CHAPTER 1 Forma negativa I must not / I mustnt

Some/any: You mmust not/ you mustnt

Cantidad indefinida o un cierto nmero, modifican nombres contables e incontables 2. El verbo modal must va seuido del infinitive sin TO
I must go = tengo que ir, debo de ir
Some: 3. En el presente tambin se puede emplear el verbo to have to (tener que)
1. Se usa some cuando ests interesado en la cantidad pero no necesitas ser I must go now
muy especfico. Ej: Some people are always getting into trouble. I have to go now tengo que irme ahora
2. Se usa cuando estas interesado en el objeto en s mismo ms que en la You must/have to have a visa if you want to travel to the States
cantidad: Last night I ate some cakes 4. Para diferenciarlo en presente:
I have visited some good friends recently
3. Se usa en frases afirmativas: He wanted some more meta MUST se usa cuando el hablador est dando sus propios sentimientos y la
4. En ofrecimientos y peticiones: Would you like some wine? obligacin viene de l
5. En preguntas donde la respuesta esperada es s: Why dont you buy She has left three messages for you. You must call her back
some of those partries? You must stay in bed debe guardar cama
6. Tambin se utiliza some con el significado de una cierta persona o una Must I take all there medicines? Debo tomar todas estas medicinas?
desconocida cosa que no est especificada cuando es seguido por un nombre
contable en el singular: There must be some bookshop in Madrid where you can HAVE GOT se usa cuando el hablador no da sus propios sentimientos y las
find that bood obligaciones vienen impuestas por otras personas no por el hablador. Puede
Some philosopher said that love is blind. conjugarse con GOT siendo el auxiliar HAVE o con el auxiliar DO
7. Some, tambin puede tener el significado de aproximadamente o The doctor says I have to stay in bed El medico dice que tengo que guarder cama
alrededor de. En este caso sera usado antes de un nombre contable en el plural the doctor says I have got to stay in bed
precedido por un nmero: we found some thirty squirrels in back yard My teacher said I didnt have to do the homework= Mi professor dijo que no tena
8. Some y any puede emplearse como pronombres adems de cmo que hacer los deberes.
adjetivos. I have some bread. Do you want some?/ 5. Must tambin se usa para expresar una certeza (no una obligacin en este
Have you any milk? No, I have non any caso) The show must be finishing now/ she must be 50 years old now
6. El pasado de deber de se forma con must y el infinitive pasado del
Any verbo siguiente: He must have gone home=ha debido de irse a casa/ debi de irse a..
7. Normalmente usamos Must (con el significado de obligacin) para
1. Puede usarse en frases afirmativas, negativas o interrogativas. hablar sobre el presente y en cambio Have to se usa para pasado, presente o futuro.
2. como regla general se suele utilizar en frases negativas: There arent any We must hurry if we dont want to miss the parade
customers left in the resturant/ There isnt eny butter in the fridge She has to be rushed into hospital (presente)
3. Se utiliza en preguntas donde la respuesta esperada puede ser in Have you ever had to be rushed into hospital? (presente perfecto)
afirmativa o negative: Are there any new students in class?/ Is there any cooffe in She will have to be rushed into hospital (futuro)
the kitchen? She might have to be rushed into hospital (infinitive condicional)
4. Tambin se usa any en frases afirmativas cuando se refiere a alguien o a 8. Have to usualmente usa do/does/did de auxiliary en preguntas y
alguna cosa cuya identidad o naturaleza no tiene importancia y en este caso tendra negativas:
el significado de cualquier: Nowadays, any teenager can learn English at school/ Does she have to come to the office next Saturday?
I just need to write a telephone number; any pen will do She doesnt have to work on Saturday
5. Advierte el uso de any en la siguiente frase donde modifica un adjetivo 9. En negativa Musnt significa (obligacin): t no ests obligado a hacer
en la forma comparativa: tal cosa: You mustnt speak to her again
Im not growing any younger=Im definitely growing older Dont have to significa: t no tienes necesidad de hacerlo (no obligacin)
Im dont want to play tennis any longer=I don`t like it and Im not good at it She Works at OConnells but she doesn`t have to be in uniform.
If you dont like my essay look for another person. I cant write any better.
6. En vez de any (adjetivo) con la negacin se puede emplear el adjetivo Ejemplos:
no -she/work on Saturday morning= she must cork on Saturday morning
I have not any coffe=I have no coffe -I/ go to the cinema with her tomorrow evening. I/promise to= I have go t the
She didnt give us any information=she gave us no information. cinema with her tomorrow evening. I have promised to.
7. No se puede poner ms de una negacin en cada frase en Ingls. Dos - You/ not smoke/ in this room= You musnt smoke in this room
negaciones se anulan recprocamente. - In England/you/ not drive on the right= In England you mustnt drive on the right
No he visto a nadie:I have not seen anybody/I have seen nobody - You/not drive without a licence= You mustnt driver without a licence
8. El uso de no despus de la preposicin with expresa el mismo - You/ keep off the grass= You have to keep off the grass (keep off= mantenerse a
significado que la preposicin without=sin distancia)
I want a cake with no ice, please=I want a cake without (any) ice, please/
She didnt with no remorse at all. She did it without (any) remorse at all. Indefinite article (a/an)
- A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound:
Palabras compuestas con some y any: a cupboard a friend a university a one-parent family
- An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound:
Somebody/Someone=alguien o alguno Anywhere=en alguna parte an onion an SOS an hour
Something= algo, alguna cosa Anything=algo The uses of the indefinite article (a/an)
Somewhere= en alguna parte Anybody/anyone=alguien 1. Before an individual count noun
I need to buy a new car She sent a present for you
No body/ no one=nadie, ninguno everywhere=en todas partes 2. Before a singular countable noun which represents a class or group (a
Nothing=nada everything=todo generic use very common in definitions and statements)
nowhere=en todas partes everybody/everyone=todos/todo el A doctor heals sick people A screwdriver is essential in your tool box
mundo 3. When we refer to names of professions or occupations
He would like to become an actor Im a lawyer
somebody, someone, something y somewhere, se emplean en frases 4. With certain numbers and expressions of quantity like: hundred,
donde se empleara some thousand, million, dozen, couple
anybody, anyone, anything y anywhere se emplean en frases donde se More than a hundred people attended the lecture
empleara any I have been waiting here for a quarter of an hour
The book must be somewhere, look for it 5. With the meaning of por in the following cases
Im telling you it isnt anywhere Twice a week 3 a kilo Four times a day Eighty miles an hour
Los compuestos formados con any los usamos despus de la conjuncin 6. In exclamations introduced by what or such before noun phrases with
if:If anyone needs a side, let me know singular countable nouns:
Anyone significa cualquier persona y any one significa cuaquier/a What a nice person He is such a successful gambler
referido a cosas. 7. Before Mr, Mrs, Miss followed by the surname. This implies that the
Anyone can get those medicines without a prescription speaker hasnt met that person but knows of his/her existence. This could be
She wants to rent a car for the weekend, any one will do translated into Spanish as un tal: A Mr Taylor called you this afternoon
8. In some collocations such as:
Must/Have to Tener que/deber que (obligacin) all of a sudden to be in a hurry to pay a visit
to be in a bad temper to have a crush on to have a good time
1. Must tiene una sola forma que se usa para todas las personas del presente 9. The indefinite article can only be used with countable nouns and it
indicativo. No tiene infinitivo, pasado ni otro tiempo. requires the inclusion of other expressions if we want to use it with uncountable
I must= debo, tengo que, he de nouns: a loaf of bread a pinch of salt a glass of wine.
You must= debes, tienes que, has de
he must= debe, tiene que, ha de
Comparatives and superlatives - Monosyllabic and disyllabic adverbs ending in ly form the comparative and
superlative adding the endings er and est
1. When we want to compare two or more objects in English we use hard harder hardest early earlier earliest
adjectives in either the comparative or the superlative form. The comparative - Polysyllabic adverbs ending in ly form the comparative and superlative with
denotes a quality in a higher, equal or lower degree by comparing two things. more and most:
The weather in Wales is Warmer than in Scotland. quickly more quickly most quickly
The superlative denotes a quality in its highest degree by comparing two or more comfortably more comfortably most comfortably
things/people - Some irregular adverb comparatives and superlatives are:
London is the biggest city in Grant Britain well better best badly worse worst
2. There are three types of comparison: equality, inferiority and superiority. little less least
We form the comparative of equality by inserting the base dorm of the adjective in
the following pattern: As as
My backpack is AS big AS yours The definite article (the)
Note that when we are comparing people, after the second AS we can have either We use the English definite article
the subject pronoun, the object pronoun or the subject pronoun with the auxiliary
verb. The last two forms are more common in spoken language. 1. Before singular and plural nouns and for all genders.
She is as efficient as he (not very frequent) The book is too expensive I think the children are tired
She is as efficient as him he put the apple in the fridge the idea is that we all do it together
She is as efficient as he is 2. When an object is known and has already been referred to
3. The comparative of inferiority is formed by introducing the base form I saw some dogs and a cat. The dogs were chasing the cat
of the adjective in the following pattern: 3. When the noun we are referring to is considered to be unique
less than He is less hard-wording than you The Sun, the Moon
not asas He is not as hard-working as you (are) 4. To refer to something that can be identified from the situation or context
not so as He is not so hard-working as you (are) and can only represent one particular thing
4. The comparative of superiority and the superlative is formed in one of They must be in the kitchen You can find the post office right across the street
two ways: 5. Before institutions or individuals that have an authority or a title
a) We add er to the base form of the adjective to make the comparative, and est The Parliament the Prime Minister The Captain The Duke of Edinburgh
to make the superlative. Note that we use the zero article when we are referring to an individual and we use
- Monosyllables his/her proper name, or we address him/her directly: Captain Ahab, President Carter
Superiority Superlative Superiority Superlative 6. Before the superlative and before only in the following cases
near nearer the nearest long longer the longest That was the best wine in the world This is the only car park in the area
small smaller the smallest tall taller the tallest 7. Before a singular noun to represent a class of animals or things in the
weak weaker the weakest strong stronger the strongest abstract. I can be used both in definitions and statements of opinions or facts.
The Spanish lynx is in danger of becoming extinct
- Disyllables (having two syllables ending in y, -ly, -ow, -le, -er, -ure The use of personal computers is increasing these days
Superiority Superlative Superiority Superlative
The elephant is the largest land mammal.
happy happier the happiest lovely lovelier the loveliest
8. Before an adjective to represent the whole class of people the adjective
yellow yellower the yellowest simple simpler the simplest
describes. The meaning of these nominalised adjectives is plural: the rich, the blind
clever cleverer the cleverest mature maturer the maturest
9. Before certain proper names:
b) We put more before the adjective to make the comparative (more than) and
The National Gallery the Atlantic the Sahara
most to make the superlative (the most).
the Republic of Ireland the North Sea the Strait of Gibraltar
- Disyllables stressed on the first syllable, such as: common, pleasant, quiet,
the South Pole the West Indies the River Nile
handsome, etc. However, these adjectives can also made the comparative with more
the Hague the Gulf of Mexico
and most, a use that is becoming much more frequent.
Note, however, that the names of individual mountains, islands and lakes take the
commoner or more common pleasanter or more pleasant
zero article:
quieter or more quiet
Mount Everest Shetland Islands Lake Ontario
5. Note the following changes in the spelling of adjectives:
10. With titles and dates using ordinal numbers, but only in spoken English
a) Adjectives containing the sequence CONSONANT+ SIGLE VOWEL +
Charles II Charles the Second
CONSONANT in their spelling double the last consonant.
sad sadder the saddest hot hotter the hottest
Use of the zero article
big bigger biggest thin thinner the thinnest
Except it finished in w, -y, -x: new newer newest gay gayer gayest
1. Before countable and uncountable nouns with a generic sense
b) Adjectives ending in y change it into i- if they are preceded by a consonant:
Olive oil is very healthy Dogs make good pets Apples are my favourite fruit
dry drier the driest happy happier the happiest
2. Before the names of meals
lovely lovelier loveliest lazy lazier the laziest
We had chicken for dinner
Except adjectives ending in y before vowel it use the general rule
Note that when there is a specific reference we use the definite article
grey greyer the greyest gay gayer the gayest
The chicken we had yesterday was really good
c) Adjectives ending in a silent -e drop it before the comparative/superlative
3. Before the words School, court, church, university, hospital, college,
inflection.
market and prison, when we visit these places for their primary purpose.
large larger the largest nice nicer the nicest
Similarly, the zero article is used before work, sea an town.
wide wider the widest simple simpler the simplest
she was in hospital for a week My son goes to university
pale paler the palest
4. With the days of the week and the seasons.
d) Irregular comparatives and superlatives are:
In winter I get up at night Ill visit you on Monday
good better the best bad worse the worst
The definite article is used, however, if we refer to a season or a day of the week in
far farther/further the farthest/furthest much/many more the most
particular: I met him during the winter of 1980
little less the least old older/elderthe oldest/eldest
5. With family names such as father, mother, uncle
6. The following kinds of adjective form the comparative an superlative
Ive received a letter from Aunt Shelley
with more and most:
6. With time expressions like Last week, nest month, last year if the
a) All other disyllabic adjectives such as: fruitful, harmless, vital, frantic, private,
time referred immediately follows or precedes the time of speaking
stylish, beloved, darling, obvious, pensive, recent, stubborn, solemn, etc.
the meeting is nest week
A group of the most eminent British scientists superlative
7. Before names of languages: Norwegian, Swedish, French, Swahili
b) All polysyllabic adjectives (having more than two syllables) such as: important,
Her daughter speaks Swedish, Spanish and English
expensive, peculiar, comfortable, horrible, intelligent, etc.
8. In various fixed expressions
Peter is more intelligent than Jimmy superiority
to shake hands by day by night/at night at dusk/dawn/sunset/daybreak
I have the most unorthodox and exotic teas even at tea-time superlative
at midday/midnight/noon day by day arm in arm/hand in hand
Peter is the most intelligent boy in his class superlative
- El adjetivo se coloca siempre delante del sustantivo en ingles, tan largo como sea.
One of the most extraordinary homes that I know
- Tambin se construye such (tal, tan) y the same (el mismo) con as cuando haya
comparacin:
I have never seen such a house as this: nunca he visto una casa tal como esta
I have never seen such a beautiful house as this: nunca he visto una casa tan bonita
como sta
We live in the same road as the Smiths: vivimos en la misma calle que los Smiths
7. In general, adverbs conform to the same rules of comparison as
adjectives:
Prepositions In: en, por

After: Despus (de), detrs (de) 1. To say that something is inside something else or enclosed by it
She stayed in the car for a while
1. Following something in time; later than something 2. To refer to months, years and seasons of the year
Right after lunch he went to the office In December In 1972 in Autumn
2. Following somebody or something 3. To refer to periods of time
Dont forget to lock the door after you when you go out in the past in the future in a lifetime
He was running after the girl 4. To refer to parts of the day
3. Eagerly trying to get something or somebody for oneself in the morning in the afternoon in the evening
George has been after that manuscript for years. BUT at night at dawn at dusk
4. In the style of somebody or something 5. IN is more specific than AT and can be interpreted as inside something
At the moment they are trying to write a European constitution after the French model in the library, in school
We could meet in the library We have some visitors in school today
Before: Antes de (tiempo), delante de (lugar) 6. For cities, towns or villages, either AT or IN is used, depending on the
speakers point of view: AT Toledo means we are considering Toledo simply as a
1. Before can be used either as a preposition of time (antes de) or of place place on the map; IN Toledo means we have a close up view of the place as a
(delante de) menos usado town covering an area and containing streets, houses, etc. A very large town or city
I shall send it to you before five oclock He woke up before daybreak is generally treated as an area: IN New York.
2. Before can also be used as an adverb 7. With the verb TO ARRIVE, we generally use IN for big and/or
I had never been to Spain before important places and AT for small and/or unimportant ones:
3. and a conjunction: We arrived in Paris very early in the morning
We must see them before they leave London (antes de que) The children arrived at the station at 3:30 P.M.
8. For continents, countries, states, and other large areas we use IN:
During: Durante In Europe in Maryland in Peru
9. For buildings or groups of buildings either AT or IN can be used. AT is
1. During has a similar meaning to that of IN when IN is used with its preferred when the building is thought of as an institution rather than in physical
temporal meaning. However, during tends to be used in sentences where the verb terms: He works at the National Library He left his keys AT/IN the library
phrase denotes a state or a habit, thus implying duration. Compare the following: She studies at Georgetown (the university) She lives in Georgetown (the area)
They fell in love in the summer of 1996
They were so happy during the summer of 1996 At: a, en
2. During means in the course of and therefore it can be used before nouns
referring to an event lasting some time (stay, visit, conference, meal) 1. To refer to a particular time or a point in time: At two oclock, at noon, at
They had a long talk during the meal Easter, at that moment, at night, at preset, at Christmas, at lunch, at tea
She took her children to the Smithsonian Museums during their stay in Washington 2. To refer to a position and to describe where someone/something is,
Note During the day/night can be replaced by the idioms by day and by night when without mentioning the specific location: At home, at school, at the bridge, at the
used with some activities such as travel or go to bed: train station
He had to travel by night to avoid the heavy traffic 3. To describe the final point of a movement when you are not being very
In winter I get up at night, and dress by yellow candlelight precise: Dont throw the stone AT me (you intention is to hit me)
In summer quite the other way, I have to go to bed by day You dont have to shout at me ( you are being rude)
4. To refer to an age, degree, distance, temperature, manner, etc.
Since: Desde at twelve/at the age of twelve at full speed at a distance
5. When there isnt movement is preferred AT:
When used as a preposition, since occurs almost exclusively as a preposition of I am at the tea-shop I am at the station
time: I havent seen Thomas (ever) since he moved to New York. When there is movement is preferred TO:
1. SINCE may be followed by: I go to the tea-shop I go to the station
- A noun phrase: since last year, since the war 6. With some expressions:
- A non-finite, -ing clause without subject: since moving to the new house To laugh at: Rerse de to shoot at: disparar
- A finite clause: since the war started. to throw at: tirar a, echar contra to be pleased at: estar complacido de, contento por
2. Time adverbials introduced by since normally require the Present Perfect to be angry at: enfadado por to be surprised at: sorprendido por
(perfective aspect) in the verb of the main clause. to be annoyed at: molesto por, disgustado por to be disgusted at: fastidiado de
My father hasnt seen his relatives in Boston since 1970 I am surprised at what he has done
You havent visited your home country since you left elementary school We amused ourselves by throwing stones at the horses legs
3. Since may mean either a)duration or b) time-when, depending on the to look at: mirar at present: actualmente, ahora at once: enseguida, inmediat
kind of verb used in the main clause: at last: finalmente, al fin at any rate/at least: al menos por lo menos
a) My grandmother has lived in the same town (ever) since she was born (Stative at a great speed/at a great rate: a toda prisa at random: a la ventura
verbduration) at breakfast, lunch: al desayunar at the top: en la parte superior
b) They have moved four times since 1995 (dynamic verbtime-when)
Note that since may be also a conjunction of reason and therefore introduce reason To: a, hacia, por, para
adverbials: (meaning: because or considering that)
Since you dont know the place, you cant say whether you like it or not 1. As can be seen, to expresses the meaning of direction. This meaning
generally (but not always) requires a dynamic verb of motional meaning such as go,
For: Durante, para, por move, drive, etc.
Cindy went to the kitchen (direction) Cindy was at the kitchen (position)
Se distingue de DURING al indicar plazos de tiempo sin interrupcin: 2. The preposition to is also used to introduce the recipient, goal, or target
She went to Majorca for three weeks He spoke for two hours of a given action: I gave he pictures to your assistant
1. To refer to period of time 3. We can also express reaction by using the preposition TO followed by
for two weeds for a while for ten years for ages an abstract noun of emotion:
2. To indicate purpose to my annoyance, I failed the exam
I think she does it for love I dont like this job, I just do it for the money 4. A to-phrase can also be used to identify the person reacting:
I find it hard to believe that he is learning Japanese for pleasure. To me, his answer was a surprise.
3. To indicate destination In this sense, TO is not limited to emotive reactions; it applies equally to intellectual
We left for our home country He headed for the bus stop or perceptual responses:
Could you tell me which the bus for Nottingham is? TO a critical mind, his ideas are too flat
4. To indicate support The picture looked TO me as a big colored stain.
Are you for or against new technologies? Im for abolishing the death penalty 5. To adems de indicar movimiento, tambin indica el objeto de la accin:
Robert said he was speaking for everyone in the team I shall give the box to the boy He is very good to his mother
6. To tambin se usa para formar el infinitivo y expresar el propsito:
In front of: delante de/ behind: detrs de I want to go to the cinema I did it in order to please my father
7. Otras expresiones con TO
Both in front of and behind express relative position in an horizontal way (in to belong to: pertenecer a to listen to: escuchar to go to sleep: dormirse
contrast, above and below are examples of vertical relative position) These two to give way to: ceder to set to music: poner msica up to: hasta
prepositions can be seen as converse opposites: a quarter to six: las seis menos cuarto thanks to: gracias a close to: cerca de
The truck is in front of the house: the house is behind the truck. owing to: debido a according to: segn next to: junto a
used to/accustomed to: acostumbrado a
On: en, sobre, encima de 7. without/ with no, is the negative of with
I drew it with a protractor/ I drew it without a protactor
1. To refer to something that is immediately above a surface or an object
She left her handbag ON the floor I forgot my keys ON the fridge Of
2. To refer to days of the week and dates
On Thursday On May 2 On Saturday night On Christmas Day 1. The preposition of generally governs phrase used as postmodifier in a
3. To refer to a subject matter, meaning about NP, expressing the meaning of having: A woman of courage.
a lecture ON linguistics a book ON gardening NOTE: The difference between of an with in this case is that with is more general
NOTE that ON suggests a formal situation whereas ABOUT suggests an informal and normally used with concrete attributes, while of is especially common with
one. So, you give a lecture ON Modern Art but you have a chat ABOUT Modern abstract attributes.
Art A man with long hear A man of principles
4. The preposition ON indicates a higher position usually with physical 2. The prepositions of and out of indicate material or constituency:
contact: You can leave the books ON the table One of the three little pigs house was made (out) of straw
5. In or into a large public vehicle: At this time she must be ON the plane The church was built (out) of stone.
6. At or immediately after a specific time: ( Followed by gerund =al + VERB/ADJECTIVE + OF
infinitive: ON arriving at the office she was told she had been promoted. (al llegar) accuse (someone of) acusar de approve of: aprovar
7. Eating or drinking regularly be afraid of: tener miedo de be aware of estar enterado de
Robinson Crusoe lived for a long time ON fruit and water beware of precaverse de be capable of ser capaz de
8. Other expressions with ON: be composed of consist of
On my arrival: a mi llegada On foot: a pie be convinced of convince (someone) of
On my return: a mi vuelta On my departure: a mi partida cure (someone) of disapprove of
On horseback: a caballo On the contrary: por el contrario dream of be envious of
On the average; por trmino medio On my part: por mi parte be innocent of be jealous of
On a sudden: de repente to be On the point of: estar a punto de be made of be proud of
On the left, right: a la izqda., dcha. to depend on: depender de repent of get rid of
To have pity on: tener compassion de on board ship: a bordo be scared of smell of
to spend money on something: gastar dinero en algo; on the phone: al telfono take advantage of take care of
9. ON as adverb: taste of be terrified of
to have got ON llevar puesto: Shes got a cloak on suspect of think of
To put on: ponerse: Ive put on my cloak tire of get tired of
To call on: visitor warm (someone) of
To turn on (the light, the rado, the gas): abrir una llave, encender la luz
To try on probarse un vestido Into: hacia el interior de, en
10. Expressing continuation:
To go on: seguir To come On: avanzar 1. The prepositon INTO has a meaning of direction. As such, it generally
To get on: progresar: How are you getting on with your English? (bud no always) requires a dynamic verb (verb of motion), such as go, fly, move,
to get on well (badly): llevarse bien (mal) runIt is used instead of in with verbs of movement
I go into the house: entro en la casa
By: Por I am in the house: estoy en la casa
2. It is interesting to note that prepositions also have abstract meanings, and
1. As a preposition of place, BY can have the same meaning as BESIDE thus they can be used metaphorically: He got INTO trouble
He was sitting by the fire (al lado de, junto a) In one of the examples taken from the text we find an instance of this phenomenon:
Stand By me and you will have no problem Once this refreshing, aromatic, oriental beverage was successfully transformed into
NOTE: with a verb of motion, BY can also express the idea of passage: colourless and tasteless gargling-water.
We went BY the town very early in the morning. Here the preposition into is not used in literal reference to place, but in an extended,
2. As a preposition of time, BY normally refers to the time at which the metaphorical way.
result of an event can be seen or perceived. 3. Expressions with into:
By the time he arrived I was fast asleep (= I fell asleep before he arrived and was - Giving the idea of change:
still asleep when he arrived) to divide into divider en to turn into converter en
Could you have the proposal ready BY the end of the month? (= I would like the to make into converter en
proposal to be ready no later than the end of the month). He divided the cake into five parts
3. Since by generally specifies a commencement point, it normally does not He turned his house into a factory (convirti su casa en una fbrica)
co-occur with verbs of durative meaning, but see the note of DURING - to go into: examiner (detalladamente) I shall go into matter immediately
4. BY can have other meanings which do not refer to time. - to run into: chocar, topar, tropezar con, encontrar casualmente
- As a preposition of place, it may indicate relative position: She was standing BY Whats happened to your car? A lorry ran into it
her mother I ran into an old friend of mine near the theatre.
- Or relative destination or passage: She walked BY the palace gardens. - to burst into tears: romper a llorar.
- It can also express means or instrument: He goes to school BY bus; He made all
that money BY working hard. We havent decided yet if we will go BY train or BY About: sobre, alrededor de, acerca de
plane.
- It is also used to introduce the agent in a passive sentence: I was given this 1. In connection with somebody or something, concerning somebody or
bracelet by my brother. something: Pat has always been very careful ABOUT her personal appearance.
5. The Spanish equivalents of BY may be different prepositions, depending 2. Here and there in a place:
on how it is used. If we look at the examples above, we will see that it can be When I got there I found all my books strewn ABOUT the room
translated as para, por, al lado de, en , or even no preposition at all, as in the case of: 3. Near a place or point:
He made all that money by working hard: hizo todo ese dinero trabajando duro. Ann dropped her earring somewhere ABOUT the main entrance.
Miss Wade was hoping to be married about he end of April (time)
With: con 4. Acerca de
They spoke about the actors and actresses they had seen.
1. With also introduces manner adverbials
We were treated with royal courtesy Out of (fuera de)/ into
2. Another of the meanings of with is that of accompaniment
I went to the meanings of With Jennifer Rice with chicken is my favourite dish 1. OUT OF can be seen as the converse or INTO
3. With can also be a synonym of for, to express support, in contrast with He stepped out of the train He stepped into the train
against: Are you with (=for) the Real Madrid or against it? OUT OF has a negative character (he was not on the train), while INTO has a
4. With can also be used to introduce a prepositional phrase acting as positive one (he was on the train, as a result of getting into it)
postmodifier of a noun in a noun phrase, to express the meaning of having 2. OUT OF can also signify material or constituency as in the following
A woman with a big nose (= the woman has a big nose) example: She made the basket out of straw
A car with leather seats. (= the car has leather seats)
5. Another of the uses of WITH is to indicate an ingredient or material, Outside/Inside
after verbs of making:
You make a Spanish tortilla with potatoes and eggs INSIDE can be said to have the same meaning as IN, ans OUTSIDE can substitute
The basement of the house was built with concrete. for OUT OF, is used when the place is seen as a volume. Both prepositions are used
6. The difference between with and out of: with stative verbs, but can accompany a dynamic verb as well.
Scones are made with flour (flour is one of ingredients) He went outside the building =out of
He made the toy plane out of wood ( wood was the only material) I think I forgot my ticket inside the box = In
Above / encima de, sin tocar over: sobre, encima, al otro lado de From:

1. To indicate that something is located at a higher level than something 1. The preposition from expresses source (procedencia), and in that sense it
else is the converse of the proposition TO, which expresses goal
Above and over may both be used when one thing is higher than, but not right on Mr. Williams lent the lap top TO me I borrowed the lap top from Mr Williams
the other: 2. FROM is also used with reference to place of origin
The children flew the kite over/above our heads Where is your husband from? Hes from Australia
The hot-air balloon rose above/over our heads Is that the plane from New York?
2. But OVER can also be used when we want to express that something 3. the time at which something starts
covers something else and it is somehow in contact with it. She is the kind of person that works from dawn to dusk
Barbara put a blanket over the sleeping puppy 4. Where somebody or something originates
A dense fog came over us as soon as we reached the summit Those tribes came from the north in the 6 century
3. Over can also be used to indicate horizontal movement 5. The material used to make something, when the material changes in the
the ball rolled over the football pitch /across process: Bread is made from flour, water and yeast.
4. All over can be used to indicate every part of 6. The basis for making a judgement
It was really a pleasure to go for a walk all over the place From what I heard, she will graduate next year
5. Over can mean higher than or more than
We paid over $100 for that lamp Until: hasta, hasta que
6. Both over and above may mean higher in rank
Dennis is above/over me in the company As far as the specified time or event: Until last week I had never used a computer.
7. Notice, that in the above example: Dennis is over me, would mean that
Dennis is my immediate superior, i.e., that he supervises my work; while Dennis is Up: arriba /Down: abajo
above me would not necessarily have this meaning (it would only mean that he is
higher in rank) 1. Up (hacia arriba, en lo alto de, a lo largo de, por)
8. Over can be use with drink, food or meals to mean while The boy climbed up the ladder: El muchacho subi por la escalera
We had a long conversation over the coffee He ran up the stairs: Subi las escaleras corriendo
He told us all his adventures over dinner last night. 2. Up to: hasta
Up to now: Hasta ahora He went up to a policeman: se acerc a un guardia
Below: debajo de , bajo/under 3. Down (hacia abajo) is the ipposite of up
The boy climbed down the ladder He ran down the stairs
Below above and under over: can both mean lower than and, on some Most of the common English prepositions are also used as adverbs to change the
occasions, either can be used. But only under can indicate contact. meaning of a verb by forming a compound verb. They are then sometimes called
Where do they live? Postpositions:
Im not sure. I think they live two or three floors below us. (no contact) To get obtener to stand estar de pie
Where is the cat? to get up levantarse to stand up ponerse de pie
Have you looked under the car? to get down bajar
The girl put the doll under her pillow (contact) to sit down sentarse to lie yacer
As with over and above, but in an opposite meaning, below and under can mean to sit up incorporarse, velar to lie down acostarse,
lower in rank: At what time do you get up in the morning?
He is under/below me in the company I always lie down in the afternoon for a rest
But whereas: He is under me would imply that I am his immediate superior, He is He got down from the pulpit
below me would not necessarily imply the same. UP is used to give the idea of complete action: Eat it up: cmalo todo
NOTE the curious use of under in the following example, where down under Whats up? Qu pasa? Hard up: en apuros econmicos
constitutes the complement of a prepositional phrase: Bring up: criar, educar Wind up: dar cuerda
He is from down under= he is from Australia Break up: acabar, terminar Up and down: de arriba a bajo, altibajo
As can be seen, down under here is equivalent to a NP (Australia) Bring up: criar, educar

Across: a travs/Through: a travs de, por (por niebla, bosque)

Between: entre
We use across to indicate a position at the other side, or a movement to reach the Inside: en el interior de
other side, of something flan. It can be translated as a travs de and al otro lado de Opposite: enfrente de
St. Johns College is right across that bridge Along: a lo largo de
In spite of the bad weather we sailed across the Channel Away from: lejos de
There is a sense of passage attached to both the prepositions across and through Past: ms all de
can express a movement to the other side of something voluminous. Towards: hacia
Some people feel unsafe when they walk through a subway
It was hard to find our way through the crowd

Beside: al lado

We use beside to mean at the side of on order to express the nearness of one thing
to another: He should keep a dictionary beside him when hes studying English

Near:

This is a general preposition meaning close to. It indicates that things or people are
in the same area. Near embraces the meaning of some prepositions such as: next to,
by or beside: Tom enjoys living near the city centre.

Next to: junto a

The preposition next to expresses that two or more people or tings are side by side
in the same line
... a great open space of grassland next to the village

Off: lejos, a distancia,fuera

This preposition indicates a movement away from the state or initial position
He fell off the tree when he was trying to save his pussy-cat

Round: alrededor de

The preposition (a)round refers to a surrounding position or motion. It expresses

movement with reference to an axis or directional path.
Soon people began to build or rent houses round the Steine