1

Chapter 1
Gas Power Cycles Reciprocating Engines

A power cycle refers to power generation which is accomplished by a system that

operates on a thermodynamic cycle. The system or device is often called an engine. In
gas cycles, the working fluid remains gaseous throughout the entire cycle. Examples
of gas power cycles are : internal combustion engine (ICE) and gas-turbine engine.

1.1 The Carnot cycle

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient power cycle. It is an ideal cycle with thermal
efficiency expressed as
T
th ,Carnot 1 L
TH
when operating between a heat source at temperature TH and a sink at temperature TL.
Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in TH or with a decrease in TL, which are
also true for actual cycle. In practice, the highest temperature in the cycle is limited by
the metallurgical limits of the components (piston, cylinder wall, turbine blade, etc.).
In an actual cycle, the lowest temperature is limited by the temperature of the cooling
medium used in the cycle such as a lake, a river, or the atmospheric air.

1.2 Air-standard assumptions

In internal combustion engines

energy (heat) is obtained by burning fuel within the system boundaries
the combustion process changes the composition of the working fluid from air
and fuel to combustion products

All internal combustion engines

operate on a mechanical cycle; the working fluid does not undergo a complete
thermodynamic cycle
work on an open cycle

The actual gas power cycles are complex. To simplify the analysis it is common to
utilize the air-standard assumptions:

the working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and
always behaves as an ideal gas
all the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible
the combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external
source
the exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores the
working fluid to its initial state

When assuming the air has constant specific heats determined at room temperature of
25 oC, the air-standard assumptions become cold-air-standard assumptions.

A cycle using the air-standard assumptions is known as an air-standard cycle.

 2

1.3 Overview of reciprocating engines

A reciprocating engine is a piston-cylinder device which is simple with a wide range

of applications. It is used in automobiles, light aircraft, ships and many other devices.

Intake valve Exhaust valve

Bore TDC

piston
stroke
connecting rod
BDC

crankshaft

In a reciprocating engine, the piston reciprocates in the cylinder between top dead
center (TDC) and bottom dead center (BDC). The distance between TDC and BDC is
the stroke of the engine. The diameter of the piston is known as the bore. The air or
air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the intake valve, and the
combustion gases are expelled from the cylinder through the exhaust valve.

When the piston is at TDC, the minimum volume formed in the cylinder is called the
clearance volume. The volume displaced by the piston as it moves between TDC and
BDC is known as the displacement volume. The ratio of the maximum volume
formed in the cylinder to the minimum volume is the compression ratio of the engine:

Vmax V BDC
r
Vmin VTDC

(Note : this is not to be confused with the pressure ratio)

The mean effective pressure (MEP) is a fictitious pressure, that if it acted on the
piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as
that produced during the actual cycle.

Wnet = MEP x Piston area x Stroke = MEP x Displacement volume

Wnet wnet
or MEP = . (kPa)
Vmax Vmin v max v min

The engine with a larger value of MEP delivers more net work per cycle and therefore
is a better performing engine.

P
 3

Wnet

MEP
V
Vmin Vmax

TDC BDC
Fig. 1.1 Graphical representation of the mean effective pressure (MEP)

Reciprocating engines can be classified as:

Spark-ignition (SI) engines combustion is initiated by a spark plug
Compression-ignition (CI) engines air-fuel mixture is self-ignited as a result
of compressing the mixture above its self-ignition temperature.

The Otto cycle is an ideal cycle for SI engines, whereas the Diesel cycle is an ideal
cycle for CI engines.

1.3.1 Four-stroke engines

Figure 1.2 shows the actual and ideal cycles in four-stroke SI engines and their P-v
diagrams.

1 2 Induction stroke: The piston travels from TDC to BDC and air-fuel mixture is
drawn into the cylinder through the intake valve. Note that pressure in the cylinder is
slightly below atmospheric.

2 3 Compression stroke: The piston moves from BDC to TDC, compressing the air-
fuel mixture. Just before reaching TDC, the spark plug fires and the mixture ignites,
increasing the pressure and temperature of the system.

3 4 Expansion stroke: The high-pressure gases force the piston down from TDC to
BDC, forcing the crankshaft to rotate, producing useful work output during this stroke
which is also known as power stroke.

4 1 Exhaust stroke: The piston moves from DBC to TDC, purging the exhaust gases
through the exhaust valve. During this stroke, the pressure in the cylinder is slightly
above atmospheric.

It takes 4 strokes (and 2 crankshaft revolutions) to complete 1 thermodynamic cycle

(actually mechanical cycle).

1.3.2 Two-stroke engines

 4

In two-stroke engines, the induction and exhaust strokes are part of the compression
stroke, as shown by the timing diagram. On a timing diagram, the angular position is
in terms of crank angle position in relation to TDC and BDC positions.

For clockwise rotation, moving from BDC to TDC (compression stroke), induction,
exhaust and transfer (air-fuel mixture from crankcase to cylinder) processes are part
of the compression stroke.

Similarly, during the expansion stroke (moving from TDC to BDC), induction,
exhaust and transfer (air-fuel mixture from crankcase to cylinder) processes are also
part of the expansion stroke.

Two-stroke engines are less efficient than four-stroke engines due to

incomplete expulsion of exhaust gases and partial expulsion of fresh air-fuel
mixture with exhaust gases
Two-stroke engines are relatively simple and inexpensive
Two-stroke engines have high power-to-weight and power-to-volume ratios,
which make them suitable for applications that require small size and weight
(e.g. motorcycles, chain saws, lawn mowers etc.)

1.4 Otto cycle ideal cycle for SI engines

The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for SI reciprocating engines. Most SI engines are
four-stroke internal combustion engines. Figure 1.3 shows the Otto cycle on a P-v and
T-s diagrams. This cycle closely resembles the actual four-stroke or two-stroke cycles
of SI engines.

P T 3
3
. isentropic expansion qin
qin
v=C
2 4 2 4
qout qout
isentropic compression 1 v=C
1
v s
TDC BDC
Figure 1.3 P-v and T-s diagrams for Otto cycle

The (air-standard) Otto cycle consists of 4 internally reversible processes:

12 Isentropic compression
23 Constant-volume heat addition
34 Isentropic expansion
41 Constant-volume heat rejection

The cycle is executed in a closed system, and ignoring changes in kinetic and
potential energies, the energy balance for any of the processes, on a unit-mass basis is
 5

qin q out ( win wout ) u (kJ/kg)

Processes 2 3 and 4 1 take place at constant volume, thus the work terms are zero.
Therefore,
qin u 3 u 2 c v T3 T2
and q out u 4 u1 cv T4 T1

Using cold air standard assumptions, the thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle is

wnet qin q out q T T1

th ,Otto 1 out 1 4
qin q in qin T3 T2

Processes 1 2 and 3 4 are isentropic, and v2 = v3 and v4 = v1. Therefore,

k 1 k 1
T1 v 2 v T4
3
T2 v1 v4 T3
i.e.,
T2 T1 r k 1 and T3 T4 r k 1

v max v1 cp
where r is the compression ratio ( r ) and k . Thus,
v min v 2 cv

T4 T1 T4 T1 1
th,Otto 1 1 k 1 k 1
1 k 1
T3 T2 T4 r T1 r r

The thermal efficiency increases with both r and k. This is also true for actual SI
internal combustion engines. For a given r, the thermal efficiency of an actual cycle is
less than that of the ideal Otto cycle due to irreversibilities (friction) and incomplete
combustion in real engines. Typical values of r for real SI engines range from 7
through 10.

Example 1a (constant sepcific heats)

The compression ratio of an ideal Otto cycle is 8. At the start of compression, air is at
100 kPa, 17 C, and 800 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to the air during the constant-
volume heat addition process. Assuming cv = 0.718 k and k = 1.4, determine (a) the
maximum temperature and pressure in the cycle, (b) the net work output, (c) the
thermal efficiency, and (d) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.
k 1
v
(a) T2 T1 1 (17 273)8 0.4 = 666.3 K
v2
qin u 3 u 2 c v T3 T2 800 = 0.718 (T3 666.3) T3 = 1780.5
K
k
v
P2 P1 1 100(8)1.4 = 1837.9 kPa
v2
 6

T 1780.5
P3 P2 3 1837.9 = 4911.3 kPa Pmaz
T2 666.3
k 1.4
v 1
P4 P3 3 4911 .3 = 267.2 kPa
v4 8
P 267.2
T4 T1 4 290 = 774.9 K
P1 100
(b) qin = 800 kJ/kg (given)
q out u 4 u1 c v T4 T1 = 0.718(774.9 290) = 348.2 kJ/kg
wnet = qin qout = 800 348.2 = 451.8 kJ/kg
wnet 451.8
(c) Otto = 0.565
qin 800
RT1 0.287( 290)
(d) v1 = 0.8323 m3/kg
P1 100
v 0.8323
v2 1 = 0.1040 m3/kg
r 8
wnet 451.8
MEP = 620.3 kPa
v1 v 2 0.8323 0.1040

Example 1b (variable specific heats)

The compression ratio of an ideal Otto cycle is 8. At the start of compression, air is at
100 kPa, 17 C, and 800 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to the air during the constant-
volume heat addition process. Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air
with temperature, determine (a) the maximum temperature and pressure in the cycle,
(b) the net work output, (c) the thermal efficiency, and (d) the mean effective pressure
for the cycle.

Assume air standard assumptions

Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible
Specific heats vary with temperature (use table for air).

P
3
. isentropic expansion
qin qin = 800 kJ/kg
r =8
2 4
qout
P1 = 100 kPa
isentropic compression 1
T1 = 290 K
v
TDC BDC

T1 = 290 K (using Table A-17) u1 = 206.91 kJ/kg, vr1 = 676.1

v2 vr 2 1
Process 1 2 is isentropic,
v1 v r1 r
 7

v r1 676.1
or vr 2 = 84.51 (Table A-17) T2 = 652.4 K, u2 = 475.11
r 8
p v pv T v1
kJ/kg R 2 2 1 1 P2 P1 2 = 100 652.4 8 =
T2 T1 T1 v 2 290
1799.7 kPa

Process 2 3 is constant-volume heat addition:

qin = u3 u2
800 = u3 475.11
u3 = 1275.11 (Table A-17) T3 = 1575.1 K , vr3 = 6.108

p3 v3 p 2 v2 T v 2
R P3 P2 3 = 1799.7 1575.1 1 = 4345
T3 T2 T2 v3 652.4
kPa

(b) Process 3 4 is isentropic expansion,

v4 vr 4
r v r 4 rv3 8 (6.108) = 48.864
v3 v r 3
Table A-17 gives T4 = 795.6 K, u4 = 588.74 kJ/kg

qout = u4 u1 = 588.74 206.91 = 381.83 kJ/kg

wnet,out = qnet,in = qin qout = 800 381.83 = 418.17 kJ/kg

wnet ,out 418.17

(c) th = 0.523 @ 52.3 %
q in 800
RT1 0.287( 290)
(d) v1 = 0.832 m3/kg
P1 100
wnet wnet wnet 418.17
MEP
v1 v 2 v 1 1
v1 1 v1 1 0.8321 = 574 kPa
r r 8

i.e A constant pressure of 574 kPa during the power stroke would produce the
same amount of work output as the entire cycle.

1.5 Diesel Cycle ideal cycle for compression-ignition engines

In SI (gasoline) engines, air-fuel mixture is compressed to a temperature below the

autoignition temperature of the fuel, and the combustion process is initiated by firing
a spark plug. In CI (i.e. diesel) engines, the air is compressed to a temperature above
the autoignition temperature of the fuel, and combustion takes place as the fuel is
injected into this hot air. The spark plug and carburetor (in SI engines) is replaced
with a fuel injector in diesel engines.

The compression ratios in SI engines are limited by the onset of autoignition or

engine knock. However, diesel engines can operate at higher compression ratios
 8

(typically between 12 and 24), because only air is compressed during the compression
stroke.

Fuel is injected in diesel engines when the piston approaches TDC and continues
during the first part of the power stroke. That is, the combustion takes place over a
longer interval. Thus, the combustion process in ideal Diesel cycle is modelled as a
constant-pressure heat-addition process. (note that in Otto cycle heat addition is at
constant volume).

The Otto and Diesel cycles differ only on the heat-addition process. The other
processes are the same for both ideal cycles.

P qin T P=C 3
2 3 qin
. isentropic expansion 2

V=C
4 4
qout qout
isentropic compression 1
1
v s
TDC BDC
P-v and T-s diagrams for ideal Diesel cycle

The Diesel cycle is executed in a piston-cylinder device, which forms a closed system.
Th cycle consists of 4 internally reversible processes:

12 Isentropic compression
23 Constant-pressure heat addition
34 Isentropic expansion
41 Constant-volume heat rejection

The energy balance for process 2 3 is written as

q in wb,out u 3 u 2 qin P2 v3 v 2 u 3 u 2
= h3 h2 c p T3 T2

The heat rejection (4 1) is similar to the ideal Otto cycle

q out u 4 u1 c v T4 T1

The thermal efficiency of the ideal Diesel cycle under the cold-air-standard
assumptions is
w q qout q c T T
th , Diesel net in 1 out 1 v 4 1
qin qin qin c p T3 T2
 9

T4 T1
= 1
k T3 T2
The cutoff ratio rc is defined as
V3 v 3
rc
V2 v 2
process 1 2 : T2 T1 r k 1
P3 v3 RT3 T3 v3
process 2 3 : gives rc
P2 v 2 RT2 T2 v 2
T3 rc T2 rc T1 r k 1
k 1
v3
k 1 k 1 k 1
T v v v r
process 3 4 : Tv k 1
C 4 3 3 2 c
T3 v4 v1 v r
1
v 2
k 1 k 1
r k 1 rc
T4 T3 c rc T1 r rck T1
r r

Therefore,
T4 T1 1 rck 1 1 rck 1
th, Diesel = 1 = 1 k 1 1 k 1
k T3 T2 k rc r r k 1 r k rc 1
1
When rc 1, th, Diesel 1 (see Richard Stone, Introduction to
r k 1
internal combustion engines)

Example 2
An ideal Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18 and a cutoff ratio of 2. At the start
of the compression process, the working fluid is at 0.1 Mpa and 27 oC. Utilizing the
cold-air-standard assumptions, determine (a) the thermal efficiency, and (b) the mean
effective pressure.

v1 v
Data: P1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 300 K, r 18 , rc 3 2
v2 v2
k 1
v
(a) T2 T1 1 300(18) 0.4 = 953.3 K
v2
v
T3 T2 3 953.3(2) 1906.6 K
v2
k 1
v3
v
k 1
v 2
0.4

T4 T3 3 T3 2 1906.6 = 791.4 K
v4 v4 18
v2

qin = cp (T3 T2) = 1.005 (1906.6 953.3) = 958.1 kJ/kg

 10

qout = cv (T4 T1) = 0.718 (791.4 300) = 352.5 kJ/kg

qin q out 958.1 352.8

th, Diesel = = 0.632 @ 63.2 %
qin 958.1
RT1 0.287(300)
(b) v1 = 0.8610 m3/kg
P1 100
v 0.8610
v2 1 = 0.0478 m3/kg
r 18
wnet 958.1 352.8
MEP = 744.3 kPa
v1 v 2 0.8610 0.0478