drop Accelerators Employ Electrostatic Fields
The first high-voltage particle

accelerator had a potential drop of the
order of 100 kV and was conceived by
and named Cockcroft Walton
Accelerator in 1920.
The most common potential-drop

accelerator in use today is named after
its inventor, the American Robert
Jemison Van de Graaff. Nowadays most
Van de Graaff accelerators are
commercial devices and they are
available with terminal voltages ranging One of the largest tandem accelerators
between one and 25 million volts (MV) was used for many years at Daresbury. Its
acceleration tube, placed vertically, is 42
meters long and the centre terminal could
In comparison the potential in clouds just before
they are discharged by lightning is about 200 MV. hold a potential of up to 20 MV.
Mechanical Analogue to RF Linac
Bowling alley model of particle
accelerator: gravity accelerates balls
motion on the sloping part of the
track. The height of each horizontal
section corresponds to a voltage source
in the particle accelerator. The amount
of acceleration is limited by the
difference in levels between the top
and foot of the entire track.
In the fixed track arrangement, A

although it has some steep descents,
the balls is required to climb the
intermediate rises. Overall, the gain in
speed is just the same as if the track
had been laid out smoothly (as above).
In B however, the horizontal sections
move up and down, carrying the ball
with them. With a judicious choice of
timing, the ball can always be moving
downhill between sections, never
having to climb hills at all.
Analogue ascribed to Robert Wilson and RaphaelR.M. Jones,
Littauer Physics of Particle Accelerators, PHYS 4722, Linacs Lecture, 2011. 7
Birth of Linacs
The Cockcroft-Walton and Van de Graaff accelerators are machines with
static field. Therefore, the acceleration of particles happens in one step.
The linear accelerator employs the idea of kicking charged particle a few
times (multi-stage acceleration), which requires quick alternation of potentials.
Beam of particles necessarily becomes bunched. In 1929 Widere invents a
multi-gap drift lineal accelerator (LINAC) and builds a small 3-stage prototype.
1929 Widere
The ion velocity fits the criterion that the distance between the midpoint
of each gap is given by /c c/f .
The Widere design is a standing wave cavity in which the accelerating
electric field maxima and nodes remain fixed in space. At a moment when
the rf voltages are maximum on each electrode, acceleration takes place in
every other gap.
Birth of Linacs Contin.
After crossing these gaps, the particles (ions) enter the metallic
cylindrical electrodes which act as a shield to the electric fields. These
particles then exit the electrode after the field in the next gap has
changed polarity.
The length of these cylindrical electrodes must become longer as the
particles are accelerated to make the beam arrive at the next gap
when the rf voltages are appropriate for accelerating.
Birth of Linacs -Contin
The history of particle accelerators for ion beams is often described in
association with the development of cyclotrons, primarily due to their wide-
spread use in the medical field.
However, what is often not acknowledged is that ion linear accelerators
("linacs") were developed in parallel with the cyclotron and other circular
accelerators.
While Lawrence and Livingston designed the first small cyclotron in 1930,
R. Widere had already published a paper in 1928 on his results from an rf
powered linear accelerator for ions.
This device, followed a proposal in 1925 by G. Ising. It consisted of a series
of cylindrical tubes, placed along the longitudinal axis of an evacuated glass
cylinder. Alternate tubes were connected to opposite terminals of an rf
generator.
By selecting the frequency and applied rf voltage, a variety of heavy ions
could be accelerated across the gaps and bunched simultaneously.
Sloan and Lawrence used such an array of 30 electrodes excited with a
voltage of 42 kV at an rf frequency of 10 MHz in 1931 to accelerate Hg+ ions
to 1.26 MeV.
Drift Tube Linacs (DTL)
Luis Alvarez ,
Inventor of the DTL.
In the late 1940's, after the second World War, a program was initiated
by E.O. Lawrence at the University of California Radiation Laboratory
(now known as the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) with the US
Atomic Energy Commission to investigate electronuclear breeding of
Pu239, U232 and tritium by bombarding depleted uranium with
accelerator-produced neutrons.
A series of high power rf linacs for protons and deuterons was built and
tested starting in 1950 at the site which is now the Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory.
When the first linac was built, the only other proton linac which had
been operated was the 32 MeV linac built by L. Alvarez, although a 68
MeV p+ linac was under construction at the University of Minnesota.
The large linacs in the Material Testing Accelerator program (12-48 MHz)
were disassembled in the mid 1950's, but the scientists who worked on these
systems went on to build many successful proton linacs at research facilities
such as Brookhaven National Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory,
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory and Los Alamos National Laboratory.
Most of these modern linacs, which are used for physics research, were
based on the original 200 MHz design of L. Alvarez.
Typical linear gradients achieved in these Alvarez linac structures are 1-2.5
MV/m, with the gradients in the gaps ranging from 6-10 MV/m. Using the
development of strong focusing magnets (quadrupole magnets) that occurred
in 1938, these structures also employed quadrupole magnets within the
cylindrical drift tubes.
These magnets are needed to keep the ion beam focused, because it becomes
slightly defocused by the radial electric field components present in the
accelerating gap. The need to have magnets in the drift tubes, and several
other problems such as the defocusing in the gap, require that the relative ion
velocity, = /c, must be greater than 0.04 for effective use of such a "drift
tube linac". This is particularly true for high beam currents of protons, which
will diverge rapidly due to the repulsive charge of the other ions in the beam
Fundamental Principles of DTL
Operation:
1. A radio frequency system, such as a klystron or

IOT, produces high electric fields in the gaps
between electrodes.
2. The electric fields in each gap oscillate together

at the frequency of the rf power.
3. The charged particles arrive in bunches, timed

to enter the first gap when the field is accelerating.
4. When the field is reversed, i.e. decelerating, the

particles are hidden in the bore of the drift tube,
shielded from the electric field.
5. The drift tube length and spacing increases to keep pace with the increasing particle velocity as they gain energy.
6. The bunches are timed to arrive in the centre of the gap, as the field is increasing, so that those arriving early gain
less energy, and those arriving late gain more energy.
7. The beam is focused in the transverse direction by strong permanent magnet quadrupoles inside each drift tube.
The electric field polarises the

drift tubes so that periodically the
two ends are charged to opposite
sign.
When charging currents flow to
the right along the tubes, an equal
current flows to the left along the
inside wall of the outer cylinder.
The tubes are supported at their
centers by radial rods along which
no current flows.
Alvarez DTL. Ions travel from gap to gap

in a full period of the rf field. Arrows
indicate the charging currents.
This is known as a DTL beta-

lamda linac the length of the nth
cell is given by: Ln = n.
The energy at any cell En in this Al varez linac

is obtained from the 'beta - lamda' length
of each cell (E0 = m0c2 ) : L2n / 2 = n2 = (En2 E02 ) / En2
= 1 E02 /(Tn + E0 )2

=> Tn = E0 2 2 1/ 2 -1
( - Ln )
(= total energy - rest mass energy). Alvarez DTL Illustrating the decreasing DT
diameter increasing with DT length to
maintain cavity resonance
The final energy is thus predetermined by the geometry of the machine
apart from inevitable energy spread arising from the phase stability of the
machine.
The energy gain is obtained in terms of the transit factor. The electric field
is of the form:
rf z
=m (z)sin( + )
v
2z
= m (z)sin( + )
L
where rf = 2c / and the cell length L=. The origin is chosen according to:
2z
Lm (z)sin(
L
)dz = 0
Thus,the origin lies at the geometrical center of the gap only if the field is symmetrical.
The energy gain is given by:
2z
E=q m sin( + )dz
L L
2z 2z
= qcos m sin( )dz + qsin m cos( )dz.
L L L L
The first term vanishes as a consequence of the definition of the electrical center:
2z
L m
(z)cos(
L
)dz
E=qsin L mdz here quantity in parenthasis is the transit factor.

L
m (z)dz

Thus,we obtain:

E=qFsin
(z)dz dz.
m

L

dz
L
L
(z)cos(2z / L)dz
The transit factor, F=
L
m
is evaluated with a suitable

(z)dz
L m
computer code, such as 'superfish'. The remaining term in parenthasis is the mean
value of the field, averaged over a cell and this finally gives an expression for the energy
gain:
E=qFm,av Lsin .
A correctly adjusted Alvarez linac maintains a constant value of m,av

from end to end of the entire structure.
In general, the transit factor, F, is almost constant.
Thus, the energy gained, for the synchronous particle, increases from gap
to gap (as L increases correspondingly) in contrast to the Wideroe
accelerator in which the energy gain per gap is constant.
However, the increments of momentum are constant and we show this
below.
The total energy is given by:

E2 =E02 +p2c2 and on differentiating we obtain the energy increment:
E=c2pp / E. Also,:
E2 E02 p2c2 pc
= = 2
=> = .
E2 E2 E
Thus, the incremental energy change is given in terms of the momentum change:
E=cp
Equating this to the previous expression, E=qFm,av Lsin , we obtain:

p=qFm,av sin
c
This is very nearly an exact constant, since F varies only slightly from cell to cell.
Therefore, the momentum is a linear function of the number of cells and, at the nth
cell:

pn = qFm,av sin
c
pn
and n = = C (where we have introduced C qFm,av sin / E0 ).
M0c
Now, we have 1+n2 = n2 , so 1+n2 = n =1+Tn /E0 and solving for the kinetic
energy Tn :
Tn =E0 1+n2 1

Tn =E0 1+2C2 1

However, recall: Tn = E0 2 2 1/ 2 1 and thus the final kinetic energy depends
( Ln )
on E0 and the mechanical parameters of the accelerator. Thus, relating this to the above
equation, leads us to the conclusion that C is similarly determined once the machine is
fabricated.
Hence, the average peak field m,av is prescribed once is chosen.
Radio Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ)
In 1970 two Russian scientists, I.M. Kapchiski and

V.A. Tepliakov, proposed an rf linear accelerator
structure with a symmetry corresponding to that of
an electric quadrupole. This rf structure, which has
become known world-wide as the radio frequency
quadrupole (RFQ) linac.
The RFQ's electric fields are produced by the rf fields applied to four
electrodes that are collinear with the beam axis. By modulation of this pure
quadrupole focussing geometry an axial field component can be introduced in
the regions between adjacent "hills and valleys" which then causes a dc beam
injected into the structure along its axis to be focused, bunched and accelerated
simultaneously by the rf fields.
This unique rf accelerator structure has the property of the Widere linac
that particles are only accelerated in every other gap. However, unlike the
Widere structure, the beam does not get shielded from the field as it changes,
but rather the particles drift through a region where the four vanes have the
same geometry and where only a focusing field is present when the electric
field changes polarity.
In addition, in 1975 after the highly
successful completion of the 800 MeV proton
linac at Los Alamos (the Los Alamos Meson
Physics Facility-LAMPF), scientists at that
laboratory began a program sponsored by
the National Cancer Institute to vastly reduce
the size of such conventional accelerators to
make it possible to use proton linacs in a
hospital-based facility for pion therapy.
While the PIGMI (Pion Generator for
Medical Irradiation) program did not result
in the construction of such a system before it
was terminated in 1981, it did have a
significant impact on modern commercial ion RFQ
linacs.
Besides the testing of the first RFQ linac, the use of a higher frequency (425
MHz) to make the drift tube linac smaller in size and shorter in length was
demonstrated, along with the use of rare-earth permanent magnet quadrupoles
that could fit in the much smaller drift tubes found in such a system.
Radio Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ) Contin.
No other type of accelerator is able to combine the functions of bunching and
accelerating charged particles in such a compact size (an RFQ is typically 3-10
feet long and 1-3 feet in diameter).
Use of the RFQ as the first stage for conventional ion linacs that go to much
higher ion energies permits these larger machines to be greatly reduced in size
and length, making the invention of the RFQ a milestone in the evolution of ion
accelerators.
Proclaimed as the "missing link" in linear accelerator technology by D.A.
Swenson, who was the leader of the Los Alamos group that built the proof-of-
principle RFQ and currently at Linac Systems, this unique class of particle
accelerator has dramatically expanded the use of particle beams in both
scientific research and commercial applications.
Its small size, inherent flexibility, and considerable capability has resulted in
many new applications for the ion linacs
The RFQ is a relatively new type of linear

accelerator.
It can be traced to the original paper by K-T (I.M.
Kapchinskiy, V.S. Teliakov), Prib. Tekh. Eksp. 2, 19-22
(1970).
It is now quite routinely used to pre-accelerate ions.
Schematic of RFQ illustrating
4 electrodes with radial Electrons, in contrast can be accelerated to
perturbations sufficiently high energies suitable for direct injection
into a linac.
It consists of four vanes which provide the unique function of both
focussing and accelerating in a remarkably compact structure.
Thus, the need for large unwieldy high voltage electrostatic pre-injector
structures is eliminated.
In an RFQ no drift tubes or magnetic quadrupole lenses are used.
However, the beam is accelerated by longitudinal fields and focussed by
RF electric quadrupole fields that are determined purely from the electrode
geometry of the structure.
These electrodes either consist of vanes or rods.
RFQ -Focusing
Non-
Equally Equally
Spaced Spaced
Electrodes Electrodes
Firstly, consider the case of four equally spaced electrodes.

Apply a voltage V0cos t/2 with a polarity that alternates in quadrupole manner.
Clearly, off-axis particles experience an alternating RF quadrupole field that is
focussing.
There is of course an RF magnetic field also. However, at low-velocities in which
the RFQ was designed to operate in the first place the electric force is stronger than
the magnetic force.
However, the present configuration provides no acceleration!

If we consider the modified geometry in which the horizontal electrode spacing
differs from the vertical spacing then we find that potential on the axis is now longer
zero.
If we maintain this along the axis of the accelerator then the potential remains
constant on axis and there is no electric field.
RFQ -Focusing
If we allow the radius of the vanes to also to vary
along the axis of the accelerator, then the potential
will also vary.
This provides an axial accelerating electric field. In
practise this is varied in a sinusoidal manner.
The horizontal and vertical electrodes are 180 out
of phase.
Unit Cell of RFQ.
Modulation parameters At a particular instant in time the voltage down the
indicated axis of the accelerator has a sinusoidal profile.
As in any RF linear accelerator, the reason for the time dependent field is
clear without time dependence the overall energy gain would be zero as the
particles would receive equal amounts of acceleration as well as
deceleration.
The spatial period of the electrode displacements must match the axial
distance traversed by a synchronous particle during one RF period.
High Energy Linacs -Introduction
RF linear accelerators find application in medical accelerators -X-

band accelerator have recently made major in-roads in this area as
they are stable and compact. Obviously, a major concern for medical
accelerators is field stability potential parasitic mode excitation and
the dangerous miss-steering of the beam can irradiate the patient in
an unwanted manner. For this reason coupled cavity linacs operating
in the /2 mode are preferred.
RF linear accelerators find a direct application in electron-positron
colliders. For example, the ILC will require ~16,000 superconducting
9-cell cavities, each of which is approximately 1 meter long. This is in
order to obtain 500 GeV centre of mass at the collision point (with an
intended upgrade path to 1 TeV). The baseline design gradient is 35
MV/m and the frequency of operation is 1.3 GHz.
CERN is also developing a room temperature Cu accelerator at 12
GHz with at an accelerating gradient of 100 MV/m. The centre of
mass energy reach is 3 TeV
In general, the aim is to transfer energy from the RF wave to electron beam
consisting of bunches of charged particles
If we inject the RF into a waveguide then on average, a electron beam
traversing the waveguide gains no energy from the e.m. field.
Why? Because the phase velocity of the RF wave is larger than the velocity
of light and so it runs ahead of the electron beam the electron beam sees both
the accelerating and decelerating part of the RF field and this averages to
zero.
In order to exchange energy, the phase velocity of the RF has to be matched
with that of the electron beam. This is achieved by slowing the RF field down
in an aptly named slow wave structure which consists of the original
waveguide loaded down, periodically, with irises. This is also known, for
obvious reasons, as a disk loaded structure and is illustrated below
Disk loaded Accelerating
Structure Suitable for
Electron Acceleration. The
characteristic parameters are
also indicated -a and b refer
to the iris radius and cavity
radius, respectively (very
common nomenclature)
The influence of the irises on
slowing down the wave is readily
seen by referring to the dispersion
diagram.
The original smooth waveguide is
also illustrated.
The irises form a periodic
structure within the cavity, reflecting
the wave as it passes through and
causing interference.
This process is similar to the interference of light in a diffraction grating
Loss-free propagation in the grating occurs at z = pd, with p=1, 2, 3..
Thus it is clear that 2/p = 2d/ z with p=1, 2 , 3
Applying this to the disk-loaded linac, we find only certain wavelengths
propagate characterised by mode number p.
One can imagine using any value
of p at all.
In practise there are a limited
number of modal configurations
used and these are illustrated
adjacent.
(' ' mode -i.e. z =2d)

k z d = 2 / 3 ('2 / 3' mode -i.e. z =3d)
/ 2 (' / 2' mode -i.e. =4d)
z
Modal configuration of 4 most

used modes
The mode requires a considerable amount of time for the transient
oscillations to die away and, it is very sensitive to frequency errors as the
neighbouring modes are spaced very close to it. The ILC uses this mode
for the superconducting 9-cell Niobium SW cavities (of which there will be
16,000 or more).
The /2 has a relatively low shunt impedance per unit length but it is
relatively stable to the excitation of neighbouring modes.
This mode is often used in medical accelerators where stability of
operation is paramount.
The 2/3 mode has a relatively high shunt impedance, reasonable mode
separation and shorter settling time than the mode.
This is the mode chosen for the operation of the SLAC linac at 2.856
GHz.
Means of coupling in RF energy is illustrated below.
In practise the input coupler is carefully designed to minimise high field
regions that can lead to electrical breakdown.
Coupling RF Energy into Disk-Loaded Accelerator
Comparison between SW and

TW Disk-Loaded Linacs
The RF field in the disk-loaded linac consists of space harmonics.
We study these space harmonics by considering a structure consisting of
infinite series of irises periodic boundary conditions are imposed by the
disks.
We obtain a periodic solution of the form:
E(r,,z)=e- z E1 (r, ,z)
H(r,,z)=e- z H1 (r, ,z)
where E1 and H1 are periodic functions: E1 (r, ,z + d) = E1 (r, ,z)
As one progresses from cell to cell, the field repeats apart from a
phase factor, e- d .
As we make a Floquet expansion of the field -the field repeats- then we
can make a Fourier series expansion of the field:

E1 (r, ,z) = E
n =
1n (r, )e2jnz / d .
For a loss-less structure (almost true in a superconducting structure)

the propogation constant is entirely imaginary: =j0 and the field

becomes: E(r, ,z) = E
n =
1n (r, )e j z , n = 0 + 2n / d and 0 is the propagation
n
constant of the fundamental space harmonic.

E(r,,z)=e- z E1 (r, ,z)
H(r,,z)=e- z H1 (r, ,z)
where E1 and H1 are periodic functions: E1 (r, ,z + d) = E1 (r, ,z)
As one progresses from cell to cell, the field repeats apart from a
phase factor, e- d .
As we make a Floquet expansion of the field -the field repeats- then we
can make a Fourier series expansion of the field:

E1 (r, ,z) = E
n =
1n (r, )e2jnz / d .
For a loss-less structure (almost true in a superconducting structure)

the propagation constant is entirely imaginary: =j0 and the field

becomes: E(r, ,z) = 1n
E
n =
(r, )e j z
, n = 0 + 2n / d and 0 is the propagation
n
constant of the fundamental space harmonic.
E(r,,z)=e- z E1 (r, ,z)
H(r,,z)=e- z H1 (r, ,z)
The field must also satisfy the usual transverse boundary conditions.
For the lowest order, monopole mode in a disk-loaded waveguide the field is:
Ez = E0n J0 (kc,nr)e j z n
n
Er = j E0n J1 (kc,nr)e j z n
kc,n
j k0
H =
Z0
kc,n
E0n J1 (kc,nr)e j z ,where :
n
n2 = k02 kc,n
2
, with k 0 = / c
The propagation constant of the fundamental differs from that
of the unloaded guide. In fact, one finds that 0 decreases as
the perturbation due to the irises increases. The phase velocity of the
space harmonics is given by:

vpn =
2n
0 +
d
and the group velocity is the same for all space harmonics:
1 1
d dn d
vgn = = = d = vg
dn d
One can see this by referring to the dispersion diagram.
Thus, for a given frequency, an infinite series of space harmonics
are excited. The fundamental space harmonic has the largest Fourier
amplitude. Also, for a structure designed to be synchronous
with the fundamental space harmonic the integrated effect on the beam
is such that all non-synchronous space harmonics average to zero over
the length of the cavity
Full dispersion curve (Brillouin

diagram) for a loaded waveguide with
iris spacing (period) equal to d. For
comparison, and indicated with the
dotted curve, is the hyperbola
corresponding to the uniform
waveguide of the same diameter.
Multiple pass-bands are illustrated.
Thus, one designs the disk-loaded structure to interact with the
fudamental space harmonic with a disk to disk period of d=()/(/c) with
=1 for the mode and 2/3 for the 2/3 mode, etc.
Also, at synchronism the light line intersects with the dispersion curves
and thus 0 = /vb (vb is the velocity of the beam).
The details of the dispersion curves are obtained with finite element or
finite difference computer codes such as Superfish, HFSS, MAFIA,
Microwave Studio, GdfidL.
However, given a limited number of points on the curves (zero and pi)
one can use a circuit model to within remarkably good precision to map
out the remaining part of the dispersion curve.
The method outlined for disk-loaded structures applies equally well to
more elaborate cavities such as the superconducting Niobium cells in the
ILC which consist of elliptical irises and cavities.
The gradient is predicted to be ~ 19.9 MV/m. In operation 15 20 MV/m
have been obtained.
The NLC achieved 65 MV/m for several room temperature copper

structures for 100 ns.
Single cell Cu cavities have reached 100 MV/m.
The ILC using superconducting niobium cavities has achieved 35 MV/m

but the yield is still significantly low. Reasonable yields have been obtained
for superconducting cavities at 15 20 MV/m and these are in use on the
DESY XFEL.
Single cell superconducting cavities have reached 50 MV/m. However, to

date not one 9-cell ILC cavity has reached this high gradient there is intense
R&D in this area in Cornell University (focusing on a reentrant design), USA
and KEK (focusing on a Low Loss Ichiro design), Japan, in particular.
Single cavity structures are
also used.
In damping rings and FFAGS Single Cell Cavity
for example. Resonating at 500 MHz
Developed for Storage
Clearly the cost becomes Ring DORIS
prohibitive when several
thousand or more are required.
Design of a single cell

accelerating cavity using the
TM010 mode. The frequency is
adjusted using the tuning
plunger. The resonator is excited
using the coupling loop.
It is advantageous to add as many cells as possible per cavity in order to
reduce the number of couplers required.
There are, of course, practical limitations on the number of cells
allowed per cavity:
1. as the number of cells increase the spacing between neighbouring modes
decreases
2. The power density requirement increases with the number of cells and
hence one may be forced to reduce the number of cells to avoid the
surface of the cavity suffering from electrical breakdown. Nonetheless,
the ILC had 55 cells with a gradient of 65MV/m in 100ns. The ILC
superconducting cavities have adopted a conservative approach as only
9 cells are contained in each cavity and 9 cavities per module in the
present RDR design.
Fundamental RF Linac Parameters
The limiting quantity in linacs is usually the RF power, either peak power or
average power.
Since the power dissipated per unit length of the structure Pd is proportional to
the square of the RF field, a useful parameter is the shunt impedance per unit
length :
R = E2z/Pd.
(Sometimes, R' is defined in terms of r.m.s. rather than peak values, making it a
factor two less!)
The shunt impedance is also defined in terms of the stored energy U as:
2

j z
E (z)e
L
z
c
dz
R=
4U
R' is typically given in M /m. In proton linacs operating at 200 MHz values
of 35 M/m are reached, whereas electron linacs at 3 GHz have values around
100 M /m.
The Q-value is a factor of merit of an RF cavity as a resonator. It is defined as
the ratio of the stored energy to the energy dissipated per radian of the RF cycle.
The group velocity is important for the following three reasons:
1. The filling time -the time to fill a cavity or structure of length l
with energy: Tf = l / vg
2
2. As P=W'vg and W' ~ Eacc , it is preferable to have a low group
velocity in order to maximise the energy density and the accelerating field.
3. R', Q and R'/Q all depend on vg . As a rule, decreasing vg increases R' and
decreases Q and hence R'/Q is increased.
A wave traveling down the structure is attenuated due to wall losses. The
rate of attenuation is obtained from the continuity of power flow:
W' P
+ + Pd' = 0
t t
P P
+ vg + P=0
t t Q0
and in the steady state, the time derivative is zero:

P=P0e2z , =
2Q0 vg
This can be interpreted in terms of the time required
for a field in a cavity to die down to 1/e of its initial value.
The accelerating field is proportional to the tangential magnetic field at the wall
(although with some reshaping of cavities matters are changed a little):
Eacc ~ Htw ~ i w / beff
The stored energy and energy transport both scale as:
W' ,P ~ Eacc
2 2
beff
Thus, bearing mind beff ~ 1 and putting all components together:
2
R'~1/(beff R'w )~1/2
Q ~ / R'w ~ 1/ 2
R'/ Q ~
vg = P / W' ~ 0
For a constant group velocity structure the filling time is also a constant
for a given structure length. But to optimise the field, the structure length
changes and:
Tf ~ 3/ 2
Thus, from the point of view of RF power, the frequency should be as
large as possible.
However, we have ignored two further issues:
1. High frequency implies smaller structures and this can lead to RF electrical breakdown
2. The beam excites higher order modes, which constitute a wakefield and these lead to
a beam break up instability, at worst, or at the very least a dilution in the beam emittance.
In order to maximise efficiency and prompted by RF breakdown theory, motivated CERN

to design a 30 GHz, compact linear collider, known as CLIC. However, intensive experimental
work has indicated that the earlier breakdown theory was not adequate and a recent optimised
version of CLIC operates at 12 GHz (cf the NLC/JLC design of 11.424 GHz).
The wakefield associated with 2 scales as:

Wz ~a-2 ~2
Wt ~a-3 ~3 (and Wt / z ~ 4 )
This must also be born in mind when designing the linac -the modes must be carefully
damped and detuned.
Travelling Wave Linear Accelerators
Periodic RF structures can be operated in two different ways, as a

traveling-wave(TW) accelerator or a standing-wave (SW) accelerator.
TW Linac SW Linac
In a TW-structure, the fields build up in space with the wave front

traveling with the group velocity. The output of the structure is matched
to a load where the left-over energy is dissipated.
We consider the case where the power transferred to the beam is small
compared to the power dissipated in the structure walls i.e. normal
conducting Cu accelerators.
Two different types of structures are usually distinguished:
1. Constant impedance.
2. Constant gradient.
High Energy Linacs
Superconducting -mode SW cavities are used in both circular and linear
accelerators. They are of simple shape, straight lines and elliptical or circular arcs,
with a large iris opening.
The correspondingly low R/Q is of no importance in that case because of the very
high Q.
The rounded shape was found by chance as the one where multi-pactoring (a local
resonant electron avalanche phenomenon) is suppressed.
Such a cavity was originally proposed for the ILC and it is referred to as the
TESLA cavity.
This cavity is now used in many accelerator designs such as ERLP (Energy
Recovery Linac) in Daresbury labs, the ELBE (Electron Linac for beams with High
brilliance and Low Emittance) in Rossendorf accelerator facility, FLASH/TTF2
(TESLA Test Facility) at DESY in Hamburg.
SC TESLA 9-Cell
Cavity operating at
1.3 GHz. For the ILC
the baseline design
gradient is 35 MV/m.
High Energy Linacs
Finally we note that instead of operating a SW-cavity in the -mode one
can operate in the 0-mode with good efficiency.
Again, forward and backward space harmonics add up in phase in every
cell and both contribute to the acceleration. Since the electromagnetic fields
in adjacent cells are in phase the seperating walls can be left out without
affecting the field distribution.
Monopole Mode Dispersion Relations
Utilize an L-C circuit model.
This represent an infinitely repeating periodic C C C
structure. L L L L L L
For our purposes the Ls and Cs are the same for In-1 In In+1
each cell in the coupled chain.

A mutual inductance is used to represent cell-to-cell
coupling. The sign of this coupling changes the L-C Circuit Model
group velocity of the mode (i.e. TE mode coupling
differs from TM). Fundamental I/P
HOM Coupler Coupler
Generalizing this method (with appropriate
boundary conditions) allows the tuning
characteristics to be obtained field flatness,
resonant frequency.
Circuit model coupled equations: 9-Cell Niobium Cavity HOM Coupler

1 Suitable for ILC
2j L + i n + jM(i n + 1 + i n 1 ) = 0
j C
Here M =L is the mutual coupling of neighbouring cells.
47
Dividing by 2jL gives:
r2 1
1- 2
i n + (i n +1 + i n 1 ) = 0, where r = .
2 2 LC
For an infinitely periodic structure the phase changes across one cell by .
i n = i 0 e jn
r2 jn j j jn
1- 2 e + (e + e )e = 0
2
r2
1 - 2 + Cos = 0

/ 2 CAD Model of 5-Cell
=
1 + Cos Positron Capture Cavity
(designed and fabricated at SLAC)
where the /2 is recognised as the cell resonant frequency
(verify by letting =/2).
In general <<1

=> ~ / 2 1 Cos
2
48
0 ~ / 2 ( 1 / 2 ) and ~ / 2 ( 1 + / 2 ) .
Thus the bandwidth of the cell defines
the coupling coefficient:
=
( 0 )
.
/ 2
Dispersion Curve for Infinitely

Periodic Structure
Group velocity: (~3.05%, f/2~1.28 GHz)
p d Sin c
vg / c = = p /2 . Using p= acc
c d 2c acc
acc
=> / 2 Sin

2 / 2 1 Cosacc
2
acc Sin Sin
vg / c = ~ acc
2
2 1 Cosacc
2
Group Velocity
(Corresponding to above dispersion parameters.)
49
Dispersion Relations for Finite-Length Linacs
N-Cell Cavity, Inductively Coupled and Terminated in Half-Cells
Model of a linear chain of N coupled resonators. Each resonator

represents the fundamental mode resonance (TM010 resonance) of a pill-box
cavity.
The coupling between cavities, via the irises, is simulated by the mutual
inductance M (= L) of a transformer.
The chain is terminated in half-cells corresponding to ideal conducting
mid-planes in the end cavities. (This yields a "flat" constant current
distribution, -mode. If the chain were terminated in full cells, the end-
cells would have to be detuned in order to get a flat -mode.)
2r L
, r = ( 2LC)
1/ 2
The modal quality factor is given by: Q=
R
and the equations for the central and end cell loops are:
j R
j L + i1 + i 2 jL = 0
2 C 2
j
2j L + R in + jL(in+1 + in1 ) = 0, where n=2,3,..N
C
j R
jL + iN+1 + iN jL = 0
2 C 2
which are readily re-written as:
r2 r
1 2 j i1 + i2 = 0
Q
r2 r
1 j ni + (in+1 + in1 ) = 0

2
Q 2
r2 r
1 2 j iN+1 + iN = 0
Q
2 r2 r
Using = 1 2 j then:
Q
i1 + i 2 = 0
2
in + ( in+1 + in1 ) = 0
i N +1 + i N = 0
2
Multiplying and subtracting we obtain an upper triangular matrix:
1 1
+ =
i1 i2 0, ( - + =
)i2 i3 0, ( - )i3 + i4 , ....
2 / 2 - (1/ / 2)
In the diagonal element we make a substitution = -2cos :
= cos
2
1 cos2
1 =
2 cos
1 cos cos3
= 2cos + =
1 cos2 cos2

2
1
cos(N + 1) + cos(N 1) sin sinN
=
2cosN cosN
The determinant of a triangular matrix is equal to the product of
the diagonal elements for a homogeneous system we set it equal to zero:
det=(-)N sin sinN = 0
Eigenvalues are given by n = n / N (n=0,1,2..N)
2 r2 r
and n = 1 2 j = 2cos n
n nQ
For Q>>1 we obtain:
1
n =r / 1 + cos(n / N) ~ / 2 1 cos(n / N)
2
For a general value of Q solving for n :
1
j 1
n = / 2 + 2 + 1 + cos(n / N)
2Q 4Q

The real component of frequency is increased due to the presence of losses:

Re{n }~ / 2 [1 + cos(n / N) + 1/(8Q2 )]
2
Similarly, for the eigenvectors:
in = cos(p 1)n = cos (p 1)n / N
Clearly, n is the phase shift per cell. The bandwidth defines the
separation between the 0 and mode:
=N 0 ~ / 2
Thus, the coupling factor, = / / 2 (=M/L) is the normalised bandwidth.
The nearest neighbour mode separation is an important quantity.

For the and the /2 modes we find:
N N1 2
= ~ (1 cos ) ~ 2
/ 2 2 N 4N
/ 2 N/ 2 (N1)/ 2
= ~ cos ~ 4N
/ 2 2 2 2N
Thus, the mode separation is /N times smaller for the mode as

compared to the /2 mode.
Now, the mode separation should be larger than that defined by the
Q losses bandwidth (=r /Q0 ):

N < Q0 and N / 2 < Q0
2 4
For example, for f0 ~ 1 to 3 GHz , Q ~ 104 and ~ 1%:

N < 15 and N/2 < 78
Thus, the number of coupled cavities is limited in the -mode and
the number of feed points must be increased correspondingly. An
additional analysis of the mode indicates that there are cell-to-cell
phase errors due to Q-losses, and morever it is rather sensitive to
dimensional or frequency errors. The /2 mode, on the other hand,
is far less sensitive to these effects. For these reasons, for room temperature
RF linacs one often operates in the /2 or 2 / 3 mode.
However, we note there is technique to mitigate against the sensivity
dissadvantages of the mode. Namely, we add coupling cavities to
either side of the main accelerating cavities in a such a way that
the chain uses a /2 mode while the main-to-main cell phase shift is .
The mode is the preferred mode of operation from the perspective of
efficiency the shunt impedance is maximised.
Discrete Cavity Modes (in radians)

5/6
4/6
Monopole 3/6
Curve
2/6
0 /6 Light line
Dispersion curve for linac. Also indicated are the discrete

modes for 7 coupled oscillators

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Linear Accelerators

RF Superconductivity for Accelerators, Wiley Publishers (1998), by Hasan Padamsee,

ILC 9-cell Nb Cavity

SLAC 2.856 GHz

Time Varying Field Based

Multipole Gaps Time Varying Fields

An adaptation of the "Livingston Curve," displaying the center of mass

Potential Drop Accelerators Employ Electrostatic Fields

The first high-voltage particle

The most common potential-drop

In the fixed track arrangement, A

1. A radio frequency system, such as a klystron or

2. The electric fields in each gap oscillate together

3. The charged particles arrive in bunches, timed

4. When the field is reversed, i.e. decelerating, the

The electric field polarises the

Alvarez DTL. Ions travel from gap to gap

This is known as a DTL beta-

The energy at any cell En in this Al varez linac

A correctly adjusted Alvarez linac maintains a constant value of m,av

The total energy is given by:

Hence, the average peak field m,av is prescribed once is chosen.

In 1970 two Russian scientists, I.M. Kapchiski and

The RFQ is a relatively new type of linear

Firstly, consider the case of four equally spaced electrodes.

However, the present configuration provides no acceleration!

RF linear accelerators find application in medical accelerators -X-

(' ' mode -i.e. z =2d)

Modal configuration of 4 most

Coupling RF Energy into Disk-Loaded Accelerator

Comparison between SW and

For a loss-less structure (almost true in a superconducting structure)

constant of the fundamental space harmonic.

For a loss-less structure (almost true in a superconducting structure)

constant of the fundamental space harmonic.

Full dispersion curve (Brillouin

The NLC achieved 65 MV/m for several room temperature copper

Single cell Cu cavities have reached 100 MV/m.

The ILC using superconducting niobium cavities has achieved 35 MV/m

Single cell superconducting cavities have reached 50 MV/m. However, to

Design of a single cell

In order to maximise efficiency and prompted by RF breakdown theory, motivated CERN

The wakefield associated with 2 scales as:

Periodic RF structures can be operated in two different ways, as a

In a TW-structure, the fields build up in space with the wave front

each cell in the coupled chain.

Circuit model coupled equations: 9-Cell Niobium Cavity HOM Coupler

Dispersion Curve for Infinitely

N-Cell Cavity, Inductively Coupled and Terminated in Half-Cells

Model of a linear chain of N coupled resonators. Each resonator

In the diagonal element we make a substitution = -2cos :

The nearest neighbour mode separation is an important quantity.

Thus, the mode separation is /N times smaller for the mode as

For example, for f0 ~ 1 to 3 GHz , Q ~ 104 and ~ 1%:

Discrete Cavity Modes (in radians)

Dispersion curve for linac. Also indicated are the discrete

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